INFRA OPERATORS TICK OF APPROVAL

Australian Bushland
Survival
A guide for campers and the like
Zian Gibbs
3/24/2013

This guide is intended to instruct potential survival strategies and is in no way responsible for the
harm from ingestion of fauna/flora listed in this guide. Use at your own risk.
1

Contents
Edible Plant life ....................................................................................................................................... 4
Apple Berry ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Devil's Twine ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Wombat Berry..................................................................................................................................... 8
Scrambling Lily .................................................................................................................................... 9
Sweet Morinda.................................................................................................................................. 10
Passionfruit ....................................................................................................................................... 11
Lady Fingers ...................................................................................................................................... 12
Native Cherry .................................................................................................................................... 13
Narrow-leaved Geebung ................................................................................................................... 14
Wild Parsnip ...................................................................................................................................... 15
Common Lilly Pilly ............................................................................................................................. 16
Native Honeysuckle........................................................................................................................... 17
Sandpaper Fig.................................................................................................................................... 18
Grass Trees ........................................................................................................................................ 19
Bush Medicinal Plants ........................................................................................................................... 20
Bulrush, Cattails ................................................................................................................................ 21
Umbrella Bush-Wattle ...................................................................................................................... 22
Bracken Fern ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Rough Barked Apple.......................................................................................................................... 24
Narrow Leaved Ironbark ................................................................................................................... 25
Forest Red Gum ................................................................................................................................ 26
Snow in summer ............................................................................................................................... 27
Native Raspberry............................................................................................................................... 28
Bush Survival ......................................................................................................................................... 29
Locating Water ……………………………………………………………………………………………................................. 29
Bees ............................................................................................................................................... 29
Ants ............................................................................................................................................... 29
Mason flies .................................................................................................................................... 30
Birds — Finches ............................................................................................................................. 30
Birds — Wild pigeons .................................................................................................................... 31
Birds — Grain eaters ..................................................................................................................... 31
Birds — Flesh Eaters and Water Birds .......................................................................................... 31
2

Mammals ...................................................................................................................................... 31
Reptiles.......................................................................................................................................... 32
Eucalypts (Gum Trees) .................................................................................................................. 33
Vines (Lianas, or Monkey Ropes) .................................................................................................. 33
Plants with Milky Sap .................................................................................................................... 33
Taste Test the Water First ............................................................................................................. 33
Dew collection............................................................................................................................... 34
Water on the sea coast ................................................................................................................. 35
Moisture from fish flesh................................................................................................................ 36
Condensing salt water................................................................................................................... 36
The Solar Still — Moisture condensation in arid areas ................................................................. 37
How to Purify Stagnant water ....................................................................................................... 38
Shelter …………………………………………………………………………………………… .............................................. 39
Poncho Lean-To............................................................................................................................. 40
Poncho Tent .................................................................................................................................. 42
Three-Pole Parachute Tepee......................................................................................................... 43
One-Pole Parachute Tepee ........................................................................................................... 44
No-Pole Parachute Tepee ............................................................................................................. 45
One-Man Shelter ........................................................................................................................... 46
Parachute Hammock ..................................................................................................................... 47
Field-Expedient Lean-To................................................................................................................ 48
Swamp Bed ................................................................................................................................... 49
Natural Shelters ............................................................................................................................ 50
Debris Hut ..................................................................................................................................... 50
Tree-Pit Snow Shelter ................................................................................................................... 52
Beach Shade Shelter ..................................................................................................................... 52
Desert Shelters .............................................................................................................................. 53
Building a Fire …………………………………………………………………………………………… .................................. 56
Modern Methods .......................................................................................................................... 74
Matches......................................................................................................................................... 74
Convex Lens .................................................................................................................................. 74
Metal Match.................................................................................................................................. 75
Battery........................................................................................................................................... 75
Gunpowder ................................................................................................................................... 75
3

Primitive Methods......................................................................................................................... 75
Flint and Steel ............................................................................................................................... 75
Fire-Plow ....................................................................................................................................... 75
Bow and Drill ................................................................................................................................. 76
Satisfying Hunger …………………………………………………………………………………………… ............................. 78
Figure Four Trap. ........................................................................................................................... 79
The Paiute Trap ............................................................................................................................. 83
Deadfall Trap ................................................................................................................................. 87
Wounds ............................................................................................................................................... 120
Open Wounds ............................................................................................................................. 120
Skin Diseases and Ailments ......................................................................................................... 122
Boils ............................................................................................................................................. 122
Fungal Infections ......................................................................................................................... 122
Rashes ......................................................................................................................................... 122
Frostbite ...................................................................................................................................... 123
Trench Foot ................................................................................................................................. 123
Burns ........................................................................................................................................... 123
Camouflage ......................................................................................................................................... 125
Personal Camouflage ...................................................................................................................... 125
Methods of Stalking ........................................................................................................................ 128
4

Edible Plant life

Aboriginal people have occupied the Australian continent for at least forty
thousand years, and over this time they have found ways of surviving that
reveal an extensive and detailed knowledge of the environment. Their
understanding of native plants goes far beyond just knowing what is edible.
They used plants for healing and medicine, and for weapons and tools. They
understood the changes of the seasons and the life cycles of animals and
plants, and how these processes effected their own survival. However,
current knowledge of Aboriginal diet and herbal medicine is quite limited,
since the Aboriginal lifestyle was obliterated long before it could be
recorded.

The Australian bush contains a bounty of wild edible plant species that runs
into the thousands, ranging from starchy seeds and tangy fruits to
mushrooms, tubers, leaves and seaweeds. However, knowing how to
identify edible plants is not easy. The knowledge Aboriginal people have
about which plants are edible, which plants are poisonous, and which
plants are poisonous but can be prepared in certain ways that make then
safe to eat would have been acquired over generations (6,000 years) of trial
and error.

To the Aborigines, plant foods supplied up to 80% of their diet in desert

regions, and as little as 40% in coastal areas, where shellfish, fish and game
were abundant. Diets and food preparation techniques varied from one
region to another and also from one tribe to another. Local custom and
belief often effected what was hunted and gathered (i.e. would not eat
totemic animals).

It has been suggested that Aborigines were originally a relatively healthy

people before the arrival of Europeans (brought infectious diseases) and
thus needed little medication. Occasional digestive upsets (causing
diarrhoea), fevers, toothaches, xand sores, colds, rheumatism and wounds
were all adequately treated with a large variety of herbal remedies. Most
bush medicines were applied, as rubs or poultices; or inhaled, for example
by using crushed aromatic leaves.
5

THE UNIVERSAL EDIBILITY TEST

When tasting unknown plants follow these guidelines to find out whether it
is edible.

1. Test only one part of a potential plant at a time

2. Smell the potential food plant for strong or acid odours (but
remember smell alone does not indicate if plant is edible).
3. Select a small portion of a single part o the plant (i.e. fruit) and
prepare it in the way you plan to eat it.
4. Touch a small portion to the outer surface of the lips (testing for
itching or burning sensation).
5. If no reaction after 3 minutes then place the plant part on the
tongue holding there for 15 minutes
6. If no reaction, chew a portion without swallowing and wait 15
minutes
7. If no burning, itching, numbing, stinging or other irritation occurs
during the 15 minutes, swallow.
8. Wait 8 hours, if any ill effects occur during this time drink lots of
water and induce vomiting.
9. If no ill effects occur eat half a cup of the plant part prepared the
same way. Wait 8 hours, if no ill effects occur then the plant part
as prepared is edible.
6

Apple Berry
Other names: Dumplings
Uses: Edible Fruit

Small twining creepers. The small cylindrical or egg-shaped berries have

many tiny seeds. There are about 20 species of Billardiera in Australia, some
of the others are also edible.
7

Devil's Twine
Other names: Dodder laurel, devils guts
Uses: The small fruits are edible. Aborigines sometimes used the stems as
twine

These are twining shrubs that are parasitic on the plants they grow on,
forming such a mass that the host eventually collapses. There are 14
species in Australia. C. paniculata is found in Cattai National Park, and C.
pubescens is common in the Blue Mountains.
8

Wombat Berry
Other names: Orange vine
Uses: Edible fruits, tubers

A wiry vine which trails over low branches or across the ground. A common
vine of open forests, extending into dry woodlands and rainforest. It can be
mistaken for the very similar Geitonoplesium cymosum (Scrambling lily),
which has shiny black inedible berries.
9

Scrambling Lily
Uses: Shoots edible when boiled, roots possibly edible

A climber. The shoots may be boiled and eaten, and have been compared
to asparagus. The black berries are inedible. Resembles Eustrephus
latifolius (Wombat berry), though the leaves of Geitonoplesium are usually
thinner.
10

Sweet Morinda
Other names: Native jasmine, jasmine morinda
Uses: Edible fruits

A scrambling climber with stems to a few metres long. The fruit is an orange
aggregate, 10-12mm wide, and edible when soft, with a rotten cheese
flavour.
11

Passionfruit
Other names: Passion flowers
Uses: Fruits edible

There are 3 species of native passionfruit in Australia, and 7 introduced

American species which have become naturalised (that is, they grow
wild). Passiflora edulis, the commercial Black Passionfruit, is naturalised in
Sydney bushland.
12

Lady Fingers
Other names: White Fingers, Pink Fingers
Uses: The tubers are edible raw or cooked

These are ground or terrestrial orchids (as opposed to tree or epiphytic

orchids which grow on other plants). Caladenia catenata (White Fingers) is
the most common Caladenia in the Sydney area. It is very similar
to Caladenia carnea (Pink Fingers), however C. catenata has no red-pink
bars on the labellum and column in the middle ofthe flower.

All ground orchids produce tubers, which were roasted or eaten raw by
Aboriginies. Epiphytic tree orchids lack tubers but have thickened stems
which can be sucked for their starch.
13

Native Cherry
Other names: Cherry ballart
Uses: Edible fruits

Small trees with drooping, leafless stems resembling a she-oak

(Casuarina spp.) or cypress pine.
14

Narrow-leaved Geebung
Other names: Pine-leaved Geebung
Uses: The fruits are edible

A large shrub about 3m high with dark flaky, papery bark. A very common
understorey shrub in many habitats. Persoonia fruits have a stalk
protruding from the underside of the fruit, which helps to identify them.
They are not ripe until after they fall from the tree to the ground. The skin
(and usually the seed also) is discarded.
15

Wild Parsnip
Uses: The thickened taproot is edible raw or cooked, tasting rather like a
parsnip

An erect herb to 50cm high. Tiny white flowers, fragile, in a dense terminal
umbel appear in summer.
16

Common Lilly Pilly

Other names: Common Lilly Pilly, Acmena smithii, Eugenia smithii
Uses: The fruits are edible

The scientific name of the Common Lilly Pilly used to be Acmena smithii,
recently it has been renamed to Syzygium smithii in line with many other
Lilly Pillies that were already in the genus Syzygium.

