http://www.doitpoms.ac.

uk/tlplib/mechanical-testing/images/

Lecture Outline
Strain Measurement Introduction: Definitions: Stress, Strain, Elastic Modulus and Poissons Ratio Methods for Strain Measurements: Grid method, brittle coating Electrical-resistance strain gauges: o working principle o gauge factor o resistivity o characteristics of strain gauge materials o bonding of strain gauges o factors influencing strain gauge installation: temperature, moisture, wiring Calibration of strain gauges Bridge circuit for strain gauges Introduction of commercially available strain gauges Application cases

Stress : A quick re-cap

Engineering Stress is defined as the force per unit area. Stress strains / deforms

The original cross-sectional area is used F - force A - area - Stress (sigma)

Stress : A quick re-cap

y Review engineering stress y True Stress???
The true stress is defined as the ratio of the applied Force to the instantaneous cross-sectional area.

A is instantaneous area.

Strain : A quick re-cap

Engineering strain is defined as the amount of deformation an object experiences compared to its original shape and size.

Engineering strain is vaild iff < 5%

Strain : A quick re-cap

The true strain is defined as the sum of all the instantaneous engineering strains.

http://www.shodor.org/~jingersoll/weave/tutorial/node3.html

Strain : A quick re-cap

Difference between true stress and engineering stress in elastic region explain later.

Stress and Strain : A quick re-cap

Behavior of a subject under stress depends on the: material shape nature of the forces orientation of the subject

Youngs Modulus
Youngs modulus E, is a measure of the stiffness of a material. It is defined as the ratio of in the region which Hookes Law is obeyed.

E can be determined experimentally by calculating the gradient of the linear region of the graph, as shown in red in the stress strain curve.

Poissons Ratio
Poisson's ratio is the ratio of transverse contraction strain to longitudinal extension strain in the direction of stretching force.

v=

transverse /

longitudinal

Where v = Poissons ratio,

Poissons Ratio
y Steel = 0.29 y Aluminium = 0.35 y Lead = 0.44 y Rubber = 0.48 - 0.50
y Poisson's ratio in bending.

Poisson's ratio governs the curvature in a direction perpendicular to the direction of bending. This "anticlastic curvature" is easily seen in the bending of a rubber eraser.

Revision is over
Strain Measurement:
y Grid Method y Brittle Method

Methods for Strain Measurements

y Grid Method y Simplest y Oldest

To measure the strain:

-Mark the surface with lines, dots or a grid (the grid is most common as it is easy to analyse).

Scribed Drawn with fine ink Photo etched

Subject under zero load conditions.

Methods for Strain Measurements

y Grid Method
Simplest Oldest To measure the strain:

Analyse Deformation - micrometer microscope Subject under load.

Methods for Strain Measurements

y Grid Method:

Advantages
-Simple and easy to

Disadvantages
-Can only be used on materials with appreciable deformation under load. -Extremely inaccurate -Needs 100% accessibility to take readings -Can not take digital readings.

implement -Cost effective

Methods for Strain Measurements

Brittle Method:
Coat part of the subject with substance having very brittle properties.

Stress Applied

Cracks appear

As the nature of the coating is known, we can estimate strain values on the subject.

Methods for Strain Measurements

y Brittle Method:

Advantages
-overall picture of the stress

Disadvantages
-Can only be used on materials with appreciable deformation under load. -Needs 100% accessibility to take readings -Can not take digital readings. -Does not give actual measurements

distribution. -stress concentration points

Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

Introduction
Most widely used device for strain measurement Operates on principle that the electrical resistance of a conductor changes with mechanical deformation Attached to specimen using suitable adhesive As the specimen deforms, the strain gauge deforms, causing electrical resistance to change This resistance change (small) measured using a Wheatstone bridge, related to strain by gauge factor. Ideal strain gage is small in size and mass, low in cost, easily attached, and highly sensitive to strain but insensitive to ambient or process temperature variations. Video from www.sensorwiki.org/index.php/strain_gauge

Types of Electrical Resistance Strain Gauges

3 main types: -Wire gauge -Foil gauge -Semiconductor gauge Wire gauges use wire between 12 25 m. Developed in 1938, not widely used as they are larger and more expensive than foil gauges. Foil gauge uses foil less than 25 m. Many different configurations which lend to a wide variety of applications. Most commonly used gauge.

