WELDING NEWS

No. 4 2007 Industry segments Part 2: Marine chemical tankers Pickling smut Part 2: How to prevent smut High productivity welding of the new duplex steel, LDX 2101

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Welding week in Antwerpen

Along with Bhler Welding Group, Avesta Welding took part in Antwerps Welding Week, 16 19 October 2007. Welding Week is the meeting place for welding and cutting enterprises in the Benelux countries. It presents the latest products and technologies in both industries. Avesta Welding exhibited its wide product ranges and also took the opportunity to market its duplex programme. The spotlight was on the matching filler metals for welding Outokumpu LDX 2101, which is itself being marketed as the new steel for storage tanks.

Lars-Erik Stridh

Eric Leroux and Julien Jakubyszin, Avesta Welding France, speaking with some of the visitors

New technical manager at Avesta Welding

With responsibility for flux cored wires, solid wires and technical customer support, Lars-Erik Stridh has been appointed technical manager at Avesta Welding. He succeeds Martin Larn, who has taken up a project post as the technical director at Bhler Thyssen Weldings new factory in Suzhou, China. Lars-Eriks basic academic background is in finance. This was complemented by further studies at Swedens college of mining and metallurgy. Lars-Erik also has extensive practical experience in welding. On leaving formal education, he became the welding supervisor at a repair and maintenance company before moving to Elga and 13 years as the product manager for flux cored wires. In 1999, Lars-Erik moved to ESAB where he headed up the organisations behind the companys global technical support, process development, process centre and laser hybrid welding. Starting work at Avesta Welding is a little like coming home, says LarsErik. I was born in the Bergslagen region of Sweden and my wife comes from Norberg, just outside Avesta. I am looking forward both to new challenges and also to working with all of you.

From the 11th to the 14th of November, Avesta Welding was at the FABTECH International & AWS Welding Show at McCormick Place, Chicago, USA. Bringing together 25,000 visitors and over 1,000 exhibitors, the show is North Americas largest for the welding industry.

This years FABTECH International & AWS Welding Show was in Chicago, USA.

Editorial team Eva Sderberg, tel: +46 226 815 05, E-mail: eva.soderberg@avestawelding.com Susanne Rosn www.avestawelding.com Layout Centrum Tryck, Avesta Translations Transtext2002

Cover picture Carrying marble slurry for the pulp and paper industry, M/T Xanthia meets rough seas. The ships cargo tanks, made in Outokumpu 2205 and integrated with the hull, meet the challenge! 

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This is the next instalment in the series of articles presenting some of Avesta Weldings key segments the pulp and paper industry (issue 2 of 2007), marine chemical tankers and desalination plants.

1 Pulp and paper

2 Marine chemical tankers

3 Desalination

2. Marine chemical tankers

Using duplex stainless steels in marine chemical tankers increases the range of cargoes that the vessels can carry. Outokumpu in Degerfors has long experience of manufacturing prefabricated chemical tankers in duplex 2205.
Although sea transport is far slower than air, it is an efficient means of moving large quantities of nonperishable goods. Over six billion tonnes are transported across the worlds seas every year. Ships are used for transporting a large number of loose raw materials. These include everything from chemicals and petroleum products to bulk cargoes of coal, iron ore, bauxite, etc. Nowadays, cargo vessels are made almost exclusively of welded steel. The modern ship industry makes full use of prefabricated sections complete multi-deck segments of the hull or superstructure that are put together at one point in the shipyard and then transported to the dock or slipway, where they are lifted into place. Additionally, the most up-to-date yards also pre-install instruments, pipe systems, cabling and other components in each block. The idea is to minimise assembly and installation work after the hull has been welded together. Tankers are cargo vessels that carry all sorts of liquids; not only crude oil, petroleum products, liquid gases and chemicals, but also vegetable oils, wine and other foodstuffs. The tanker sector accounts for a third of the total tonnage transported by ships worldwide. A chemical tanker is purposedesigned for transporting chemicals, often aggressive acids. Most new chemical tankers are built in yards in Japan, South Korea and China. Turkey, Italy, Germany and Poland are amongst the other active countries. Three large owners the Norwegian Stolt-Nielsen, Odfjell and JO Tankers presently dominate the market for chemical tankers. The end users of the ships are the large oil and special chemical companies. Outokumpu prefabricates Hans Gunnarsson is the business development manager for marine chemical tankers at Outokumpu Hot Rolled Plate in Degerfors. The company has long experience in prefabricated chemical tankers. Our customers are shipyards, predominantly in China and Turkey. We are now world-leading manufacturers of prefabricated chemical tankers in the special stainless steel, duplex 2205. However, in Japan, for example, chemical tankers are also made in carbon steel with a plastic coating. They are currently our greatest competitors, he explains. Outokumpu works from customer drawings that, for production and the various operations involved (cutting, bending, edge preparation, welding, etc.), are adapted to the companys own standards. Each ship uses between 300 and 1,200 tonnes of stainless steel. The quantity depends partly on the ships destination and whether it is for coastal, sea or ocean use. Ocean-going chemical carriers are generally between 5,000 and 45,000 tonnes deadweight. For coastal carriers, the upper figure is 12,000 tonnes. Both classes are far smaller than average sized carriers. This is because of the special nature of chemical cargoes and the size restrictions on the loading and unloading terminals.