The Common Lilly Pilly is a well-known Australian bush tucker plant. It is

either a shrub or tree up to 20 metres high, depending on the conditions
where it is growing. In the Blue Mountains it is a tree that grows along
rainforest creek banks. By the seashore it may not grow so tall, perhaps
only 1-2 metres. It is often grown as an ornamental tree, seen in private
home gardens and in commercial places. For example it surrounds some of
the multilevel car parks at the Westfield shopping centre at Penrith (do not
eat these as they may have been sprayed with chemicals). The fruits were
widely eaten by Aboriginies. The fruits of coastal (especially seashore)
growing Lilly Pillies are the least best tasting, often quite small and tough.
17

Native Honeysuckle
Uses: Nectar from flowers can be sucked or made into a drink by soaking in
water

Banksia is distinguished from other Proteaceae by the dense flower spikes

and distinctive woody follicles.
18

Sandpaper Fig
Other names: Creek fig
Uses: Edible fruits, leaves used as sandpaper

A straggly, small tree common on creek beds in subtropical rainforest. The

leaves are so rough they can be used as sandpaper, to polish timber and
even ivory or bone. Each species of fig is dependent on a single species of
wasp for fertilisation.
19

Grass Trees
Other names: Blackboy
Uses: Nectar, Starch from base of plant and leaf bases, resin, firemaking,
spear shafts

An endemic genus (that is, only found in Australia) with 15 species,

distributed in all states. One of the most interesting and distinctive of
Australian plants, and one of the most useful. Grass-trees have a short
trunk, which may be underground, a large crown of slender leaves and
(when flowering) a tall scape with a dense spike of tiny white-brown
flowers at the top. The flowering period is short and does not always
happen every year.

Nectar from flowers can be sucked or made into a drink by soaking in

water. The wood from the flower stalks is very light, almost like balsa wood,
and is one of the best to use for friction firemaking, such as the bow drill
fire or hand drill fire. The flower stalks were used to make the tail ends of
spear shafts, with a heavier wood used for the head. Resin can be extracted
from the plant, which was used as a glue.
20

Bush Medicinal Plants

More than five hundred of the plant species native to Australia can be used
medicinally. Some uses have been minor, others more complex. There are a
number of properties that make plants valuable in medicine, these include:
Tannins, Mucilage, oils, Latex, Alkaloids and several other groups of
chemicals.

However, preventative medicine is the best option (don’t get sick in the first
place). Move slowly and surely through the bush, scan the ground in front
of you and to the sides. Look up and around and be aware of where you
step. Walk with a stick and thump the ground as you walk so snakes move
out of your path. Don’t grab onto plants before checking to see if they have
thorns and learn to identify the stinging tree and stinging nettle.

If sickness is unavoidable here are some medicines that can be prepared

from plants in the Mitchell Park Region. We recommend that you do not try
making bush medicines to drink because some medicines have the potential
to be poisonous if the concentration is incorrect, especially if they contain
alkaloids.
21

Bulrush, Cattails
Other Names: Cumbungi, Wonga, Reed-mace
Uses: Many survival and wilderness living uses (see below)

Typha is commonly known as Bulrush in Australia and Cattails in the United

States. In many northern hemisphere survival books it is presented as one
of the "big four" survival foods. The other three are grass, pine trees and
oaks, not all of which are relevant to Australia.

Typha has many survival uses. As a food, starch can be eaten from the
roots/tubers. It can be eaten raw or cooked and was a staple food of
Aborigines. The starch is a lot like wheat and contains gluten, just like
wheat and many other common cereal foods. Some tribes also ate the raw
green flower stalk (the part that looks like a bottle cleaner) during spring.
The pollen may be baked or steamed into nutritious cakes.

The leftover fibres from the roots were often spun into tough string. The
leaves may be used for mat and basket making, rafts, chairs, and many
other uses.. The dried flower stalks can be used for hand drill fires and for
arrow shafts. The fluffy "cotton" in the seed heads makes excellent tinder
and can also be used for insulation in clothing or bedding. If that wasn't
enough, the plant also has medicinal uses as an antiseptic, and when they
are burned the smoke is said to repel insects.
22

Umbrella Bush-Wattle

Uses: Soak the bark in water or boil it and use as a cough medicine.

A shrub (3m high) with leaf-like phyllodes (4-9cm long) that are narrow, linear to
oblong and are tapered at both ends with a recurved tip and rather thick. The
seed pod is hard and constricted between individual seeds. Flowers occur from
late winter to early spring as a profusion of yellow-orange balls.
23

Bracken Fern

Uses: The sap from the stems of young ferns was applied directly to insect
bites by Aboriginal people to relieve the pain. A tea made from leaves and leaf
stalks can be used to help rheumatism

A perennial shrub (0.7-1.5m tall) with dark green, glossy and hard fronds on stiff
stalks joined to hairy rhizomes (underground root-like stems) that contain slimy
white starch.
24

Rough Barked Apple

Uses: The Kino (a reddish sap exuded from the trunk) was used by
Aboriginals for the treatment of diarrhoea and stomach upset; 150 to 200g of a
10% solution in water was taken internally

Medium-sized to large tree (30m tall) with rough grey-brown back that is fibrous
and generally furrowed. Leaves are glossy green to dull grey-green, narrow to oval
shaped (5-15cm long) and tapered to a point at the ends. Flowers are white with a
green keels, fruit are cup shaped and contain reddish-brown seeds.
25

Narrow Leaved Ironbark

Uses: Kino (sap exuded from the trunk) was used by Aborigines for the
treatment of diarrhoea; a 10% solution in water, dose is about 150g of solution is
drunk every 24 hours

Slow growing tree (10-25m high) with rough furrowed bark and long green leaves.
Flowers are white and occur throughout April and September-November. The
small seeds are contained in a woody capsule (3-7mm long) and are released
between August and January.
26

Forest Red Gum

Uses: Kino was used to treat diarrhoea; a 5% solution in water was drunk

A large tree (up to 30m high), with smooth white or grey bark that is shed in long
strips in autumn. Flowers are white and small seeds are contained in a woody
capsule (4-8mm long) which is shed in November.
27

Snow in summer
Uses: The oil, obtained by stem-distillation of the foliage can be used to
externally treat boils, abscesses, sores, cuts and abrasions, as well as in conditions
resulting in a pussy discharge. Crushed leaves were inhaled to relieve headaches

A small tree (rarely up to 18m high), with papery bark, slender branches and hairy
young shoots (see picture on left). Leaves are mostly opposite and are quite
narrow and often keeled (12-35mm long). Its creamy white flowers occur in dense
spikes around the end of stems (see picture on left). Woody seed capsules occur
in dense elongated clusters around smaller branches (3mm in diameter). Flowers
occur in spring and summer.
28

Native Raspberry
Uses: Aboriginals soaked the small leaves in warm water and drank the
infusion when suffering from stomach upset

A scrambling shrub or climber covered in prickles. Leaves are also prickly, round
to elliptical, 3-5lobed, covered with rusty hair on the underside and margins are
serrate. Flowers are white or red and fruit is a red nearly globular berry (12mm in
diameter) that ripens during summer
29

Bush Survival
Despite the vast size of Australia, becoming lost in the bush is quite difficult.
Most watercourses, coastlines and roads soon lead to civilisation (Low,
1988). In the rare event of major mishap, the need to find food is usually
secondary (people can survive weeks without food). It is more important to
have water, shelter from extremes, and to be positioned where help will
arrive.

Locating Water
……………………………………………………………………………………………
It is essential to know how to find water when surviving in the bush. Look
for the lowest points in the landscape (bottom of hills, cliffs and gullies)
water tends to collect in these areas. Seasonal creeks can hold water just
under the surface months after the water above ground has dried up, look
for lush vegetation before you start digging. Follow well-worn animal tracks
downhill they will generally lead to water sources. Dew can be mopped up
with cotton clothing and wrung out into containers.

Bees

Bees in an area are a certain sign of water. Rarely will you find a hive of wild
bees more than three or four miles from fresh water. A bee flies a mile in 12
minutes. You can be sure that if you see bees you are not far from fresh
water, but you will probably have to look for further indications before you
actually find the water supply.

Ants

Many of the ants require water, and if you see a

steady column of small black ants climbing a
tree trunk and disappearing into a hole in a
crotch it is highly probable that there will be a
hidden reservoir of fresh water stored away
there.

This can be proved by dipping a long straw or

thin stick down the hole into which the ants are
30

going. Obviously if it is wet when you draw it out there is water there.

To get the water do not on any account chop into the tree. If the hole is
only very small, enlarge it with your knife-point at the top. Make a mop by
tying grass or rag to a stick. Dip the mop into the water and squeeze into a
pannikin.

Another method is to take a long hollow straw and suck the water you
require from the reservoir. These natural tree reservoirs are very common
in dry areas, and are often kept full by the dew which, condensing on the
upper branches of the tree, trickles down into the crotch and so into the
reservoir inside the tree. Water reservoirs are very common in the she-oaks
(casuarinas) and many species of wattle.

Mason flies

These large, hornet-like creatures

are a certain indicator of water. If
you see a mason fly's buildings in
an area you can be sure that you
are within a few hundred yards
[metres] of a soak of wet earth.

Search around carefully and you will see the mason fly hover and then
suddenly drop to the ground. If you examine the place where she landed
you will find the soil is moist, and that she is busy rolling a tiny pellet of
mud for her building. By digging down a few inches (or at, most, a couple of
feet) you will assuredly find a spring and clear, fresh, drinkable water.

Birds — Finches

All the finches are grain-eaters and

water-drinkers. In the dry belts
you may see a colony of finches
and you can be certain that you
are near water, probably a hidden spring or permanent soak.
31

Birds — Wild pigeons

Wild pigeons are a reliable indicator of

water. Being grain and seed eaters they
spend the day out on the plains feeding,
and then, with the approach of dusk,
make for a waterhole, drink their fill and fly slowly back to their nesting
places.

Their manner of flight tells the experienced bushman the direction of their
water supply. If they are flying low and swift they are flying to water, but if
their flight is from tree to tree and slow, they are returning from drinking.
Being heavy with water, they are vulnerable to birds of prey. It is obvious
then that the direction of water can be discovered by observing the
pigeons' manner of flight.

Birds — Grain eaters

All the grain eaters and most of the ground

feeders require water, so that if you see their
tracks on the ground you can be reasonably
certain that there is water within a few miles of
your location. An exception to this is parrots
and cockatoos, which are not regarded as reliable indicators of water.

Birds — Flesh Eaters and Water Birds

The carnivores, being flesh eaters, get most of the moisture they require
from the flesh of their prey, and consequently are not reliable water-
drinkers. Therefore, do not regard the presence of flesh-eating birds as an
indicator of water in the area, nor should you regard the water living birds
as indicators of fresh or drinkable water.

Mammals

Nearly all mammals require water at regular intervals to keep themselves

alive. Even the flesh eaters must drink, but animals can travel long distances
between drinks, and therefore, unless there is a regular trail you cannot be
confident of finding water where you see animals' trails. This is a general
rule.
32

However, certain animals never travel far from water. For example, a fresh
track of a wild pig is one sign that there is water in the vicinity, also the
fresh track of 'roos and most of the grazing animals, whose habit it is to
drink regularly at dawn or dusk. In general, water will be found by following
these trails downhill.

Reptiles

Most of the land-living reptiles are independent, to a very large extent, on

water. They get what they require from dew and the flesh of their prey, and
as a result are not an indicator of water in the area.