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

Semiconductor gauge is a wafer (about 0.25mm) with the resistance element diffused into a substrate of silicon. Advantages: - high unit resistance and sensitivity - lower size and cost Disadvantages: - greater sensitivity to temperature variations - tendency to drift - nonlinear resistance-to-strain relationship Thin-film strain gauges are produced by depositing electrical insulation (typically a ceramic) onto stressed metal surface then strain gauge on top. Advantages: - molecularly bonded to the specimen therefore no need for adhesive bonding - installation is much more stable and resistance values experience less drift. Diffused semiconductor strain gauges uses photolithography masking techniques and solid-state diffusion of boron to molecularly bond the resistance elements. Advantages: - By eliminating bonding agents, errors due to creep and hysteresis also are eliminated. Disadvantages: - Limited to moderate-temperature applications and requires temperature compensation.

Theoretical Background
The resistance of the conductor is
R= L A

where

L = length A = cross-sectional area = resistivity of the material

Taking the natural logarithm of this equation

Ln ( R ) = Ln ( L) + Ln ( ) Ln ( A)

Now taking the differential of this, using

d 1 dx ( Ln( x)) = d ( Ln( x)) = dx x x

dR d dL dA = + R L A

In general we may write A = CD 2 where D is a cross section dimension and C is a constant (eg. C = and D =R for a circle). Using the same method as above,
dA dD =2 D A

substituting in

dR d dL 2dD = + R L D

rearranging

dR d dL dD / D = + 1 2 R L dL / L

Substituting in the equations for axial strain and Poissons ratio we have
dR d = + a (1 + 2 ) R

The Gauge Factor (sometimes called sensitivity factor) F is the ratio of fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length (strain) and is defined by
F= dR / R

a
1 d a

and therefore

F = 1 + 2 +

We can now express local strain in terms of the gauge factor, the resistance of the gauge, and the change in resistance with the strain:
=
1 R F R

If the resistivity of the material does not vary with the strain,
F = 1 + 2

Example: Calculating Strain

Q. Calculate the strain in a specimen if the attached strain gauge has a gauge factor of 2, a resistance of 120 and the change in resistance measured is 0.1 A.
1 R F R 1 0.1 = 2 120

= 4.1667 *10 4

Example: Calculating Gauge Factor

Q. What is the gauge factor of a strain gauge made from a material that acts like a perfectly incompressible material deforming elastically at small strain (assuming the resistivity doesnt change with strain)? A.
F = 1+

For a perfectly incompressible material deforming elastically at small strain,

= 0 .5
F = 1 + 2 * 0 .5
F =2

Gauge Factor
Gauge factor and resistance normally specified therefore only R need be measured. High gauge factor is desirable because larger R is produced for a given strain input Can vary from -140 to 175 Usually the same for both compressive and tensile strains Constant over a wide range of strains for most gauges Various physical properties of the resistance material can have an influence on F The manufacturer should always supply data on the temperature sensitivity of the gage factor.

Ideal Electrical-Resistance Strain Gauge Material

The ideal gauge material will be:

Highly sensitive to strain. Suitable for a large range of temperatures Insensitive to temperature Must be weaker than the specimen Low in cost Easily attached

Common Electrical Resistance Strain Gauge Materials

Constantan (55% Cu, 45% Ni) Nichrome V (80% Ni, 20% Cu) Manganin (84% Cu, 12% Mn, 4% Ni) Isoelastic (55.5% Fe, 36% Ni, 8% Cr, 0.5% Mo) Monel (67% Ni, 33% Cu) Karma (74% Ni, 20%Cr, 3% Al, 3% Fe) Platinum alloys (usually tungsten) Silicon semiconductors

Constantan.
Useful over a large Stats: GF = 2.0 range of strain. Resistivity = 49 Is useful for changing Temp. Coef = 11 temperatures below 360 c. * Temperature Coef of It is very common and Resistance (c-1 * 106) it is cheap. S = T*Temp Coef Use it whenever * Resistivity @ 20 c outside of extreme (.cm) conditions.

Nichrome V
Suitable for high Stats: GF = 2.0 temperature use up to Resistivity = 108 800c. Temp. Coef = 400 A cheaper material for high temperature use.

