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Newtons Laws of Motion The motion of a particle is governed by Newtons three laws of motion. First Law: A particle originally at rest, or moving in a straight line at constant velocity, will remain in this state if the resultant force acting on the particle is zero. Second Law: If the resultant force on the particle is not zero, the particle experiences an acceleration in the same direction as the resultant force. This acceleration has a magnitude proportional to the resultant force. Third Law: Mutual forces of action and reaction between two particles are equal, opposite, and collinear. The first and third laws were used in developing the concepts of statics. Newtons second law forms the basis of the study of dynamics. Mathematically, Newtons second law of motion can be written
F = ma
where F is the resultant unbalanced force acting on the particle, and a is the acceleration of the particle. The positive scalar m is called the mass of the particle. Newtons second law cannot be used when the particles speed approaches the speed of light, or if the size of the particle is extremely small (~ size of an atom). NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION Any two particles or bodies have a mutually attractive gravitational force acting between them. Newton postulated the law governing this gravitational force as
F =G
where
m1m2 r2
F = force of attraction between the two bodies, G = universal constant of gravitation , m1, m2 = mass of each body, and r = distance between centers of the two bodies.
When near the surface of the earth, the only gravitational force having any sizable magnitude is that between the earth and the body. This force is called the weight of the body.
Mass and Weight It is important to understand the difference between the mass and weight of a body! Mass is an absolute property of a body. It is independent of the gravitational field in which it is measured. The mass provides a measure of the resistance of a body to a change in velocity, as defined by Newtons second law of motion (m = F/a). The weight of a body is not absolute, since it depends on the gravitational field in which it is measured. Weight is defined as
W = mg
where g is the acceleration due to gravity. Unit: SI System SI system: In the SI system of units, mass is a base unit and weight is a derived unit. Typically, mass is specified in kilograms (kg), and weight is calculated from W = mg. If the gravitational acceleration (g) is specified in units of m/s2, then the weight is expressed in newtons (N). On the earths surface, g can be taken as g = 9.81 m/s2. W (N) = m (kg) g (m/s2) => N = kgm/s2 EQUATION OF MOTION The motion of a particle is governed by Newtons second law, relating the unbalanced forces on a particle to its acceleration. If more than one force acts on the particle, the equation of motion can be written
F = FR = ma
where FR is the resultant force, which is a vector summation of all the forces. To illustrate the equation, consider a particle acted on by two forces. First, draw the particles free-body diagram, showing all forces acting on the particle. Next, draw the kinetic diagram, showing the inertial force ma acting in the same direction as the resultant force FR.
Inertial Frame of Reference This equation of motion is only valid if the acceleration is measured in a Newtonian or inertial frame of reference. What does this mean? For problems concerned with motions at or near the earths surface, we typically assume our inertial frame to be fixed to the earth. We neglect any acceleration effects from the earths rotation. For problems involving satellites or rockets, the inertial frame of reference is often fixed to the stars. System of Particles The equation of motion can be extended to include systems of particles. This includes the motion of solids, liquids, or gas systems. As in statics, there are internal forces and external forces acting on the system. Using the definitions of m = mi as the total mass of all particles and aG as the acceleration of the center of mass G of the particles, then maG = miai . The text shows the details, but for a system of particles: F = maG where F is the sum of the external forces acting on the entire system.
Equation of Motion The equation of motion, F = ma, is best used when the problem requires finding forces (especially forces perpendicular to the path), accelerations, velocities or mass. Remember, unbalanced forces cause acceleration! Three scalar equations can be written from this vector equation. The equation of motion, being a vector equation, may be expressed in terms of its three components in the Cartesian (rectangular) coordinate system as F = ma or Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = m(a x i + a y j + a z k )
or, as scalar equations, Fx = max , Fy = may , and Fz = maz . Procedure for Analysis Free Body Diagram Establish your coordinate system and draw the particles free body diagram showing only external forces. These external forces usually include the weight, normal forces, friction forces, and applied forces. Show the ma vector (sometimes called the inertial force) on a separate diagram. Make sure any friction forces act opposite to the direction of motion! If the particle is connected to an elastic spring, a spring force equal to ks should be included on the FBD.