The roots and branches of many trees contain sufficient free-flowing fluid
to relieve thirst, and this can be collected by breaking into 3 ft. lengths the
roots or branches and standing these in a trough (of bark) into which the
collected fluid will drain to the pannikin. In some plants the amount of
water stored is truly unbelievable, the fluid literally gushing out when the
plant is cut.
33

These vegetable "drinking waters" cannot

be kept for more than twenty-four hours.
The fluid starts to ferment or go bad if
stored, and might be dangerous to drink
if in this condition.

The nature of the plant, if judged by the

properties of its foliage, is no guide to the
drinkability of the fluids which are its sap.

Eucalypts (Gum Trees)

For example, the eucalypts, whose leaves

are heavily impregnated with oils of
eucalyptus, and in many cases poisonous
to human beings, contain a drinkable fluid, easily collected (from the
branches or roots). This fluid is entirely free from the essential oils and with
no taint of the eucalyptus.

Vines (Lianas, or Monkey Ropes)

The lianas or monkey ropes found in tropical areas are an example of a

prolific source of water.

There are certain precautions, and a few danger signs, with regard to
vegetable fluids.

Plants with Milky Sap

If the fluid is milky or coloured in any way, it should be regarded as

dangerous, not only to drink but also to the skin. Many of the milky saps,
except those of the ficus family, which contain latex, or a natural rubber,
are extremely poisonous. The milky sap of many weeds can poison the skin
and form bad sores, and if allowed to get into the eye may cause blindness
and severe pain.

Taste Test the Water First

With all vegetable sources of fluid even though the water itself is clear,
taste it first and, if quite, or almost, flavourless, it is safe to drink.

For vegetable sources of water in arid areas the best volume is generally
obtained by scratching up the surface roots. They are discovered close to
34

the ground, and if cut close to the tree, may be lifted and pulled, each root
yielding a length of from ten to twenty feet. These must be cut into shorter
lengths for draining.

Many people who have tried to obtain drinking water from vegetable
sources failed to get the precious liquid to flow because they did not break
or cut the stalk or root into lengths. Unless these breaks are made, the fluid
cannot flow, and the conclusion is that the root, branch or vine is without
moisture.

In general, water is more plentiful from plants in gullies than on ridges, and
the flow is wasted if the roots are broken into sections and not cut. Cutting
tends to bruise and seal the capillary channels.

Dew collection

In barren areas where there are no trees, it may be possible to collect

sufficient moisture from the grass in the form of dew, to preserve life. One
of the easiest ways of dew collection is to tie rags or tufts of fine grass
round the ankles and walk through the herbage before the sun has risen,
squeezing the moisture collected by the tufts or rags into a container. Many
early explorers saved their lives by this simple expedient.

Pig Face (Mesembryanthemum) [now called Carpobrotus] and Ice Plant

(Parakylia) and Pig Weed contain large proportions of drinkable moisture.
35

Water on the sea coast

Fresh water can always be found along the sea coast by digging behind the
wind-blown sandhills which back most ocean beaches. These sandhills trap
rain water, and it floats on top of the heavier salt water which filters in from
the ocean. Sandhill wells must be only deep enough to uncover the top inch
or two [2.5 or 5 cm] of water. If dug deeper, salt water will be encountered
and the water from the well may be brackish and undrinkable. It will be
noticed, too, that the water in these wells rises and falls slightly with the
tides.

These sand wells are a completely reliable source of water all over the
world. When digging it is necessary to revet the sides with brushwood,
otherwise the sand will fall into the well.

On coastal areas where cliffs fall into a sea a careful search along the lower
edges of the cliff will generally disclose soaks or small springs. These in
general follow a fault in the rock formation and frequently are evident by a
lush growth of ferns and mosses.
36

Moisture from fish flesh

Another source of liquid sufficient to sustain life at sea, when fresh water
has ceased to be available, is from the flesh of fish. The fish are diced, and
the small portions of flesh placed in a piece of cotton cloth and the
moisture wrung out. This moisture from sea fish is not in itself excessively
salty, and can sustain life for a long period.

Condensing salt water

It is possible to condense sea water without equipment and obtain

sufficient fresh water for drinking purposes. (See moisture condensation,
below).

A Coolamon is made, or alternatively a hole is scraped in the ground and

lined, and the salt water is put into this hole. A fire is built, and stones are
put in the fire to heat. These when hot are put in the salt water, which soon
boils, and the water vapour is soaked up by a towel or thick mat of cloth. In
time, this will literally become saturated, and may be wrung out, yielding a
fair quantity of fresh drinkable water. Once the cloth is damp and cool, the
collection of water vapour is fairly rapid.
37

The Solar Still — Moisture condensation in arid areas

A simple still for water condensation in arid areas can be made from a piece
of light plastic sheeting, about 4 ft. square. A hole is dug or scooped in the
ground in a sunny position. The hole should be about 3' [90 cm] across and
15" to 18" [38 to 45 cm] deep or deeper if possible.

The site should preferably be in moist ground, a depression in a creek bed is

ideal if one can be found. If green material such as shrubs or succulent
herbage is in the vicinity, the hole should be lined with this and the material
packed down. It may be necessary to weigh the material down with a few
flat stones.

In the centre of the hole,

and in the deepest part, a
billy or container is placed
to catch the moisture
collected by
condensation.

Lay the sheet of plastic to cover the top of the hole, and weigh the edges
with stones and use some of the earth scooped from the hole to seal the
edges lightly. Place a stone in the centre of the upper side of the plastic
sheet above the approximate centre of the water container to weigh it
down to just over the container.

Moisture in the soil, and in the greenery placed in the hole will be drawn off
by the heat of the sun and condense on the underside of the plastic.
Condensation results because the air above the plastic is considerably
cooler than the air on the underside of the plastic. The condensed moisture
will collect into droplets, coalesce and trickle down the underside to the
lowest point where it drops off into the container.

If the underside of the plastic sheet is slightly roughened with fine

sandpaper or a similar fine abrasive such as a piece of finely grained stone,
the droplets will coalesce and run off more cleanly than if the underside is
absolutely smooth. Body waste, such as urine, waste food, moist tea leaves,
etc., can be put in the hole. The pure moisture only is condensed.

From one to four or five pints [0.5 to 2 or 2.5 litres] of water a day can be
collected by this method. If the stay in the area is likely to be of some
duration the top few inches of the hole can be removed and fresh green
38

material replaced and the still will continue to work when this is done.
Fresh still sites may be necessary every second or third day.

How to Purify Stagnant water

Stagnant water, or water which has become polluted,

can be made drinkable and pure without equipment.

If time permits, such water can be filtered through a

sieve of charcoal.

This will both clarify and to a large extent purify the

water, but it is always safer to boil it before drinking.

If the water is muddy, the clay particles in flotation in

the water can be precipitated by a pinch of alum,
which will flocculate and precipitate the particles and
so clarify the water. This, however, requires at least 12
hours' wait.

If no artificial means are available, the polluted or dirty water can be

filtered by straining through closely woven garments such as a felt hat or a
pair of thick drill trousers. The water, if polluted, can be sterilised by adding
hot stones to the water in the filter. The water will soon boil and so made
sterile and safe for drinking.
39

In areas where there is a likelihood of water being infected with bacteria, it

is always advisable to boil before drinking or, failing this, to chlorinate the
water with a pinch of chloride of lime.

Boiling water for 1 minute at sea level, adding 1 minute for each additional
300 meters above sea level, or boil for 10 minutes no matter where you
are.

Shelter
……………………………………………………………………………………………
It is best to start looking for shelter at least 2 hours before sunset. Look for
natural shelters such as caves and rocky crevices with overhangs. Make sure
the site is safe from rock falls and away from large over hanging tree limbs
(may fall). Check for snakes and stinging insects such as ants and wasps
before setting up camp. Building a raised platform off the ground can save
you from coming into contact with insects in the soil and under leaf litter
that bite and cause serious itching.
40

Poncho Lean-To

It takes only a short time and minimal equipment to build this lean-to (Figure 5-1).
You need a poncho, 2 to 3 meters of rope or parachute suspension line, three
stakes about 30 centimeters long, and two trees or two poles 2 to 3 meters apart.
Before selecting the trees you will use or the location of your poles, check the
wind direction. Ensure that the back of your lean-to will be into the wind.

To make the lean-to--

 Tie off the hood of the poncho. Pull the drawstring tight, roll the hood
longways, fold it into thirds, and tie it off with the drawstring.
 Cut the rope in half. On one long side of the poncho, tie half of the rope to
the corner grommet. Tie the other half to the other corner grommet.
 Attach a drip stick (about a 10-centimeter stick) to each rope about 2.5
centimeters from the grommet. These drip sticks will keep rainwater from
running down the ropes into the lean-to. Tying strings (about 10
centimeters long) to each grommet along the poncho's top edge will allow
the water to run to and down the line without dripping into the shelter.
 Tie the ropes about waist high on the trees (uprights). Use a round turn and
two half hitches with a quick-release knot.
 Spread the poncho and anchor it to the ground, putting sharpened sticks
through the grommets and into the ground.

If you plan to use the lean-to for more than one night, or you expect rain, make a
center support for the lean-to. Make this support with a line. Attach one end of
the line to the poncho hood and the other end to an overhanging branch. Make
sure there is no slack in the line.
41

Another method is to place a stick upright under the center of the lean-to. This
method, however, will restrict your space and movements in the shelter.

For additional protection from wind and rain, place some brush, your rucksack, or
other equipment at the sides of the lean-to.

To reduce heat loss to the ground, place some type of insulating material, such as
leaves or pine needles, inside your lean-to.

Note: When at rest, you lose as much as 80 percent of your body heat to the
ground.

To increase your security from enemy observation, lower the lean-to's silhouette
by making two changes. First, secure the support lines to the trees at knee height
(not at waist height) using two knee-high sticks in the two center grommets (sides
of lean-to). Second, angle the poncho to the ground, securing it with sharpened
sticks, as above.
42

Poncho Tent

This tent (Figure 5-2) provides a low silhouette. It also protects you from the
elements on two sides. It has, however, less usable space and observation area
than a lean-to, decreasing your reaction time to enemy detection. To make this
tent, you need a poncho, two 1.5- to 2.5-meter ropes, six sharpened sticks about
30 centimeters long, and two trees 2 to 3 meters apart.

To make the tent--

 Tie off the poncho hood in the same way as the poncho lean-to.
 Tie a 1.5- to 2.5-meter rope to the center grommet on each side of the
poncho.
 Tie the other ends of these ropes at about knee height to two trees 2 to 3
meters apart and stretch the poncho tight.
 Draw one side of the poncho tight and secure it to the ground pushing
sharpened sticks through the grommets.
 Follow the same procedure on the other side.

If you need a center support, use the same methods as for the poncho lean-to.
Another center support is an A-frame set outside but over the center of the tent
(Figure 5-3). Use two 90- to 120-centimeter-long sticks, one with a forked end, to
form the A-frame. Tie the hood's drawstring to the A-frame to support the center
of the tent.
43

Three-Pole Parachute Tepee

If you have a parachute and three poles

and the tactical situation allows, make a
parachute tepee. It is easy and takes very
little time to make this tepee. It provides
protection from the elements and can act
as a signaling device by enhancing a small
amount of light from a fire or candle. It is
large enough to hold several people and
their equipment and to allow sleeping,
cooking, and storing firewood.