Being built at the Pesaro shipyard in Italy, section of M/T Diego Cali, 6,000 dwt

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Cutaway of a marine chemical tanker

Marine chemical tankers normally have a number of separate storage tanks. These are either made in stainless steel or have a special surface layer of zinc or phenyl epoxy. The materials and coatings determine which types of cargoes the tankers can carry. Aggressive cargoes such as sulphuric acid and phosphoric acid require tanks in duplex stainless steel 2205. Simpler cargoes, e.g. vegetable oils, can be carried in epoxy-coated tanks. Greater flexibility with duplex 2205 Flexibility in the types of products that can be transported is a major factor when selecting the basic materials to be used in tanks aboard seagoing vessels. If, unusually, a ship is built solely to transport one type of product, the choice is determined by the cargo. Normally, bearing in mind factors such as formability, weldability and strength, the cheapest material or coating is chosen. If, on the other hand, chemical tankers are to carry various types of cargo, a mate-

rial with good corrosion resistance in many types of media (both alkaline and acid) is required. Duplex stainless steel 2205 is just such a material. Were investing in 2205. Above all else, duplex steel has the advantage of greater strength. This results in lower ship weights. With 2205, thicknesses can be less than with coated carbon steel. Thus, less material is required and the tanker itself weighs less. In turn, this means that the ship can carry heavier cargoes, comments Hans Gunnarsson. Our ability to prefabricate so much of each tanker makes us unique on the market. In countries such as China and Japan, this type of prefabrication is not done. It is exactly this, in combination with

our long experience, that leads to us winning orders from new customers. On delivery, everything is ready for welding. We do all the forming, edge preparation and cutting. The customer receives a packet in which we have marked the elements that are to be welded together. Its a little like a large LEGO, he states. In many cases, contracts stipulate training in the handling of stainless steel. Hans Gunnarsson indicates that this is another important competitive edge for the company. Chemical tankers are often built in series. Outokumpu in Degerfors has, for example, received a large order for ships that will go to an Italian shipping line. Two ships of 13,600 tonnes deadweight each are to be built at a shipyard in Rushan, China. This involves a total of 2,400 tonnes of duplex 2205. The order also includes an option for several tankers in the future. Production in Degerfors runs at around 5,000 tonnes per year. However, Hans Gunnarsson points out that the number of orders varies greatly. At the moment, we have quite a lot on order and the future also looks good. What we find a little worrying is the price of alloying elements. The price of coated carbon steel is roughly half that of 2205 and materials are an extremely large part of a ships costs. However, the advantages of duplex steels and our unique prefabrication give us a strong market position, he concludes.

Avesta Welding has very long experience in supplying stainless steel filler metals for welding storage tanks in marine chemical tankers. Besides knowing how the tanks are best and most economically welded, we also offer a complete package of purpose-specific welding consumables, training and support throughout each entire project. Avesta Welding and Outokumpu Hot Rolled Plate often work together and are thus able to bring customers a unique pool of expertise covering both stainless steels and welding. The most common steel in marine chemical tankers is duplex 2205. Welding consumables used in chemical tanker projects have to be approved. Avesta Weldings filler metals have approvals from well-known classification societies such as DNV, Lloyds Register of Shipping, the Korean Register of Shipping, RINA, Germanischer Lloyd, etc. Avesta Welding offers project-specific training that meets the needs of both the shipyard and the shipping company. Courses combine theory (in particular, everything about duplex steels and their weldability) with thorough hands-on welding practice.