Isoelastic.
Only useful in temperatures below 300c. Great for low unchanging temperatures. Ideal if a high signalnoise ratio is needed. Performs well for testing fatigue. Stats:

GF = 3.5 Resistivity = 110 Temp. Coef = 450

Karma
Useful to 750c. Great for varying temperatures Stats:

GF = 2.4 Resistivity = 125 Temp. Coef = 20

Platinum Alloys
Great for use in high Stats: GF = 5.0 temperature Resistivity = 24 environments, being Temp. Coef = 1250 useful up to 1000c. Needs an environment with a stable temperature.

Silicon Semi Conductors

Great for almost any temperature as long as it is stable. Very sensitive. Unsuitable for large strain measurements. Stats

GF = -100 to +150 Resistivity = 1.0*109 Temp. Coef = 90 000

Bonding Strain Gauges

Bonding is very difficult due to the:

size and fragility of the gauges. high degree of accuracy that they must be fitted to. large number of different problems that can occur.

Most strain gauges require a cement or some type of adhesive to attach itself to, and insulate it from, the specimen material. When attaching the strain gauge ENSURE the surface of the specimen is absolutely clean. Instructions for bonding

http://www.efunda.com/DesignStandards/sensors/strai n_gages/strain_gage_install_prepare.cfm

Ideal Adhesive
The ideal adhesive will be:

an insulator quick to dry Suitable over a large range of temperatures. low in cost Applied thinly Ensure to match the appropriate adhesive to the gauge material you use.

Common Adhesives

Cyanoacrylate cement (the general option)

Only short tests required (less than months) Dries quickly

Epoxy
Good to measure high strains Has a very strong bond Requires extended time and special pressure/temperature conditions to set.

Ceramic cement
Good for high temperature environments 980 c.

Cellulose nitrate cement

Good if using paper backing Conditions must be dry.

Common Backings
An appropriate backing must be selected also to fit with the gauge material and the adhesive.

Polyimide (the general option)

Not in extreme conditions Mostly static strain

Paper
As Above

Epoxy
Low error required very difficult to install.

Glass fiber reinforced epoxy

Moderate temperature Good for fatigue

Strippable Backing
High temperatures Adhesive must be used as an insulator.

Extreme Temperatures
Testing strain in certain temperatures, high or low, causes a problem with certain gauge materials. This is simply solved by selecting an appropriate material, adhesive and backing, however often the material is more expensive or trades off other benefits.

Unstable Temperatures
Temperature causes an issue with thermal expansion. Why?

Can use gauge material selection to combat this.

It can also, depending on the temperature coefficient of resistance, change the resistance of the gauge material.

Temperature Compensation Arrangement

R1 = R3 Rs= R + RTemp + Rstrain Ru= R + RTemp Must be careful to ensure both gauges are in identical environments and fitted correctly.

Wiring
Common wiring issues are:

Poor soldering connections Tight wires which can pull the gauge loose or out of position, or damage the gauge. Be careful. Ensure soldering connections are done correctly. Have short, secured but not inflexible wires. Wireless.

Simple fixes:

Moisture
Moisture is an issue because it can alter the electrical resistance of the strain gauge or the external circuit. Main causes for moisture are from:

Environment The adhesive attaching the gauge to the specimen is not allowed to dry (ideally 24 hours should be allowed reduced for hotter environments) Let it dry! Unstrained specimen, in identical environment.

To Combat

Measuring the Strain Gauge

Wheatstone Bridge

For a balanced bridge, e = 0 when:

R1 R3 = R2 R4

Quarter-Bridge Circuit

R1 = R3 R2 = Rsg (unstressed)

V = (Rsg/Rsg )* Vsrce

Three-wire, quarter-bridge strain gauge circuit

Lead wire resistance desensitises strain gauge bridge. In effect, reduces gauge factor Rwire3 carries minimal current Rwire1 is negated Considerable improvement over two wire quarter bridge

Temperature Compensation

One active gauge One Dummy gauge to provide temperature compensation Three wire configuration preferential to two wire configuration

Half Bridge strain gauge circuit

Gauges placed in tension and compression Voltage sensitivity to strain is twice that of quarter bridge Can be used to selectively measure different properties, i.e.. Bending, axial loading, torsion.