You can make this tepee using parts of or a whole personnel main or reserve
parachute canopy. If using a standard personnel parachute, you need three poles
3.5 to 4.5 meters long and about 5 centimeters in diameter.

To make this tepee (Figure 5-4)--

 Lay the poles on the ground and lash them together at one end.
 Stand the framework up and spread the poles to form a tripod.
 For more support, place additional poles against the tripod. Five or six
additional poles work best, but do not lash them to the tripod.
 Determine the wind direction and locate the entrance 90 degrees or more
from the mean wind direction.
 Lay out the parachute on the "backside" of the tripod and locate the bridle
loop (nylon web loop) at the top (apex) of the canopy.
 Place the bridle loop over the top of a free-standing pole. Then place the
pole back up against the tripod so that the canopy's apex is at the same
height as the lashing on the three poles.
 Wrap the canopy around one side of the tripod. The canopy should be of
double thickness, as you are wrapping an entire parachute. You need only
wrap half of the tripod, as the remainder of the canopy will encircle the
tripod in the opposite direction.
 Construct the entrance by wrapping the folded edges of the canopy around
two free-standing poles. You can then place the poles side by side to close
the tepee's entrance.
 Place all extra canopy underneath the tepee poles and inside to create a
floor for the shelter.
 Leave a 30- to 50-centimeter opening at the top for ventilation if you
intend to have a fire inside the tepee.
44

One-Pole Parachute Tepee

You need a 14-gore section (normally) of canopy, stakes, a stout center pole, and
inner core and needle to construct this tepee. You cut the suspension lines except
for 40- to 45-centimeter lengths at the canopy's lower lateral band.

To make this tepee (Figure 5-5)--

 Select a shelter site and scribe a circle about 4 meters in diameter on the
ground.
 Stake the parachute material to the ground using the lines remaining at the
lower lateral band.
 After deciding where to place the shelter door, emplace a stake and tie the
first line (from the lower lateral band) securely to it.
 Stretch the parachute material taut to the next line, emplace a stake on the
scribed line, and tie the line to it.
 Continue the staking process until you have tied all the lines.
 Loosely attach the top of the parachute material to the center pole with a
suspension line you previously cut and, through trial and error, determine
the point at which the parachute material will be pulled tight once the
center pole is upright.
 Then securely attach the material to the pole.
 Using a suspension line (or inner core), sew the end gores together leaving
1 or 1.2 meters for a door.
45

No-Pole Parachute Tepee

You use the same materials, except for the center pole, as for the one-pole
parachute tepee.

To make this tepee (Figure 5-6)--

 Tie a line to the top of parachute material with a previously cut suspension
line.
 Throw the line over a tree limb, and tie it to the tree trunk.
 Starting at the opposite side from the door, emplace a stake on the scribed
3.5- to 4.3-meter circle.
 Tie the first line on the lower lateral band.
 Continue emplacing the stakes and tying the lines to them.
 After staking down the material, unfasten the line tied to the tree trunk,
tighten the tepee material by pulling on this line, and tie it securely to the
tree trunk.
46

One-Man Shelter

A one-man shelter you can easily make using a parachute requires a tree and
three poles. One pole should be about 4.5 meters long and the other two about 3
meters long.

To make this shelter (Figure 5-7)--

 Secure the 4.5-meter pole to the tree at about waist height.

 Lay the two 3-meter poles on the ground on either side of and in the same
direction as the 4.5-meter pole.
 Lay the folded canopy over the 4.5 meter pole so that about the same
amount of material hangs on both sides.
 Tuck the excess material under the 3-meter poles, and spread it on the
ground inside to serve as a floor.
 Stake down or put a spreader between the two 3-meter poles at the
shelter's entrance so they will not slide inward.
 Use any excess material to cover the entrance.

The parachute cloth makes this shelter wind resistant, and the shelter is small
enough that it is easily warmed. A candle, used carefully, can keep the inside
temperature comfortable. This shelter is unsatisfactory, however, when snow is
falling as even a light snowfall will cave it in.
47

Parachute Hammock

You can make a hammock using 6 to 8 gores of parachute canopy and two trees
about 4.5 meters apart (Figure 5-8).
48

Field-Expedient Lean-To

If you are in a wooded area and have enough natural materials, you can
make a field-expedient lean-to (Figure 5-9) without the aid of tools or with
only a knife. It takes longer to make this type of shelter than it does to
make other types, but it will protect you from the elements.

You will need two trees (or upright poles) about 2 meters apart; one pole about 2
meters long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter; five to eight poles about 3 meters
long and 2.5 centimeters in diameter for beams; cord or vines for securing the
horizontal support to the trees; and other poles, saplings, or vines to crisscross
the beams.

To make this lean-to--

 Tie the 2-meter pole to the two trees at waist to chest height. This is the
horizontal support. If a standing tree is not available, construct a biped
using Y-shaped sticks or two tripods.
 Place one end of the beams (3-meter poles) on one side of the horizontal
support. As with all lean-to type shelters, be sure to place the lean-to's
backside into the wind.
 Crisscross saplings or vines on the beams.
 Cover the framework with brush, leaves, pine needles, or grass, starting at
the bottom and working your way up like shingling.
 Place straw, leaves, pine needles, or grass inside the shelter for bedding.
49

In cold weather, add to your lean-to's comfort by building a fire reflector wall
(Figure 5-9). Drive four 1.5-meter-long stakes into the ground to support the wall.
Stack green logs on top of one another between the support stakes. Form two
rows of stacked logs to create an inner space within the wall that you can fill with
dirt. This action not only strengthens the wall but makes it more heat reflective.
Bind the top of the support stakes so that the green logs and dirt will stay in
place.

With just a little more effort you can have a drying rack. Cut a few 2-centimeter-
diameter poles (length depends on the distance between the lean-to's horizontal
support and the top of the fire reflector wall). Lay one end of the poles on the
lean-to support and the other end on top of the reflector wall. Place and tie into
place smaller sticks across these poles. You now have a place to dry clothes, meat,
or fish.

Swamp Bed

In a marsh or swamp, or any area with standing water or continually wet ground,
the swamp bed (Figure 5-10) keeps you out of the water. When selecting such a
site, consider the weather, wind, tides, and available materials.

To make a swamp bed--

 Look for four trees clustered in a rectangle, or cut four poles (bamboo is
ideal) and drive them firmly into the ground so they form a rectangle. They
should be far enough apart and strong enough to support your height and
weight, to include equipment.
 Cut two poles that span the width of the rectangle. They, too, must be
strong enough to support your weight.
50

 Secure these two poles to the trees (or poles). Be sure they are high
enough above the ground or water to allow for tides and high water.
 Cut additional poles that span the rectangle's length. Lay them across the
two side poles, and secure them.
 Cover the top of the bed frame with broad leaves or grass to form a soft
sleeping surface.
 Build a fire pad by laying clay, silt, or mud on one comer of the swamp bed
and allow it to dry.

Another shelter designed to get you above and out of the water or wet ground
uses the same rectangular configuration as the swamp bed. You very simply lay
sticks and branches lengthwise on the inside of the trees (or poles) until there is
enough material to raise the sleeping surface above the water level.

Natural Shelters

Do not overlook natural formations that provide shelter. Examples are caves,
rocky crevices, clumps of bushes, small depressions, large rocks on leeward sides
of hills, large trees with low-hanging limbs, and fallen trees with thick branches.
However, when selecting a natural formation--

 Stay away from low ground such as ravines, narrow valleys, or creek beds.
Low areas collect the heavy cold air at night and are therefore colder than
the surrounding high ground. Thick, brushy, low ground also harbors more
insects.
 Check for poisonous snakes, ticks, mites, scorpions, and stinging ants.
 Look for loose rocks, dead limbs, coconuts, or other natural growth than
could fall on your shelter.

Debris Hut

For warmth and ease of construction, this shelter is one of the best. When shelter
is essential to survival, build this shelter.

To make a debris hut (Figure 5-11)--

 Build it by making a tripod with two short stakes and a long ridgepole or by
placing one end of a long ridgepole on top of a sturdy base.
 Secure the ridgepole (pole running the length of the shelter) using the
tripod method or by anchoring it to a tree at about waist height.
 Prop large sticks along both sides of the ridgepole to create a wedge-
shaped ribbing effect. Ensure the ribbing is wide enough to accommodate
your body and steep enough to shed moisture.
51

 Place finer sticks and brush crosswise on the ribbing. These form a
latticework that will keep the insulating material (grass, pine needles and
leaves) from falling through the ribbing into the sleeping area.
 Add light, dry, if possible, soft debris over the ribbing until the insulating
material is at least 1 meter thick--the thicker the better.
 Place a 30-centimeter layer of insulating material inside the shelter.
 At the entrance, pile insulating material that you can drag to you once
inside the shelter to close the entrance or build a door.
 As a final step in constructing this shelter, add shingling material or
branches on top of the debris layer to prevent the insulating material from
blowing away in a storm.
52

Tree-Pit Snow Shelter

If you are in a cold, snow-covered area where evergreen trees grow and you have
a digging tool, you can make a tree-pit shelter (Figure 5-12).

To make this shelter--

 Find a tree with bushy branches that provides overhead cover.

 Dig out the snow around the tree trunk until you reach the depth and
diameter you desire, or until you reach the ground.
 Pack the snow around the top and the inside of the hole to provide
support.
 Find and cut other evergreen boughs. Place them over the top of the pit to
give you additional overhead cover. Place evergreen boughs in the bottom
of the pit for insulation.

See Chapter 15 for other arctic or cold weather shelters.

Beach Shade Shelter

This shelter protects you from the sun, wind, rain, and heat. It is easy to make
using natural materials.

To make this shelter (Figure 5-13)--

 Find and collect driftwood or other natural material to use as support

beams and as a digging tool.
53

 Select a site that is above the high water mark.

 Scrape or dig out a trench running north to south so that it receives the
least amount of sunlight. Make the trench long and wide enough for you to
lie down comfortably.
 Mound soil on three sides of the trench. The higher the mound, the more
space inside the shelter.
 Lay support beams (driftwood or other natural material) that span the
trench on top of the mound to form the framework for a roof.
 Enlarge the shelter's entrance by digging out more sand in front of it.
 Use natural materials such as grass or leaves to form a bed inside the
shelter.

Desert Shelters

In an arid environment, consider the time, effort, and material needed to make a
shelter. If you have material such as a poncho, canvas, or a parachute, use it along
with such terrain features as rock outcropping, mounds of sand, or a depression
between dunes or rocks to make your shelter.

Using rock outcroppings--

 Anchor one end of your poncho (canvas, parachute, or other material) on

the edge of the outcrop using rocks or other weights.
 Extend and anchor the other end of the poncho so it provides the best
possible shade.

In a sandy area--
54

 Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the
shelter.
 Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound using sand or other
weights.
 Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it provides the best
possible shade.