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Smut undesired discoloration/deposits on stainless steel surfaces after pickling

Part 2. How to prevent smut Surface contamination can inhibit pickling and decrease the redox potential of the pickling solution. Smut is easily formed under these conditions. To prevent this, thorough cleaning prior to pickling is recommended.
layer of pickling agent, which must be given the best possible operating conditions. Pumps, air pressure, hoses and nozzles must be checked prior to Smut caused by pickling spray residues on the surface spraying. The pickling agent must be particles that are not excessive). Table shaken or stirred thoroughly until it 1 sets out the most important parareaches a uniform consistency. meters. To promote visibility and even application, Avestas GreenOne220, Standard pickling bath BlueOne230 and RedOne240 are (Avesta 302 mixed 1:3) all strongly coloured (for the sake of contrast). If a transparent spray such HNO3 ~160 g/l as 204 is to be used, an indicator can HF ~40 g/l be mixed in to achieve a similar effect. It is also important to use the Temperature 2535C correct pickling product for the steel Agitation >15 times/h grade being treated. Dissolved metals <35 g/l To avoid smut, it is recommended that the pickling solution should not Table1: Recommended parameters for a be any more acidic than necessary. standard bath. The ratio of the acids in the pickling solution must also be considered. At its laboratory in Malm, AFC can carry out full bath analyses and, from the results, make recommendations for keeping parameters within acceptable limits. Such analyses are free for customers using Avestas pickling bath services.
Smut caused by uneven spray pickling

Shoeprint contamination

Where loose dust, fingerprints, shoeprints and tool marks are the contaminants, acid cleaning (e.g. Avesta 401) is usually adequate. If the contamination is more severe (e.g. oil and grease), alkaline cleaning (degreasing) is also necessary. Avesta 430 is a suitable degreasing agent in such alkaline-acid cleaning (A-A cleaning). The water break test is a simple way of assessing whether degreasing is necessary. Where glue or silicone residues are the contaminant, solvents (e.g. acetone or alcohol) must be used in a third cleaning step. Uneven pickling when using a spray Other factors besides contamination can result in smut. Before any pickling, it is important to check that equipment is working properly and that the environment is suitable. We recommend following the advice in: AFCs standard operating procedures; the Avesta Pickling Handbook; and, Avesta Guidelines for Planning and Designing a Pickling Workshop. When spraying, the objective is to cover the entire surface with an even

This is especially important when pickling low-alloy grades. The choice of pickling product also depends on the depth and density of the oxide to be removed. Pickling outdoors is known to increase the risk of smutting. Factors such as sunlight, wind, humidity and temperature are hard to control and can have a huge effect on the final results. Uneven pickling when using a bath Tests have proved that smut formation is less likely in well-maintained baths. A number of parameters are important in keeping a bath clean (i.e. levels of impurities and foreign

Contaminated pickling bath Pickling solutions and oil and grease do not mix. Instead, these contaminants tend to form a layer at the top of the bath. When an object is lifted through this layer, it can easily become contaminated. There is then a huge risk of smut formation. The time that elapses between pickling and rinsing is critical here. To help prevent smut formation, we recommend that, while they are being lifted, objects should be treated with FinishOne. Inadequate rinsing Pickling acid residues are also a frequent cause of smut. This smut may sometimes not appear until days after drying. A good idea of the level of 

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acid residues can be obtained by comparing the pH levels of ingoing and outgoing process water. Hard to reach areas and narrow gaps can trap pickling acids. These can leach out later and give rise to smut. Hence, thorough rinsing is highly significant in smut prevention. Prior to high-pressure waterjet cleaning, a pre-rinse (either in a rinsing vat or by drenching with tap water) is always recommended. For optimum rinsing, it is best to rinse as soon as possible after pickling, i.e. do not allow the pickling solution to dry in. Poor water quality Poor quality rinse water can lead to smut in the form of water stains. These can be hard to remove. In most cases, water-stained surfaces need to be cleaned with Avesta 401 or repickled. Caused by impurities in the rinsing water, water stains are primarily deposits of calcium and magnesium. The total amount Ca and Mg in water (Fe and Mn are sometimes also included) is expressed as water hardness. This is often measured in German degrees hardness (dH). Indicator paper provides an easy way of measuring hardness. Other impurities in rinse water can also have negative effects on surfaces. For example, high chloride levels can cause pitting.
02 dH 25 dH 510 dH 1020 dH >20 dH Very soft Soft Normal Hard Very hard

Fruitful fair in China

Avesta Weldings personnel and agents at the stainless steel stand

Table 2: Water hardness.

