Chapter 16 Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: The Scientific Revolution and the Emergence of Modern Science

I. Background to the Scientific Revolution i. Renaissance humanists mastery of Greek and Latin made available new works of Galen, Ptolemy, Archimedes, Plato, pre-Socratics new scientific work sometimes completely rejecting classical authorities ii. Renaissance artists desire to imitate nature rely on close observation of nature iii. 15th, 16th centuries: proliferation of books on machines and technology belief that innovation necessary iv. Mathematics fundamental to scientific achievements promoted in the Renaissance v. Renaissance magic, belief in divinity, scientists interest in Hermetic ideas Scientific Revolution Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy i. Christianized Ptolemaic universe did not satisfy professional astronomers b. Copernicus i. Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543): Ptolemys geocentric system too complicated heliocentric theory ii. Eight spheres with sun motionless at center, sphere of fixed stars at rest in eighth sphere a. Moon revolved around earth b. Movement of fixed stars and sun really the daily rotation of earth and earths journey around the sun iii. Conservative: didnt reject Aristotles principle of heavenly spheres moving in circular orbits retained Ptolemys epicycles iv. Shift from earth-centered to sun-centered system uncertainty about human role in universe, Gods location a. Protestants attack new ideas first b. Catholic church remains silent until work of Galileo appeared c. Brahe and Kepler i. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601): builds Uraniborg castle on island near Copenhagen accurate observations of stars and planets for that time reject Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system, but unable to accept Copernicus suggestion that earth moved ii. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630): universe was constructed on basis of geometric figures a. Harmony of human soul mirrored in numerical relationships between planets music of the spheres b. Three laws of planetary motion confirmed Copernicus heliocentric theory with modifications a. First law: planetary orbit around sun not circular but elliptical

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b. Second law: speed of planet greater when closer to sun, decreases as distance from sun increases c. Third law: planets with larger orbits revolve at slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits c. Three laws eliminates idea of uniform circular motion Ptolemaic system disproved d. Galileo i. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642): observations through telescope universe seemed to be composed of material substance similar to that of earth rather than ethereal or perfect and unchanging substance ii. The Starry Messenger: Galileo reveals himself a firm proponent of Copernicus heliocentric system Roman Inquisition of Catholic Church orders Galileo to reject Copernican thesis a. Galileo told that he could continue to discuss Copernicanism as a mathematical supposition iii. Galileo doesnt accept condemnation 1632: publishes Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems in Italian 1633: tried before the Inquisition, found guilty of teaching Copernican system house arrest iv. Aristoleian principle of motion: force constantly exerted on object moving at constant, stopped if force removed medieval theorists added that rush of air kept projectile in motion a. Posed problem for Copernican system: what force kept earth and planets in motion v. Galileos two contributions to problem of motion a. Uniform force leads to accelerated speed b. Principle of inertia: body in motion continues in motion unless deflected by external force e. Newton i. Isaac Newton (1642-1727): invented calculus, mathematical means of calculating rates of change wrote Principia ii. Principia: mathematical proofs demonstrating universal law of gravitation; three laws of motion a. First law: object continues in uniform motion or rest in straight line unless deflected b. Second law: rate of change of motion proportional to force c. Third law: every action comes with an equal and opposition reaction d. Book Three: demonstrates three laws of motion govern planetary bodies as well as terrestrial objects e. Planetary bodies continued in elliptical orbits about the sun iii. Newtonian synthesis creates new cosmology: world-machine, God everpresent iv. Newtons ideas accepted in England (out of national pride and conviction) for political reasons a. Natural philosophers on the Continent resisted Newtons ideas Advances in Medicine

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i. Late medieval medicine dominated by Galen (2nd century A.D. Greek physician) a. Professors read Galen text while assistant dissects cadaver b. Physiology: two separate blood systems c. Treatment of disease influenced by Galens four bodily humors: blood (warm, moist), yellow bile (warm, dry), phlegm (cold, moist), black bile (cold, dry) a. Examination of urine chief diagnostic tool b. Herbal medicines often beneficial ii. Philipus Aureolus von Hohenheim Paracelsus (1493-1541): replace old system with new chemical philosophy based on new understanding of nature derived from fresh observation and experiment. a. Macrocosm-microcosm analogy: human a small replica of larger world diseases caused by chemical imbalances in specific organs that could be treated by chemical remedies b. Like cures like iii. Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564): published On the Fabric of the Human Body 1543 a. Anatomical treatise presented a careful examination of individual organs and general structure of body b. Blood vessels originate from heart (Galen: originate from liver) c. Agreed with Galen on veins and arteries iv. William Harvey (1578-1657): published On the Motion of the Heart and Blood 1628 a. Heart was the beginning point of blood circulation b. Blood makes complete circuit as it passes through body c. Laid foundation for modern physiology Women in the Origins of Modern Science i. Humanism encouraged learned men to encourage women to read and study classical and Christian texts. ii. Women attracted to science had to obtain a largely informal education. iii. Margaret Cavendish (1623-1673): works on scientific matters including Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy a. Attacks what she considers defects of rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge b. Critical of growing belief that humans would be masters of nature through science iv. Germany: female participation in craft production women involved in observational science, especially entomology and astronomy v. Maria Sibylla Merian (1647-1717): entomologist a. 1699: expedition into wilds of Dutch colony of Surinam to collect and draw samples of plants and insect life Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam vi. Craft organization of astronomy opportunities for women to become involved in science