Note: If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 30-centimeter to 45-
centimeter airspace between the two halves. This airspace will reduce the
temperature under the shelter.

A belowground shelter (Figure 5-14) can reduce the midday heat as much as 16 to
22 degrees C (30 to 40 degrees F). Building it, however, requires more time and
effort than for other shelters. Since your physical effort will make you sweat more
and increase dehydration, construct it before the heat of the day.

To make this shelter--

 Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a

trench 45 to 60 centimeters deep and long and wide enough for you to lie
in comfortably.
 Pile the sand you take from the trench to form a mound around three
sides.
55

 On the open end of the trench, dig out more sand so you can get in and out
of your shelter easily.
 Cover the trench with your material.
 Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights.

If you have extra material, you can further decrease the midday temperature in
the trench by securing the material 30 to 45 centimeters above the other cover.
This layering of the material will reduce the inside temperature 11 to 22 degrees
C (20 to 40 degrees F).

Another type of belowground shade shelter is of similar construction, except all

sides are open to air currents and circulation. For maximum protection, you need
a minimum of two layers of parachute material (Figure 5-15). White is the best
color to reflect heat; the innermost layer should be of darker material.
56

Building a Fire
……………………………………………………………………………………………
Clear the area where you are going to build the fire of twigs and leaves etc. at
least 1 meter in diameter (to prevent the fire from spreading). You will need 3
types of fuel: 1) tinder - dry material that easily ignites with a spark, 2) kindling -
small combustible material that will increase the temperature of the fire, and 3)
fuel - bigger, harder wood, preferably hard dry logs.

The Bow Drill Fire Kit

The easiest way to make fire by friction (that is, by "rubbing two sticks
together") is the bow drill fire. Another method is the hand drill fire, which
is harder to learn, but has the advantage of not requiring cordage, and
therefore being easier if you had to start completely from scratch using only
naturally occurring materials.

Fire making without using modern equipment is a two-step process. The

first step is to make a glowing hot ember, or "coal". The second step is to
place the coal into a tinder bundle and blow it until you get an actual flame.

The bow drill fire requires four basic parts: The bow, the drill, the fireboard
(also called the hearth or base board), and the handpiece. It is also very
useful to have a fifth part, some kind of flat board (cardboard or wood work
fine) to place under the fireboard to catch the wood dust as it forms into a
coal. An overview of the assembled bow drill is shown below. Note that the
pointed end of the drill goes upward, with the blunt end at the bottom
doing the drilling. You also need a tinder bundle.
57

Bow drill fire making kit assembled and ready to go.

Note the correct body position, as shown in the picture above. There is a
proper body position for the bow drill, and you will find it much easier if
you adopt it. For a right-handed position, kneel on your right knee, with
your left foot supporting the unused end of the fireboard and holding it
firmly in position. Your right hand holds the bow and your left hand holds
the handpiece at the top of the drill spindle, with your left forearm braced
on your left thigh close to your knee. A left-handed position is all that with
left and right sides exchanged.

Note also the correct orientation for the bowstring. It is wrapped around
the drill spindle so that the drill is on the outside of the string. That is, if you
drew a straight line along the bowstring (not including the bit that wraps
around the drill itself), the string is between the bow and the drill. This
prevents the string from cutting into itself while you are drilling. Also note
that the string is wrapped around the drill so that the upper part of the
string comes off the bow towards the end you are holding. This makes it
easier to control the bow.
58

This is the bow that was shipped with the kit. It has had some use, and
before long the cord will need replacing. If you want to make your own,
construction of the bow is not difficult. The wood type is not important, as
long as it has a bit of spring in it.

The upper drill is the one shipped with the kit, after use. Note that the
blunt end (on the right of the photo) is the lower end, that does the drilling.

This is a close-up of the fireboard, showing the end with holes where I have
made fires. The original fireboard as shipped with the kit had one hole
burned in, with the notch already cut. I have been able to get about three
fires from each hole before drilling almost all the way through the board.
59

This is the handpiece. It is a good idea to smear some Vaseline (or animal
fat if in a real survival situation) into the hole and onto the pointed end of
the drill, to reduce friction. You want plenty of friction (which is what
causes the heat) at the lower end of the drill, and as little as possible at the
top.

This is oakum tinder, also purchased from Thomas J. Elpel's website. One
pound is enough for hundreds of fires if you are stingy with how much you
use.

This is a small tinder bundle, made from oakum tinder. Some people call
this a "bird's nest" as it looks a lot like a small bird's nest.

I like to see how small I can make the tinder bundles and still get a fire.
Normally you would make it a lot bigger than this (more like an actual bird's
60

nest).

For today's fire I made a new hole in the fireboard, as the old holes are
almost worn through. Start with a knife or other sharp object to make a
pilot hole. Then you start drilling (with the bow drill set up as if you were
trying to make fire), until you get some smoke and the hole is a bit charred.
You are not trying to get fire at this stage, just to burn in the hole.

The hole after it has been burned in (on the right of the picture). The Swiss
Army Knife saw as used to cut the notch is also shown.

Cut the notch almost to the centre of the hole. After the notch is cut, you
are ready to go.
61

I had some wood powder left over from a previous attempt (where the hole
was too old, almost going right through the board, so I had to stop). I put
that in the notch because the coal forms faster if there is already some
powder there. The proper term for the wood powder is "punk".

Now it is time to start drilling. You begin slowly, perhaps one second per
complete stroke back and forth with the bow. Press down with the
handpiece, but not too hard at first. As you drill, wood dust (punk) will fall
into the notch, and you will start to see smoke. You need to heat it all up to
something like 800 degrees before it will ignite, so take your time here.

I like to count as it all seems to happen faster when I count. After counting
to about 30, maybe 50, there should be a fair bit of smoke. At this point, go
really hard and fast for a bit longer, maybe another 20 or 30 counts,
although you may need more. When there has been a lot of smoke, for a
while, stop drilling and take the drill away. Blow gently on the pile of wood
dust. If it keeps smoking after you have stopped drilling, you have a coal! If
it goes out, you need to keep drilling. It is easier in hot, dry weather than in
cold, damp weather.

Once you get a coal, there is no hurry, it will smoulder away for quite a
while before it goes out, so you can take your time. (When I was taking this
photo series the camera batteries ran out just as I got the coal. I had time to
go back into the house and change the batteries before placing the coal into
the tinder bundle).
62

Here is the smouldering ember, or "coal", which has formed from wood
powder and got hot enough to stay lit. Blow gently on the coal to make it
spread, then let it rest for a few-several seconds. Do that a few times until
the coal has spread almost right through the pile of dust.

Then you carefully lift the fireboard away, and transfer the coal (a small
stick is helpful) into the tinder bundle. Here you can see the glowing coal in
the tinder bundle. I was gently blowing on the coal to make it glow more as
I took the photo.

Wrap the coal up inside the tinder bundle. Hold the tinder bundle between
your fingers, alternately blowing air through it and then letting it rest for a
63

few-several seconds.

The tinder bundle should suddenly burst into flame (be careful of your
fingers), and now you have fire!

If you are new to making fire by friction (that is, by rubbing two sticks
together), the easiest way to do it is the bow drill fire. For beginners to
friction fire, I would recommend starting with the bow drill fire. The hand
drill fire is harder to learn than the bow drill, but has the advantage of not
requiring cordage, and therefore being easier if you had to start completely
from scratch using only naturally occurring materials.

Fire making without using modern equipment is a two-step process. The

first step is to make a glowing hot ember, or "coal". The second step is to
place the coal into a tinder bundle and blow it until you get an actual flame.

The hand drill fire requires only two basic parts, the drill, and the fireboard
(also called the hearth or base board). It is also very useful to have some
kind of flat board (cardboard or wood work fine) to place under the
fireboard to catch the wood dust as it forms into a coal. The two pieces in
the hand drill fire making kit are shown below. Note that the thinner end of
the drill goes upward, with the fatter, blunter end at the bottom doing the
drilling. This will give you more grip as you drill, and more friction. You also
need a tinder bundle (see below).
64

The hand drill fire making kit is very simple, just two pieces.

As far as I know, the body position for the hand drill is fairly arbitrary. Most
people sit on the ground, cross-legged, with one foot sticking out slightly
holding the fireboard down. The hand drill can be hard to learn, so it is best
to make it as easy for yourself as possible when you are starting out with it.
The first couple of times I made fire with the hand drill kit, I used locking
pliers (also known as "vice-grips") to hold the fireboard firmly to the
cardboard base board. This way everything was held together firmly, so I
did not have to concern myself with the boards slipping around and
scattering the wood dust.

You can use locking pliers to hold the boards together. Today was the first
time I did not use these; I used my foot to hold the boards down.
65

Another aid for beginners (I am still a beginner at hand drill fire making) is
to use thumb loops. Hook your thumbs into the loops to pull down on the
drill, as you drill. This makes it a lot easier. The top piece was made from a
curtain rod end with a hold drilled in each side to attach the cord.

You can see all the parts I used for this fire in the picture below. There is a
bit of wood dust left over from an earlier attempt at making fire—it's good
to keep this so you can place it in the notch next time, and get a fire quicker
(as I do further down this page).
66

This is oakum tinder, also purchased from Thomas J. Elpel's website. One
pound is enough for hundreds of fires if you are stingy with how much you
use.

This is a small tinder bundle, made from oakum tinder. Some people call
this a "bird's nest" as it looks a lot like a small bird's nest.

For today's fire I made a new hole in the fireboard. Start with a knife or
other sharp object to make a pilot hole. Rub the drill back and forth using
your palms until you get some smoke and the hole is a bit charred. You are
not trying to get fire at this stage, just to burn in the hole.
67

The hole after it has been burned in (the leftmost hole in the picture).

Cut the notch almost to the centre of the hole (again, the leftmost hole).
After the notch is cut, you are ready to go.

I had some wood powder left over from a previous attempt. I put that in
the notch because the coal forms faster if there is already some powder
there. The proper term for the wood powder is "punk".

Now it is time to start drilling. I haven't got a photo of this yet because
there was no-one else at home to take one while I was drilling. You begin
slowly, perhaps half a second per complete stroke back and forth with your
hands. Pull down with your thumbs hooked through the thumb loops, but
not too hard at first. As you drill, wood dust (punk) will fall into the notch,
68

and you will start to see smoke. You need to heat it all up to something like
800 degrees before it will ignite, so take your time here.

Keep going until you are getting a consistent stream of smoke at the
bottom of the drill. Then go really hard and fast for a bit longer, maybe
another 50 strokes up and down, although you may need more. When
there has been a lot of smoke, for a while, stop drilling and take the drill
away. Blow gently on the pile of wood dust. If it keeps smoking after you
have stopped drilling, you have a coal! If it goes out, you need to keep
drilling. It is easier in hot, dry weather than in cold, damp weather.

Once you get a coal, there is no hurry; it will smoulder away for quite a
while before it goes out, and so you can take your time.

Here is the smouldering ember, or "coal", which has formed from wood
powder and got hot enough to stay lit. Blow gently on the coal to make it
spread, then let it rest for a few-several seconds. Do that a few times until
the coal has spread almost right through the pile of wood dust.