Full Bridge strain gauge circuit

Strain gauge placed in compression and tension Four times the sensitivity of quarter bridge

Can be hard to install strain gauges in this configuration, best for thin plate Compensates for temperature if gauges in same environment

Bridge Configurations for Uniaxial Members

Bridge Configurations for Flexural Members

Bridge Configurations for Torsional Members

Bridge Balancing
For the Wheatstone Bridge to function as expected, the bridge needs to be balanced, with all resistances being equal. The bridge balancing equation is:

R1 R3 = R2 R4

Due to inherent irregularities between strain gauges and resistors, this will not be the case in reality. As a result of the bridge being unbalanced, the differential output voltage may differ up to 0.1% of the source voltage, which may be larger than the strain gauge output. There is a need to have a way of balancing the Wheatstone bridge, to calibrate it for use.

Bridge Balancing
Series Requires precision small resistance potentiometer

Circuits

Shunt Can use easy to find, large resistance potentiometers Need to know which side will be unbalanced Potentiometric Can balance both sides of bridge Suffers limitations of series circuit General Can balance both sides of bridge Resistance is in parallel configuration

Calibrating Strain Gauges

Calibration circuits for Strain Gauge Bridges are used to: Test that the bridge is working Simulate strain gauge measurements Useful when designing and testing amplifier for strain gauge bridge circuits.

Calibrating Strain Gauges Series or Shunt?

Calibrating Strain Gauges

Simulating Strains

The parallel resistor Rc can be used to simulate strain

Introduction of Commercially Available Strain Gauges

What strain measurement devices are available for you to use as a engineer? Practical Metal-Foil characteristics Gauge selection, given a sample under known conditions

Mechanical Strain Gauges

Designs vary a lot, and thus quality is dependant on the quality of design Immune to electrical noise at point of acquisition, although subject to vibration To acquire very accurate strain data the sensor cost increases dramatically Not as common as conventional electrical strain gauges Primarily used in civil applications Companies that produce mechanical strain gauges HBM, Mastrad
Mechanical strain gauge installed on the Hudson-Athens Lighthouse to measure the growth of foundation cracks. DD1 - DD1 - Strain transducer - Made by HBM

Optical Strain Gauges

Several types of gauges - Photoelastic - Moire Interferometry - Holographic Interferometry - Fibre Bragg grating Relatively new technology Requires expensive interface equipment to obtain data Electrical noise is not a variable in the measurement Used in applications where the environment may not permit electricity, or very high precision is required
Fibre Bragg grating strain gauge courtesy of http://www.aos-fiber.com

And many more...

Pneumatic Strain Gauge Semiconductor Strain Gauge Mercury-in-rubber (Whitney) Strain Gauge MEMS (Micro-Electromechanical Systems) Strain Gauge

Metal-Foil Strain Gauges

Most commonly used strain gauges in industry Relatively Cheap Readily Available Extensive variations in design to suite various applications Australian company Davidson stocks a large range Micro Strain strain gauges

Characteristics of Practical Metal-Foil Strain Gauges

Gauge dimensions Gauge pattern Grid resistance Operational temperature range Gauge factor Cyclic endurance Thermal coefficient of resistivity gauge factor Foil Material - most popular alloys used are - Copper-Nickel (Cu-Ni) - Nickel-Chromium (Ni-Cr) Backing Material (Carrier) - Polyimide - Epoxy-Phenolic S-T-C (Self Temperature Correction) number Microstrain () Range / % elongation range

Choosing a Suitable Metal-Foil Strain Gauge

Gauge Length 0.2mm 100mm Must suit application - Holes, fillets, notches GL = 0.1 x radius Lengths between 3mm 6mm are typically used as more design options are available Short gauge length embody restricted performance - low maximum allowable elongation - instability - relatively poor cyclic endurance - difficult installation Long gauge lengths - easier to handle - improved heat dissipation (applications of plastics, wood) - stress values along the length are averaged.

Choosing a Suitable Metal-Foil Strain Gauge

Strain Averaging For a sample with points of highly concentrated stress the gauge length is important in obtaining accurate results

Choosing a Suitable Metal-Foil Strain Gauge

S-T-C (Self Temperature Correcting) Number The strain gauges thermal expansion behaviour must match the sample being measured Suppliers provided S-T-C values for all strain gauges catalogued - S-T-C 30, 40 or 50 (unreinforced plastics) - S-T-C 05 (6Al-4V Titanium alloy) - DY (Dynamic systems where Temperature compensation is negligible) Leadwire Configurations Provides flexibility of installation Solder dots available at pads