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vii. Maria Winkelmann (1670-1720): German astronomer a. Married Gottfried Kirch, Germanys foremost astronomer assistant at Berlin observatory for Academy of Science b. Husband dies 1710 applies for position at Berlin Academy denied acceptance viii. Querelles des femmes arguments about women: women portrayed as inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed, and sexually insatiable men need to control them a. Learned women viewed as having overcome female liabilities to become like men b. Women argued that women also had rational minds and could grow from education. c. Men used science to find new support for old views about womans place in the scheme of things. th ix. 18 century anatomical and physiological studies of sexual differences provided scientific evidence to reaffirm inferiority of women. a. Drawings of female skeletons: larger pelvic area = women meant to be childbearers; larger skull of men = superiority of male mind x. 17th ,18th centuries: women lost traditional spheres of influence, such as midwifery professionalized males take over justified male dominance xi. Male scientists used new science to spread view that women were inferior by nature. Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New View of Humankind i. Rene Descartes (1596-1650): wrote Discourse on Method 1637 a. Descartes decided to set aside all that he had learned and begin again. b. Separation of mind and matter: the mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world can, the two must be radically different. absolute duality between mind and body known as Cartesian dualism c. Father of modern rationalism: radical Cartesian split between mind and matter had devastating implications not only for traditional religious views but also for how Westerners viewed themselves. The Scientific Method i. Francis Bacon (1561-1626): rejected Copernicus and Kepler, misunderstood Galileo. a. The Great Instauration: called for his contemporaries to commence a total reconstruction of sciences, arts, and all human knowledge, raised upon the proper foundations. b. Scientific method: proceed from the particular to the general; organized experiments, systematic observations develop correct generalizations c. Wanted science to contribute to mechanical arts by creating devices that would benefit industry, agriculture, and trade.

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ii. Descartes Discourse on Method: each step in argument should be well founded as a mathematical proof a. Emphasis on starting with self-evident truths and deducing more complex conclusions iii. Sir Isaac Newton unites Bacons empiricism with Descartes rationalism iv. Scientific method valuable in answering question as to how something works, not why or the purpose religion retains central importance in 17th century Science and Religion in the Seventeenth Century a. Spinoza i. Benedict de Spinoza (1623-1677): philosophy of pantheism (nothing can be apart from God) set out in Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner ii. Failure to understand God misconception that nature exists only for ones use iii. Everything has a rational explanation humans are capable of finding people find true happiness b. Pascal i. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662): French scientist, sought to keep science and religion united ii. Pensees (Thoughts): tries to convert rationalists to Christianity a. Humans often deceived by senses, misled by reason, and battered by emotions. iii. Christian religion not contrary to reason a. In Christianity, people are both vulnerable and great b. God is a reasonable bet; it is worthwhile to assume that God exists iv. Refused to rely on scientists world of rationality to attract people to God v. Pascal failed to achieve his goal of uniting Christianity and science The Spread of Scientific Knowledge a. The Scientific Societies i. English Royal Society: evolved from informal gatherings of scientists at London and Oxford in 1640s; received formal charter from King Charles II 1662 ii. French Royal Academy of Sciences: arose out of informal scientific meetings in Paris during 1650s; 1666 Louis XIV formally recognized the group iii. Emphasis on practical value of scientific research replaced by primary interest on theoretical work in mechanics and astronomy iv. French Academy forced by war minister of France, the marquis de Louvois, to continue practical work v. German princes and city governments sponsored scientific societies vi. Scientific journals concept of cooperation a. Journal des Savants: results of experiments, general scientific knowledge b. Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society: aimed at practicing scientists

b. Science and Society i. Literate mercantile and propertied elites of Europe were attracted to new science because it offered new ways to exploit resources for profit. ii. Political interests used the new scientific conception of the natural world to bolster social stability.