The glowing coal in the notch. I was gently blowing on the coal to make it
glow more as I took the photo, and I turned off the camera's flash. Then you
carefully lift the fireboard away, and transfer the coal (a small stick is
helpful) into the tinder bundle.
69

Wrap the coal up inside the tinder bundle. Hold the tinder bundle between
your fingers, alternately blowing air through it and then letting it rest for a
few-several seconds.

The tinder bundle should suddenly burst into flame (be careful of your
fingers), and now you have fire!
70

Western Red cedar

The kit demonstrated in my bow drill fire page is made from Western Red
Cedar (Western Red cedar), scientific name Thuja plicata, which is a North
American wood. It is mentioned on page 296 of Reader's Digest North
American Wildlife, which is the book recommended by Jon Young for
his Kamana One course. It is a type of Thuja, which is closely related to the
Cypress Pines (Cypresses), scientific name Cupressus.

Both the base board and the drill are made of this wood.

If you try using commercially sold pine wood, make sure that it has not
been treated with fire retardant chemicals.

The upper drill is the Western Red cedar one shipped with the kit I bought
from Thomas J. Elpel.

The lower drill is made from a grass tree (Xanthorrhoea) flower stalk, as
described below.

The best known Australian wood for friction fire making is the Grass Tree,
scientific name Xanthorrhoea species.
71

Xanthorrhoea: Grass Tree. Photo: Mitchell Park, Cattai NSW

The flower stalk as seen in the photo above can be used for both the
baseboard (for the bow drill and hand drill fires) and the drill itself for the
72

bow drill fire. I used the fattest stalk I could find and split in two down the
middle for the base board, and the thinnest stalk I could find for the drill.

These plants are usually found on ridges (that is, high up) rather than down
in valleys. The flower stalks fall away after the plant has finished flowering,
so you can find them lying on the ground without having to damage any
living plants by taking the stalk from the plant itself.

Xanthorrhoea: Grass Tree fireboard

On the picture of the fireboard above the larger holes were used for
the bow drill fire making method and the smaller holes for the hand drill
fire making method. The smaller hand drill holes are fresh and have not
been used to make a fire, while the larger bow drill holes have been used to
make several fires. I have found that I could get about three fires per hole
with the bow drill before the hole was drilled all the way through the
fireboard.
73

Xanthorrhoea: Grass Tree fireboard (view from the side/underneath)

The fireboard (base board) in the pictures above was made from a really fat
Grass Tree stalk split in half. To split the wood in half I used a large thick
knife and hammered the back of the knife blade with another piece of
wood.
74

Always light your fire from the upwind side. Make sure to lay your tinder, kindling,
and fuel so that your fire will burn as long as you need it. Igniters provide the
initial heat required to start the tinder burning. They fall into two categories:
modern methods and primitive methods.

Modern Methods

Modem ignites use modem devices--items we normally think of to start a fire.

Matches

Make sure these matches are waterproof. Also, store them in a waterproof
container along with a dependable striker pad.

Convex Lens

Use this method (Figure 7-6) only on bright, sunny days. The lens can come from
binoculars, camera, telescopic sights, or magnifying glasses. Angle the lens to
concentrate the sun's rays on the tinder. Hold the lens over the same spot until
the tinder begins to smoulder. Gently blow or fan the tinder into flame, and apply
it to the fire lay.
75

Metal Match

Place a flat, dry leaf under your tinder with a portion exposed. Place the tip of the
metal match on the dry leaf, holding the metal match in one hand and a knife in
the other. Scrape your knife against the metal match to produce sparks. The
sparks will hit the tinder. When the tinder starts to smolder, proceed as above.

Battery

Use a battery to generate a spark. Use of this method depends on the type of
battery available. Attach a wire to each terminal. Touch the ends of the bare wires
together next to the tinder so the sparks will ignite it.

Gunpowder

Often, you will have ammunition with your equipment. If so, carefully extract the
bullet from the shell casing, and use the gunpowder as tinder. A spark will ignite
the powder. Be extremely careful when extracting the bullet from the case.

Primitive Methods

Primitive ignites are those attributed to our early ancestors.

Flint and Steel

The direct spark method is the easiest of the primitive methods to use. The flint
and steel method is the most reliable of the direct spark methods. Strike a flint or
other hard, sharp-edged rock edge with a piece of carbon steel (stainless steel will
not produce a good spark). This method requires a loose-jointed wrist and
practice. When a spark has caught in the tinder, blow on it. The spark will spread
and burst into flames.

Fire-Plow

The fire-plow (Figure 7-7) is a friction method of ignition. You rub a hardwood
shaft against a softer wood base. To use this method, cut a straight groove in the
base and plow the blunt tip of the shaft up and down the groove. The plowing
action of the shaft pushes out small particles of wood fibers. Then, as you apply
more pressure on each stroke, the friction ignites the wood particles.
76

Bow and Drill

The technique of starting a fire with a bow and drill (Figure 7-8) is simple, but you
must exert much effort and be persistent to produce a fire. You need the
following items to use this method:

 Socket. The socket is an easily grasped stone or piece of hardwood or bone

with a slight depression in one side. Use it to hold the drill in place and to
apply downward pressure.
 Drill. The drill should be a straight, seasoned hardwood stick about 2
centimetres in diameter and 25 centimetres long. The top end is round and
the low end blunt (to produce more friction).
 Fire board. Its size is up to you. A seasoned softwood board about 2.5
centimetres thick and 10 centimetres wide is preferable. Cut a depression
about 2 centimetres from the edge on one side of the board. On the
underside, make a V-shaped cut from the edge of the board to the
depression.
 Bow. The bow is a resilient, green stick about 2.5 centimetres in diameter
and a string. The type of wood is not important. The bowstring can be any
type of cordage. You tie the bowstring from one end of the bow to the
other, without any slack.
77

To use the bow and drill, first prepare the fire lay. Then place a bundle of tinder
under the V-shaped cut in the fire board. Place one foot on the fire board. Loop
the bowstring over the drill and place the drill in the pre-cut depression on the
fire board. Place the socket, held in one hand, on the top of the drill to hold it in
position. Press down on the drill and saw the bow back and forth to twirl the drill.
Once you have established a smooth motion, apply more downward pressure and
work the bow faster. This action will grind hot black powder into the tinder,
causing a spark to catch. Blow on the tinder until it ignites.
78

Satisfying Hunger
……………………………………………………………………………………………
The highest energy foods are animals, seeds, tubers and inner shoots. Seeds are
the most energy-rich plant foods but they are not practical survival foods (take a
long time to harvest and usually contain toxins) (Brand et. al. 1985). Tubers along
with animal foods should be the focus of survival. Water courses should always be
searched first, most are home to a least on kind of tuber bearing plant. All rushes
and sedges have tubers that can be eaten raw. Water courses are also rich in
animal foods and fruits and often lead to rescue.

Bracken, orchids and lilies also have edible tubers. The inner hearts of tree ferns,
palms and grasstrees are very useful survival foods, although in large amounts
may cause digestive upset. Many kinds of sedges have inner white leaf bases that
can be eaten raw. Fruits that are eaten by bats are more likely to be edible than
the fruits that are eaten by birds. Pale coloured gums from wattles and other
trees (if palatable), can be eaten in small amounts but may cause diarrhoea or
constipation.

Animals are ideal survival foods; they contain more energy, fat and protein than
plant foods. Fish such as Barramundi, Black bream, Herring, Bass, Mullet, Catfish
and Eels are often found in freshwater systems and are very filling if they can be
caught. Kangaroo’s, Wallaby’s, Bettong, Potoroo’s, Wombat, Platypus, Koala,
Echidna’s, Bats, Possums, Gliders, Rats and Bandicoots are all found in the
Mitchell park Region and are very suitable provided you can catch them. Ideal
staple foods are earthworms, Moths, Stick insects, Cicadas, Lizards, Snakes (avoid
venom glands), Tortoises, Turtles and Shellfish. Look under rocks and logs for
termites (very nutritious), centipedes and grubs, and swat mosquitoes and March
flies, which taste sweet. Avoid Cane toads, Green frogs, Puffer fish, Colourful
caterpillars, Stink bugs and Wasps.

Wild foods should be cooked where possible, but remember that heat does not
destroy the more dangerous toxins. Leaves, fungi, large seeds, wild beans and
peas should be avoided because they are not worth the risk of poisoning. These
exceptions aside, learn to trust your sense of taste.
79

Figure Four Trap

There are three straight pieces of wood, and seven cuts, to make the standard
version of the figure four trap. The three pieces are referred to here as the
vertical, the diagonal, and the trigger (which is horizontal). See the final picture at
the end of this page. Use the thickest piece as the diagonal. In my version each
piece is about one foot (30cm) long (actually the trigger piece, the thinnest, is
longer than that, more like 45cm). The wood was from a dead gum tree branch I
found in the backyard. The particular advantage of the figure four traps is that it
does not need cordage.

This is the first cut, a two-sided flat edge on the vertical piece.

This is cut two, the notch at the top of the diagonal. I made mine
too close to the end of the piece (that is, too close to the top of the trap,
when it is assembled). That means that my trap could fail, because the rock
or log used as the weight might land on the vertical, and not fall any
further. Yours should be made a bit further along the piece.

To cut a notch quickly, I used the saw of the Swiss army knife to cut the
short edge of the notch. That is, the cut that goes straight into the wood,
not at an angle. Then I used the chisel to make the angled cut, cutting
towards the first cut.
80

This is cut three, a flat edge at the tail of the diagonal. The flat edge and the
notch at the top (the previous cut) should be in the same plane, that is,
both will be aligned horizontally when the trap is assembled.

Cut four is a notch at the end of the trigger piece.

Cuts five and six are two flat faces cut into the bottom of the vertical piece,
going all the way to the bottom. This creates a square edge (i.e. a 90 degree
angle), that the notch on the trigger (cut seven) will fit into. These cuts need
to be made in the correct orientation—see the picture below.
81

Here is the completed vertical.

Cut seven is a long shallow notch cut into the trigger. This is the point that
will hold the whole trap together when it is assembled. When the trap is set
up, and then disturbed (hopefully by the animal you are intending to trap),
this notch will be pushed away from the square edge of cuts 5 and 6, and
the whole thing will fall down.

This cut also needs to be made in the correct orientation. If you look at the
picture below, cut seven is located on the faraway face of the
trigger/horizontal piece, where it mates with the square edge on the
vertical. The orientation of this notch (cut 7) is therefore vertical. That is, 90
degrees rotated as compared to the notch on the end of the trigger (shown
at the right of the picture below).
82

This is the complete figure four traps. Where my hand is, you would place a
large rock (e.g. a 35 kilogram rock) big enough so that part of the rock rests
on the ground, and part on the top of the trap. When triggered (by an
animal disturbing the trigger piece), the whole thing will fall down, the rock
crushing the animal. You could also use a fallen tree log, placing one end on
the top of the trap.

The whole set of cuts can be memorised in this way: The first cut is a flat
edge, and then the notch that that edge will fit into. Then another flat edge,
then its respective notch. Then the square edge (cuts 5 and 6) and then
finally its notch (cut 7). So it goes edge, notch, edge, notch, edges, and
notch.