Table 3 sets out some of the most significant water quality parameters and shows their typical and highest recommended values. Using demineralised water or FinishOne as a final rinse prevents the type of smut that is attributable to poor water quality. Nitrate-free pickling solutions Apart from problems with large sludge volumes, nitrate-free pickling solutions also have a shorter service life and are known to be particularly likely to cause smut. Control of the redox potential is essential when using such solutions.

Started in 1987 and now a force to be reckoned with, the Beijing Essen Welding & Cutting Fair has become the industrys leader in Asia. At this years event (Shanghai, 19 to 22 June), we took the opportunity to make Avesta Weldings presence felt! Our particular focus was on the duplex stainless steel products in the companys chemical cleaning and welding ranges. In line with this, and as an added-value value element for potential customers, a technical seminar was held on how to weld modern duplex stainless steels. This was well received by invited custo-

mers and visitors alike. To better serve the fairs attendees, we had our key brochures and leaflets translated into Chinese. We did indeed receive a lot of enquiries, many of which invited subsequent follow-up. The fair was a successful collaboration with our two exclusive agents in China, Eagle Plaza (North China) and Fongs Steel (South China). In a nutshell, being part of this fair was fruitful and worthwhile. Present and future customers are definitely set to see a higher profile Avesta Welding in the Asia Pacific Region!

Parameter COD Conductivity pH Hardness (Ca+Mg) Chloride, (Cl) Iron, (Fe)

Typical values 2 mg/l 38 mS/m 8.0 pH 6 dH 17 mg/l <0.01 mg/l

Max. recommended values 4 mg/l 60 mS/m 6.59.0 pH 10 dH 100 mg/l 0.10 mg/l

Table 3: Water quality parameters and values.

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High productivity welding of the new lean duplex stainless steel, LDX 2101 (S32101)
Many uses for duplex steels With their strengthening in the mid 1980s, duplex steels increasingly provided an alternative to conventional austenitic steels. They were then predominantly used for chemical tankers as well as process vessels and storage tanks in the pulp and paper industry. It is the good combination of strength and corrosion resistance that makes duplex stainless steels so attractive. However, in the beginning, the duplex grades were primarily seen as alternatives to high-performance austenitic grades (e.g. 904L and 254 SMO) rather than as alternatives to conventional grades (e.g. 304 and 316). This limited their use in general construction. Here, high strength is needed rather than high corrosion resistance. Developed by Outokumpu Stainless, LDX 2101, the new lean duplex stainless steel, is now used in a very wide range of applications. General purpose and structural applications are just two examples. The high strength and good corrosion resistance of LDX 2101 also make it extremely suitable for a variety of storage tanks. This article focuses on examining how high productivity welding methods using Avesta LDX 2101, can be optimised to maximise the good corrosion resistance and mechanical properties of duplex LDX 2101 stainless steel. Strength and corrosion resistance Of the duplex grades currently on the market, LDX 2101 has the least alloyed chemical composition (see table 1). With a nickel content of just 1.5% (balanced with 5% manganese and some 0.22% nitrogen), LDX 2101 offers high mechanical strength and corrosion resistance at an advantageous price. Nickel is an expensive metal. Furthermore, its price fluctuates widely over time. This can present major difficulties when estimating the total cost of a construction. The chemical composition of LDX 2101 is balanced to give a microstructure with approximately equal amounts of ferrite and austenite. Thanks to the high nitrogen content,
Grade ASTM EN LDX 2101 2304 2205 304L 316L S32101 S32304 S32205 304L 316L 1.4162 1.4362 1.4462 1.4307 1.4404 Chemical composition, typical values, % C max N Cr Ni Mo Mn 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.22 0.10 0.17 0.04 0.04 21.5 23 22 18.1 17.2 1.5 4.8 5.7 8.3 10.1 0.3 0.3 3.1 2.1 5