Equations of Motion If the forces can be resolved directly from the free-body diagram (often the case in 2D problems), use the scalar form of the equation of motion. In more complex cases (usually 3-D), a Cartesian vector is written for every force and a vector analysis is often best. A Cartesian vector formulation of the second law is F = ma or Fx i + Fy j + Fz k = m(a x i + a y j + a z k ) Three scalar equations can be written from this vector equation. You may only need two equations if the motion is in 2-D. Kinematics The second law only provides solutions for forces and accelerations. If velocity or position have to be found, kinematics equations are used once the acceleration is found from the equation of motion. Any of the tools learned in Chapter 12 may be needed to solve a problem. Make sure you use consistent positive coordinate directions as used in the equation of motion part of the problem! Example 13.1 The baggage truck A has a mass of 800 kg and is used to pull the two cars, each with mass 300 kg. If the tractive force F on the truck is F = 480 N, determine the initial acceleration of the truck. Example 13.2 The 100-N block has an initial velocity of 2 m/s on the smooth plane. If a force F= (25t) N, where t is in second, acts on the block for 3 s, determine the final velocity of the block and the distance the block travel during this time. Example 13.3 The double inclined plane support two blocks A and B, each having a weight of 100 N. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the blocks and the plane is k = 0.1, determine the acceleration of each block.
Normal and Tangential Coordinates When a particle moves along a curved path, it may be more convenient to write the equation of motion in terms of normal and tangential coordinates. The normal direction (n) always points toward the paths center of curvature. circle, the center of curvature is the center of the circle. In a
The tangential direction (t) is tangent to the path, usually set as positive in the direction of motion of the particle. EQUATIONS OF MOTION Since the equation of motion is a vector equation , F = ma it may be written in terms of the n & t coordinates as Ft u t + Fn u n = ma t + ma n Here Ft & Fn are the sums of the force components acting in the t & n directions, respectively. This vector equation will be satisfied provided the individual components on each side of the equation are equal, resulting in the two scalar equations: Ft = mat and Fn = man. Since there is no motion in the binormal (b) direction, we can also write Fb = 0. Normal and Tangential Accelerations The tangential acceleration, at = dv/dt, represents the time rate of change in the magnitude of the velocity. Depending on the direction of Ft, the particles speed will either be increasing or decreasing. The normal acceleration, an = v2/r, represents the time rate of change in the direction of the velocity vector. Remember, an always acts toward the paths center of curvature. Thus, Fn will always be directed toward the center of the path. Recall, if the path of motion is defined as y = f(x), the radius of curvature at any point can be obtained from
[1 + (dy / dx) 2 ]3 / 2 d 2 y / dx 2
Example 13.4 The sport car, having a mass of 1700 kg, is traveling horizontal along a 20 banked track which is circular and has a radius of the curvature of = 100 m. If the coefficient of static friction between the tires and the road is k = 0.2, determine the maximum constant speed at which the car can travel without sliding up the slope. Neglect the size of the car. Example 13.5 A girl, having a mass of 15kg, sits motionless relative to the surface of a horizontal platform at a distance of r = 5m from the platforms center. If the angular motion of the plat form is slowly increased so that the girls tangential component of acceleration can be neglected, determine the maximum speed which the girl will have before she begins to slip off the platform. The coefficient of static friction between the girl and the platform is = 0.2 Example 13.6 If the ball has a mass of 30 kg and a speed v = 4 m/2 at the instant it is at its lowest point, = 0, determine the tension in the cord at this instant. Also, determine the angle to which the ball swings at the instant it momentarily stops. Neglect the size of the ball.
Cylindrical Coordinates
This approach to solving problems has some external similarity to the normal & tangential method just studied. However, the path may be more complex or the problem may have other attributes that make it desirable to use cylindrical coordinates. Equilibrium equations or Equations of Motion in cylindrical coordinates F = ma Fr u r + F u + Fz u z = ma r u r + ma u + ma z u z (using r, , and z coordinates) may be expressed in scalar form as:
Fr = ma r = m( r r )
F = ma = m(r 2 r )
Fz = ma z = m z
If the particle is constrained to move only in the r plane (i.e., the z coordinate is constant), then only the first two equations are used (as shown below). The coordinate system in such a case becomes a polar coordinate system. In this case, the path is only a function of . Note that a fixed coordinate system is used, not a body-centered system as used in the n t approach.
If y is positive, it is measured counterclockwise from the radial line to the tangent. If it is negative, it is measured clockwise.
Example 13.7 Rod OA rotates counterclockwise with a constant angular velocity of = 5 rad/s. The double collar B is pin-connected togrther such that one collar slides over the rotating rod and the other slides over the horizontal curved rod, of which the shape is described by the equation r = 0.5(2 cos ) m. If both collars weight 7.5 N, determine the normal force which the curve rod exerts on one collar at the instant = 120o . Neglect friction.