To make the figure four trap more sensitive, you could make a further cut
(that would be cut 8), which would be to cut away the square edge (on the
vertical piece) below where the trigger notch will fit, going all the way down
to the bottom of the vertical. Then the trigger notch will only be able to
mate with the vertical square edge in one place—and any downward
disturbance of the trigger will trigger the trap, whereas it might not have
without this extra cut. This cut has not been made in my photographs of the
trap.
83

The Paiute Trap

There are three straight pieces of wood, plus a smaller piece, to make the
Paiute trap. There are only two cuts required, one flat edge and one notch,
compared to seven for the figure four traps. The four pieces are referred to
here as the vertical, the diagonal, the bait stick, and the trigger (which is the
smaller piece). You also need a short piece of cordage; about a foot (30 cm)
should suffice unless you are making a very large trap. I used homemade
cordage, that I made from Lomandra (Mat-rush) leaves, although almost
any kind of string, cord of rope will work. It does not need to be very strong.
You also need a weight. The "rock" I have used here is a piece of broken up
concrete slab that I found in the garden.

The parts of the Paiute trap (not including the rock), from top to bottom:
the vertical, the diagonal (tied to the trigger with a piece of cordage) and
the bait stick.

Although the lengths are not critical, in the trap shown here the sizes are 38
cm (15 inches), 35 cm (14 inches), 28 cm (11 inches) and 9 cm (3.5 inches).
Gregory Davenport says to make the diagonal about 2/3 the length of the
vertical. The wood was from dead gum tree (Eucalyptus pipertia) branches I
found in the backyard. I used a large heavy knife with a saw back for most
of this work. You could use many kinds of tools. Be sure always to cut away
from yourself!

Below is the assembled and set Paiute deadfall trap. This trap is very
sensitive, as the bait stick is balanced precariously between the rock and
the trigger (the small stick). Weight from the rock is bearing downwards on
the top of the diagonal. Since the diagonal is notched into the top of the
84

vertical piece, the weight makes the diagonal want to swing outwards (to
the left in this picture). The diagonal is prevented from swinging outwards
by the cord, that is, it is pulling on the cord (pulling to the left in this
picture). The cord wraps (half a complete circle) around the vertical piece,
and is held at this end by the short trigger piece, which it is tied to. This
makes this end (the front most end in the picture) of the trigger piece want
to move to the right. The trigger piece is itself held by the end of the bait
stick pushing on it (also to the left in the picture). If the bait stick or trigger
piece is disturbed even slightly, the entire assembly falls to the ground, and
the heavy rock falls on top of anything underneath. This is all much easier
to see in action than to describe.

Assembled Paiute deadfall trap. Bait would go on the lower, horizontal

stick.

This is the first cut, a two-sided flat edge at the top of the vertical piece.
85

This is cut two, the notch at the top of the diagonal.

To cut a notch quickly, you can use the saw of a Swiss army knife to cut the
short edge of the notch. That is, the edge that goes straight into the wood,
not at an angle. You can also use a knife, by placing the knife, with the
sharp edge facing downward, across the stick, and then strike the back of
the knife blade with a piece of wood. Do not use a steel (such as a hammer)
or a rock to strike the knife blade or you may damage your knife. After
making this incision, finish the notch by cutting towards it with a sharp knife
(or chisel).

This is a close up of the above two cuts when the trap is assembled, with
the flat edge of the vertical fitting into the notch of the diagonal.

Close up of the trigger, with the Paiute trap set. The upper part of the cord
86

is holding the weight and pulling to the left. The lower part of the cord is
just the loose end, which could be cut a lot closer to the stick than I have
made it. I didn't want to cut the cord because it took me so long to make it.

Another close up of the trigger, taken from a higher angle of view. The
leftmost part of the cord is holding the weight, with the loose end hanging
down closer to the centre of the picture. The bait stick (the rightmost piece)
is being pressed downwards and leftwards by the rock. It is pushing on the
right-lower end of the small trigger piece. The cord is tied to the trigger
piece and is pulling in the opposite direction.

Close up of the cord connecting the lower end of the diagonal to the
trigger.
87

Deadfall Trap
The trap is a deadfall trap, as is the figure four trap, and the Paiute trap,
meaning that a heavy weight is set up so that it will fall on the prey animal
when the trigger is sprung.The advantage of this trap over the figure four
trap, and many other deadfall traps, is that the trigger system is set up
independantly to the weight—meaning that it is much weight. The trap can
also be used as a trigger for many other situations (other than to let a
weight fall as in a deadfall trap), such as to release a snare loop.

The trap consists of a long, springy piece of wood (which I will refer to as
the spring), three stakes to hammer into the ground, a stick to hold the
weight, a shorter stick which functions as the trigger, some cord, and a
weight. The spring must be made of old, dead wood, not green, freshly
picked wood as this will not have sufficient spring to it.

The trap is shown below, with the spring and trigger set but with no weight
set. The weight would be supported by the stick that is seen lying down in
the bottom left corner of the photo. The trigger is shown just to the right of
this stick. When the trigger is disturbed, the spring is released, and moves
(up in this picture), pulling the stick out from under the weight, allowing the
weight to fall. The spring is held in place at three points—tied at one end
with the cord (left of picture), and by the two stakes shown at the upper
right and centre. The position of the stakes is such that they hold the spring
when it is pulled towards the bottom of the picture. It is helpful to hammer
in these two stakes at a slight angle, so that the upper end of the stake
slopes slightly towards the spring. This has the effect of pushing the spring
towards the ground, holding it firmly in place.
88

Overview of the springpole deadfall trap, with trigger set but no weight set
up.

The photo below shows a close-up of the business end of the trap, set up
and with acardboard box used as a weight. In reality you would use a heavy
weight, such as a large rock. The trigger is the (almost) vertical stick in the
lower centre of the photo with cordage tied to each end of it.Close-up of
the business end of the trap with cardboard box used as dummy weight.

A close-up of the three stakes that are hammered into the ground is shown
below. I used the middle stake as the one supporting the trigger piece as
the forked part on the left of the stake made it easier to set up the trigger,
however this forked part is not essential and is not present (i.e. the end of
89

the stake is straight, like the other two stakes) in the actual book version of

the trap.

Close-up of the three stakes that are hammered into the ground.

This is a close-up of the trigger piece. It has a flat side cut into it and a small
notch as shown.

This is the trigger piece shown from a different angle to above.

90

This is the set trigger. It is balanced precariously on the stake that is

hammered into the ground, and held under tension by the cord at the
upper left (which is attached to the moving end of the spring). Note that
the assembled and set trigger does not itself touch the ground. The loop of
cordage at the lower end of the trigger is not tied tightly. The bait would be
placed at the top of the trigger piece, or in any fashion so that when an
animal nears the trap, the trigger is disturbed.

When I first made the springpole deadfall trap, I used this cord, which was
very cheap (maybe $2) from a supermarket. This cord was not very good,
because knots tied in it came undone by themselves very easily.
91

This is "550 paracord", which I used for the spring pole deadfall trap after
discovering that the cord shown above was not much good. It takes knots
very easily, and is supposed to have a breaking strain of 550 pounds, which
is 250 kilograms, quite impressive considering how thin and pliable it is. It
consists of an outer sheath and about 7 inner strands, which can be pulled
apart and used for many survival purposes, such as sewing or fishing. You
can get it here from LEGEAR in Australia.
92

An Animal Track

Before you scroll down any further, do you know what kind of animal made
the track below?

The track in the photo looks like a dog track, because it has four toe pads all
about the same size, and it also has claws. If I lived in another part of the
world, it might also be a coyote (without considering anything else about
the track). Or what about a fox, could it be a fox?

If I had taken the photo with a ruler (or some other object such as a coin) to
indicate the scale of the picture, it would obviously not be a fox since the
track is way too large.

Before you scroll down any further, do you know what kind of animal made
the track below?
93

Perhaps having some idea of the scale of the track is a clue...

94

If you are not from Australia, you might have found that one hard. Its not a
giant bird, but a macropod (a kangaroo-like animal). From the size of the
track and the area that it was taken in, it is a reasonable guess that the
track was left by a swamp wallaby.

The signs animals leave on the ground can be more revealing than any book
written by man, but unfortunately few people are able to see these signs
and fewer still can read them.

To understand something of the behaviour of animals one must realise that

the development of their senses is markedly different to mankind's, and
therefore where we obtain information through our eyes and ears, one
animal may obtain the same information through its sense of smell and
another through its ability to detect temperature changes, or through
vibrations.

Where man communicates with man through speech, some forms of animal
life communicate through telepathy. You see this in a flock of pigeons which
turn in flight as one bird.
95

This book broadly deals with some of these special characteristics

explaining how knowledge of the 'sensitivity' of the creature is useful, and
how the animal's tracks provide a reliable indicator to its habits.

The whole area covered in this book, if practised, leads to a remarkable

development of one's powers of observation and deduction.

Simple deduction

To be a successful trapper you must learn first to observe, and then

to make the correct deduction from your observation. For example, if you
see a bird move over the ground in a series of hops it would leave tracks
like these.

You agree that these would be the tracks of a hopping bird?

To know that a bird hops on the ground tells you that it is normally
unaccustomed to being on the ground. This is turn leads to the conclusion
that, being unaccustomed to living on the ground, it therefore does not
feed on the ground. Where else then might it feed?

Your answer would be that it may find its food either in the air or on shrubs
or trees.

But you observe that most birds that look for food in trees walk along the
branches if they feed on fruit or flower blossoms and that the birds which
feed on insects hop from branch to branch. Your final deduction is that
birds which leave hopping tracks on the ground are birds which capture
their food (in the form of insects) in the air, and so you make a rule,
'hopping birds are insect eaters'.

In a general way this is true, but there are exceptions to all these general
rules, and not all insect eating birds are hoppers, and not all ground
hopping birds are insect eaters. (Consider your pet canary or the lovely
painted finches, both of which are ground hopping, and both of which are
grain or seed eaters.)
 96

Now consider tracks which look like this.

First, these are made by a bird which walks, not hops. Therefore it is
accustomed to finding some, or all of its food on the ground. Being a
ground feeding bird it may either:

 feed on grain or fallen fruit,

 feed on ground living creatures,

 feed on flesh which it finds on the ground.

If it feeds on grain or fallen fruit it will not have the centre toe development
that would be needed by a bird which had to scratch or dig for its food, nor
would it have the rear claw development required by a flesh eater.

These, therefore, are the tracks of a ground feeding bird which, not having
a digging claw, nor having talons, MUST be a grain or fruit eater.
97

Notice the development of the centre toe, and powerful claw. This is the
mark of a ground feeding bird which scratches or digs for its food. It is a
ground insect eater.

Here are four short and powerful toes with strong claws particularly on the
hind toe. These are the talon feet of a ground feeder which lives on flesh.
The foot tracks of a hawk and eagle, or a crow.

Naturally the place where the tracks are observed has a bearing on reading
the correct answer, and if the tracks are found on the edge of a swamp or
marsh the answer could be quite different from the answer if the tracks
were observed a long way from water.

Tracks read as those of a grain eating ground feeder in forest land could
correctly be read, if the same tracks were seen in mud, or by a reedy
swamp edge, as tracks of a non-swimming, flesh-eating water bird.