Case study
Spur Gear Stress Measurement Practical Gauge Selection
Specifications Measurements at root of gear teeth Fillet radius at root is 3mm Expected temperature -20 to 80 degrees Celsius

Case study
Spur Gear Stress Measurement Practical Gauge Selection
Gauge Selection Gauge length = 0.1 x 3mm = 0.3mm Gauge pattern -principal axis known therefore only single grid gauges are required Low strain levels = small range Signal must be transmitted using slip rings or telemetry - highest available value - high gauge factor in order to reduce signal to noise ratio S-T-C number will be DY as it is a dynamic system

Case study

Courtesy of www.vishay.com

Case study

Courtesy of www.vishay.com

Case study

Courtesy of www.vishay.com

Case study
Spur Gear Stress Measurement Practical Gauge Selection
Gauge Designation Part No. ED-DY-031CF-350/Option E Extracted from the Davidson catalogue Gauge Factor 3.2 Gauge length 0.8mm Temperature Range 195 deg to +205 deg C Strain Range +2% Fatigue Life 106 cycles at +2500 microstrain 107 cycles at +2200 microstrain Grid Resistance 350 Foil Material Isoelastic Alloy (D Alloy) Carrier Material Epoxy-Phenolic

Strain Gauge Applications - requirements

Different applications require the strain gauge to be manufactured to better suit certain environments. Example: Measuring the propagation of a crack in a building over time vs. Measuring the strain in a F1 car carbon fibre monocoque chassis during testing Building measurements: Crack may propagate a few mm over a period of months Gauge may be exposed to elements, wind, rain etc.
s? ge u Ga

nt re ffe i D

F1 chassis measurements: High levels of strain (very high inertial forces, in excess of 4G lateral) Gauge may be exposed to very high temps, harsh, dirty environment

Case #1 Automated Deformation Monitoring

http://www.iti.northwestern.edu/about/reports/year5semisum.html

Strain gauges installed at the quarter points of a diagonal bracing element and the communications links

Case #1 Automated Deformation Monitoring

http://www.iti.northwestern.edu/about/reports/year5semisum.html

Case Background
Excavation site for a research centre on a university campus in USA Strain gauges were utilised to monitor the deformation of bracing which provided lateral support of a temporary support structure. Purpose of the project was to help improve the practice of predicting and controlling ground movements associated with supported excavations and tunnelling operations. 36 vibrating wire strain gauges were installed on diagonal and cross-lot bracing of the temporary structure (bracing and SGs shown in picture on previous slide)

Case #1 Automated Deformation Monitoring

Typical processed strain gauge data. Total force and extreme fibre stresses over a 6 week period.
http://www.iti.northwestern.edu/about/reports/year5semisum.html

Case #2 Motorsport, Ignition Cut Signal

Strain gauges are widely used in the motorsport industry, but not only for data acquisition purposes. An interesting application is the utilization of a strain gauge on a gear lever to aid in the shifting process.

Case Background
Clutch-less shifting, commonly referred to as flat shifting is the process of changing gears without engaging the clutch or lifting off the throttle. This greatly reduces gear change times (a reliable shift time of 50ms was achieved using a pneumatic shifter on the UQ FSAE car). To successfully flat shift, the engine must be temporarily unloaded during shifting, which is usually achieved by cutting the engine ignition via the ECU (engine control unit). Various methods for creating this cut-signal to the ECU are used, one of which is the implementation of a strain gauge on the gear lever.

Case #2 Motorsport, Ignition Cut Signal

0-5V output 2.5V normal (centred) +1000N = 0.5V -1000N = 4.5V

www.motec.com.au

http://www.dataspares.com/acatalog/

So what is the main benefit of using a strain gauge as opposed to a micro-switch? A strain gauge produces a force sensitive signal, i.e. the harder the driver throws the gear lever, the larger the signal. A micro-switch is simply on or off. Allows the ECU to discern between a slow shift (where the driver does not wish for ignition cut to occur and clutches normally, ie in pit lane) and a quick shift (driver does want ignition cut, ie race situation). This is setup using the ECU or controller. Most high-end aftermarket motorsport ECUs now provide a special function specifically for strain gauge ignition cut systems, allowing for easy installation and setup.

Case #2 Motorsport, Ignition Cut Signal

Motec ECU manager, ignition cut setup (example using a strain gauge)

ST3: Strain Measurements (Chapter 10)