Table 1. Chemical composition of parent metals

austenite re-formation after welding is rapid. In general, corrosion properties are as good as, or better than, those of the Cr-Ni grade EN 1.4301/ AISI 304. Furthermore, the steels duplex structure and high nitrogen content result in a mechanical strength almost twice that of ordinary, austenitic steels. The high strength of LDX 2101 steel can be used to optimise the design of various storage tanks. On top of this, the steels cost efficiency can be fully exploited by selecting the correct filler (Avesta LDX 2101) and welding method. Better properties with matching filler metals Because it is optimised to ensure the best welding characteristics and mechanical properties, the matching Avesta LDX 2101 filler should be used to weld LDX 2101 duplex stainless steel. To obtain a suitable ferrite/austenite balance in the weld metal, Avesta LDX 2101 is over-alloyed with nickel. The microstructure of metal arc welded LDX 2101 has a typical duplex appearance with 30 65% ferrite. Testing of LDX 2101 welds has shown that tensile strength is higher than 680 MPa / 99 ksi and that fracture most commonly occurs in the parent metal. Bending tests to 180 with a 3 x t mandrel have shown no signs of cracking. Table 2 gives tyFiller Avesta LDX 2101 MMA TIG MIG SAW FCW

pical mechanical properties of pure weld metals. Welding methods and weldability Excellent results are obtained when welding LDX 2101 using all conventional methods MMA, FCAW, MIG, TIG and SAW. Productivity is another important factor when choosing welding method. The current trend is towards using the most efficient method for each type of welding, in each position. General recommendations for the welding of storage tanks are given below. FCAW: Widely used for all types of welding, both workshop and on-site. Suitable plate thicknesses are 5 mm (0.20) and upwards. FCAW gives high productivity in all positions. The shielding gas can be either Ar + 20% CO2 or 100% CO2. Welding is mainly in the flat and horizontal-vertical positions. FCAW is often combined with MMA. MIG: Especially if it can be carried out against a backing strip, or with overlap joints, metal inert gas welding is an economical method that is well suited to continuous welding of small thin-walled tanks (2 6 mm / 0.08 0.23). Welding is best performed with synergic pulse arc transfer

Mechanical properties, pure weld metals (typical values) Rp0.2 R m Impact strenght [J]/[ft-lb] A [%] [Mpa]/[ksi] [Mpa]/[ksi] 5 RT [+20C]/[+68F] [-40C/-40F] 640/95 550/80 520/75 570/85 550/80 800/115 730/105 710/105 750/110 750/110 25 30 30 25 30 45/33 180/130 150/110 140/105 60/45 28/20 170/125 110/80 60/45 40/30

Table 2. Mechanical properties, pure weld metals

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and a shielding gas of argon with an addition of approximately 30% helium and 2 3% CO2. Where the thickness is 1 mm (0.039), the SuperPulse mode or CMT (cold metal transfer) welding can be used. Compared to TIG, these give dramatically increased productivity. MMA: Because of its excellent flexibility in all positions, MMA is eminently suitable for on-site vertical-up welding, tacking and repair welding (in all positions). Avesta LDX 2101 (a rutile-acid electrode) gives a stable arc, good slag removal and, in fillet welds, a concave, smooth weld reinforcement. SAW: This method is mostly used for welding thick sections of sheet metals >12 mm (0.47) and upwards. To avoid excessive fusion of the parent metal, 2.4 mm (3/32) diameter wire and V, U and X-joints are recommended. A basic flux (Avesta Flux 805) should be used for welding. The root bead can advantageously be welded using another high productivity method, e.g. FCAW. Heat input should not exceed 1.5 kJ/mm (38 kJ/inch). This is because, especially where the structure is used in a low temperature environment, too high a degree of parent metal fusion can lower impact strength. TIG: Mainly used for single-sided root passes and the welding of thinwalled materials, this method is comparatively slow. However it gives very pure weld deposits that, even at low temperatures, have outstanding impact properties. Productivity can be increased by welding from both sides simultaneously (manually or semi-automatically). High productivity welding methods For storage tanks and pressure vessels in process industries (e.g. pulp and paper), duplex steels have successfully replaced austenitic steels and are now firmly established. By combining high strength and good corrosion resistance, LDX 2101 has proved to be a very good steel grade for a wide range of tanks. To maximise the benefit of using thin-walled designs, the right welding method/ process must also be chosen for the object in question.

Joint 1

Figure 1. Fuel tank, < 1 m3

Small tanks Small tanks (volume typically 0.5 3 m3 / 17.5 105 ft3 and wall thickness 1 3 mm / 0.04 0.12) are often welded using robotic or semi-automatic MIG/MAG. So that all welds can be made in the best position, a positioner/rotating table is used. In butt joints and, in some cases, overlap joints too, 1.00 mm (0.039) or 1.20 mm (0.045) diameter welding wire is normally used (see table 4). The risk of crevice corrosion must always be considered with overlap joints.

Using tandem instead of single-arc, welding speed can typically be increased by 50%. Tandem-arc welding uses two separate power sources that may have different potentials, arc modes and parameter settings. Using twin-arc welding with two wires but only one power source, it is difficult to obtain a stable arc that is free from spatter. The twin-wire method is not widely used in MIG welding. With lower total heat input, both tandem-arc and twin-arc give increased welding speeds and metal deposition rates. Compared to, for example, laser or plasma welding, MIG/MAG is relatively tolerant to misalignment and root gap variation. Large tanks Large tanks (volume up to 10,000 m3 / 350,000 ft3 and wall thickness 5 18 mm / 0.20 0.71,) are often welded wholly on-site using FCAW and covered electrodes in all positions (see tables 4 and 5). Welds are either full penetration from both sides (the back then being ground) or single-sided against a ceramic backing.

Joint 2

Joint 3

Joint 4

Figure 2. Large storage tank, ~9000 m3

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Welding method

Plate thickness [mm] / [inches]

Welding Joint preparation position 1G/PA Fog 1 1G/PA Fog 1

Root gap, D [mm] / [inches] 2.0/0.08

Avesta filler metal LDX 2101 LDX 2101

MIG 24 / 0.08-0.16

MIG 14 / 0.04-0.16

Table 3. Welding methods, joint preparation

Welding method

Welding position

Plate thickness [mm] / [inch]

Avesta filler metal

Diameter [mm] / [inch] 2.5 (root) + 3.25 3/32 (root) + 1/8

Shielding gas Ar + 1825% CO2 (2025 l/min)

MMA 3G/PF 518 / 0.20.7 LDX 2101

1.2 / 0.045 FCAW 2G/PC 518 / 0.20.7 FCW-2D LDX 2101 Table 4. Welding methods, general

Welding method MMA FCAW

Welding Joint preparation Joint angles () position 1G/PB 4G/PE (Joint 2) 2G/PC (Joint 3) 3G/PF (Joint 4)

Root land, C [mm] / [inch]

Root gap, D [mm] / [inch]

FCAW

1 = 45 2 = 15 = 70

2 / 0.08

2,5 / 0.10

MMA

2 / 0.08

2,5 / 0.10

Table 5. Welding methods, joint preparation

Normal welding sequence: 1. Top of the tank overlap joints welded from both sides using FCAW in the flat position and MMA or FCAW in the overhead position. 2. The side segments are normally welded one by one. MMA is used to tack each formed plate. FCAW is used for circumferential welds and MMA or FCAW for vertical welds. 3. The bottom is normally welded as a single-sided butt weld against a backing strip. Deformation must be firmly borne in mind and tacking and sequence/ intermittent welding are important considerations. A weaving technique is normally used for vertical-up welding with MMA and FCAW. Weaving width can be as much as 20 mm (0.8). Thus, using a weaving technique instead of

stringer beads, the number of passes can be dramatically decreased. Conclusions Currently, LDX 2101 is most commonly used for various types of storage tanks. The primary reason for choosing LDX 2101 has been its high strength in combination with a corrosion resistance that is at least as good as that of EN 1.4301/AISI 304. LDX 2101 also has very good weldability and excellent results are achieved using all common arc welding methods. To ensure a sound ferrite/ austenite structure in the as welded condition, a filler that is over-alloyed with nickel must be used. Avesta LDX 2101 filler metal has been specially designed for welding LDX 2101. Productivity is a major factor when choosing welding method. The current trend is towards using the most

efficient method for each type of welding, in each position. MIG/MAG is often used for welding thin structures and FCAW for thick. Small tanks (wall thickness 1 3 mm / 0.04 0.12, volume 0.5 3 m3 / 17.5 105 ft3) in LDX 2101 have been successfully welded using robotic or semi-automatic MIG/MAG. Large tanks (wall thickness 5 18 mm / 0.20 0.71, volume up to 10,000 m3 (350,000 ft3) are often welded wholly on-site using FCAW and covered electrodes in all positions. Thus, the best welding method for storage tanks is highly dependent on size. LDX 2101 has also demonstrated extremely great potential in a large number of other applications, e.g. desalination plants, water heaters, railway carriages, dam gates, bridges, cargo tankers, various vehicle components, etc.