Tracks such as these are easily and correctly read.

98

The web-footed track of a swimmer such as duck, swan, or geese.

In the animal kingdom the reading of tracks is equally simple. Consider

these two - what is the feature you first notice?

It is the single or double thumb, the prehensile digit, which is the mark of
every true tree climbing animal. Look at your own hand. Can you climb
trees?

There are exceptions to this, as to the other general rules. For instance the
tree climbing kangaroo of North Queensland, which has a prehensile tail.
(Incidentally the domestic cat is not a true tree climber. It can 'claw' its way
up a tree bill it cannot 'climb', as, say, a monkey climbs.)
99

In these tracks the claws of the centre toes are most prominent, and you
are correct if your deduction is that these are the tracks of an earth digger,
or burrower. The prehensile thumb is undeveloped, you notice.

The digging claws may be on fore or hind feet. Generally the fore feet show
them most sharply, but whether on front or hind feet, they are the
invariable mark of the digger.

These tracks show neither the prehensile thumb nor the digging claw.

If you deduce that they are the tracks of flesh eating animals you would be
correct, but why?

The answer is that the tracks show pronounced 'toes', and that toes, when
not used for climbing or digging, both of which call for special development,
have another special use in that they give the loot a 'springboard' when
running, and so you make the deduction that these are the tracks of fast
running animals, and they are not grazing animals because no grazing
animal shows 'toes', unless you recognise the hoof of a cow or horse,
sheep, etc., as 'tips' of toes or 'toenails', which they really are.

These tracks are made by the grass and herbage eaters. Having neither
climbing thumbs, to escape from enemies by climbing, nor digging tools, to
100

escape by burrowing, their only means of escape is by running. Therefore

you may decide that animals which have cloven hoofs are very fast running.

Tracks indicate habits

Tracks made by animals on the ground, when read correctly, show the
pattern of the animal's habits. This calls for continuous and careful
observation. It is important to recognise the fact that animals, and all living
creatures, are as much creatures of habit as human beings. A particular
animal will follow the same track to and from water day after day. It will
hunt in the same area continually, and only leave the area when driven out
by fire, flood or drought. Even then the move is only temporary, and it will
return when conditions once again are favourable.

This 'habit-forming' characteristic of animals makes it possible for the

experienced trapper to predict the animal's movements, and so he selects
the sites for his traps or snares, certain that they will be visited.

In the bush you will find many animal trails. These are the 'roads' of the
bush creatures. They travel over them continually backwards and forwards,
to and from their resting places to their feeding grounds and favourite
waterholes.

By observation of the number and newness of the tracks and droppings on

these trails you can gauge the extent of animal traffic.

If you put an obstacle across one of these animal trails the animals will
make a detour around the obstacle, always following the line of least
resistance, and come back to the road again beyond the obstacle.

A very good example of these roads are the trails radiating from a meat
ants' nest. Exactly the same pattern is repeated in jungle, forest and
grassland by all animals. Examine the upward side of a leaning gum tree,
and if you see scratch marks of varying ages then the tree is a 'tree road' of
possums or koalas, which either live in dead hollows or come to the tree
nightly to feed on the young leaves or mistletoe berries. By looking up at a
tree you can quickly tell if it is a feeding tree, or a living-quarters-tree. (The
latter will show many dead limbs which are hollow, and therefore
comfortable living quarters for possums and phalangers.)
101

Birds of Australia

Spotted Pardalote
Pardalotus punctatus

Size: 8-10 cm

Brown Thornbill
Acanthiza pusilla

Size: 10 cm

Red-browed Firetail (Finch) New

Photo
Neochmia temporalis

Size: 11-12 cm

Silvereye
Zosterops lateralis

Size: 12 cm
102

White-browed Scrubwren New

Photos
Sericornis frontalis

Size: 11-14 cm

Superb Fairy-wren
Malurus cyaneus

Size: 14 cm

Gouldian Finch
Erythrura gouldiae

Size: 14 cm

Not in Sydney or the Blue Mountains

White-throated Treecreeper NEW

Cormobates leucophaeus

Size: 13-15 cm
103

Eastern Spinebill
Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris

Size: 13-16 cm

House Sparrow
Passer domesticus

Size: 15 cm
Introduced

Eastern Yellow Robin

Eopsaltria australia

Size: 15 cm

High-Resolution Images

Rufous Whistler
Pachycephala rufiventris

Size: 17 cm
104

Golden Whistler NEW

Pachycephala pectoralis

Size: 17 cm

New Holland Honeyeater NEW

Phylidonyris novaehollandiae

Size: 16-19 cm

Bell Miner (Bellbird) NEW

Manorina melanophrys

Size: 17-20 cm

Willie Wagtail
Rhipidura leucophrys

Size: 19-22 cm
105

Red-whiskered Bulbul
Pycnonotus jocosus

Size: 20 cm
Introduced

Sacred Kingfisher
Todiramphus sanctus

Size: 19-24 cm

Grey Shrike-thrush
Colluricincla harmonica

Size: 24 cm

Common ("Indian") Myna NEW

Acridotheres tristis

Size: 23-25 cm
Introduced
106

Common Blackbird
Turdus merula

Size: 25 cm
Introduced

Noisy Miner NEW

Manorina melanocephala

Size: 24-28 cm

Magpie-lark (Peewee) NEW

Grallina cyanoleuca

Size: 27 cm
107

Grey Butcherbird NEW

Cracticus torquatus

Size: 24-30 cm

Rainbow Lorikeet
Trichoglossus rubritorquatus

Size: 28 cm

Eastern Whipbird
Psophodes olivaceus

Size: 25-30 cm

Little Wattlebird
Anthochaera chrysoptera

Size: 26-33 cm
108

Spotted Turtle-Dove
Streptopelia chinensis

Size: 32 cm
Introduced

Rock Dove (Feral Pigeon)

Columba livia

Size: 33 cm
Introduced

Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike NEW

Coracina novaehollandiae

Size: 33 cm

Gang-gang Cockatoo
Callocephalon fimbriatum

Size: 34 cm
109

Red Wattlebird NEW

Anthochaera carunculata

Size: 31-39 cm

Crested Pigeon
Ocyphaps (Geophaps) lophotes

Size: 31-35 cm

Crimson Rosella New Photo

Platycercus elegans

Size: 35 cm
110

Masked Lapwing (Spurwing Plover)

Vanellus miles

Size: 35 cm

Eurasian Coot
Fulica atra

Size: 32-39 cm

Wonga Pigeon New Photo

Leucosarcia melanoleuca

Size: 36-39 cm
111

Long-billed Corella
Cacatua tenuirostris

Size: 38-41 cm

Australian Magpie NEW

Gymnorhina tibicen

Size: 36-44 cm

Barking Owl
Ninox connivens

Size: 40 cm
112

Silver Gull (Seagull)

Larus novaehollandiae

Size: 41 cm

Australian King-Parrot New Photos

Alisterus scapularis

Size: 42 cm

Blue-winged Kookaburra
Dacelo leachii

Size: 40-45 cm

Not in Sydney or the Blue Mountains

113

Laughing Kookaburra
Dacelo novaeguineae

Size: 45 cm

Tawny Frogmouth
Podargus strigoides

Size: M 48cm, F 34 cm

Masked Owl
Tyto novaehollandiae

Size: M 48cm, F 34 cm
114

Peregrine Falcon
Falco Peregrinus

Size: F 45-50 cm, M 35-42 cm

Pied Currawong
Strepera graculina

Size: 41-51 cm

Australian Wood Duck

Also Called Maned Duck
Chenonetta jubata

Size: 44-50 cm
115

Sulphur-crested Cockatoo NEW

Cacatua galerita

Size: 45-52 cm

Little Pied Cormorant New Photos

Phalacrocorax melanoleucos

Size: 50-55 cm

Pacific Black Duck

Anas superciliosa

Size: 47-60 cm

Channel-billed Cuckoo NEW

Scythrops novaehollandiae

Size: 60 cm
116

Yellow-Tailed Black-Cockatoo
Calyptorhynchus lathami

Size: 56-66 cm

Red-Tailed Black-Cockatoo
Calyptorhynchus banksii

Size: 63 cm

Little Black Cormorant

Phalacrocorax carbo

Size: 60-65 cm
117

Powerful Owl
Ninox strenua

Size:M 67cm, F 58 cm

White-Bellied Sea-Eagle
Haliaeetus leucogaster

Size: F 80-85 cm, M 75-77 cm,

wingspan 190 cm approx

Superb Lyrebird
Menura alberti

Size: M 80-90 cm, F 74-84 cm

Wedge-tailed Eagle
Aquila audax

Size: F 89-104 cm, M 87-91 cm,

wingspan 210 cm approx
118

Black Necked Stork (Jabiru)

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus

Size: 112-115 cm, stands to 120 cm,

wingspan to 200 cm

Not in Sydney or the Blue Mountains

Cooking Bird
…………………………………………………………………………………...........
Making a bird ready for cooking is a simple procedure, but in case anyone is
uncertain of how it is done I thought I’d illustrate it. Plucking is normally the most
sensible way since it contains the fats in the skin, very important nutrition for
people living off the land.

Pluck the bird by pulling a few feathers at the time in the direction of the lay of
the feathers. I like to pluck the breast, thighs and back first, then take the wings in
the end. Some people use water when plucking, but I feel that only makes a mess.
Try not to tear the skin, though it isn’t a disaster if you do. Cut off the head
afterwards or leave it on if you want to.

In the front, tear out a little piece of skin and pull off the storage stomach. Cut the
connecting “gut” down to the abdomen. Pull out the windpipe from the neck.
119

Make an incision around the anus and make a cut further up towards the
breastbone. Pull out the guts. You can leave all the other organs in the bird while

cooking it.

The muscle/grinding stomach can also be eaten. Cut it open and just take off the
inner skin of the stomach along with the contents. Wash it properly afterwards.

No other part of the bird needs washing unless a shot has pierced guts or similar.
I have found a good way of slow cooking the bird on a stick. Take a stick and leave
a flexible branch on and stick it into the bird. The branch resting inside the bird
will keep the stick from rotating without the bird following that action. Although I
didn’t do that on this occasion, I recommend tying up the wings and the legs, or

they will become excessively dry.

Keep it over coals for 2-3 hours, for a chicken sized bird. Use deciduous woods for
the coals.
120

Wounds
Open Wounds

Open wounds are serious in a survival situation, not only because of tissue
damage and blood loss, but also because they may become infected. Bacteria on
the object that made the wound, on the individual's skin and clothing, or on other
foreign material or dirt that touches the wound may cause infection.

By taking proper care of the wound you can reduce further contamination and
promote healing. Clean the wound as soon as possible after it occurs by--

 Removing or cutting clothing away from the wound.

 Always looking for an exit wound if a sharp object, gun shot, or projectile
caused a wound.
 Thoroughly cleaning the skin around the wound.
 Rinsing (not scrubbing) the wound with large amounts of water under
pressure. You can use fresh urine if water is not available.

The "open treatment" method is the safest way to manage wounds in survival
situations. Do not try to close any wound by suturing or similar procedures. Leave
the wound open to allow the drainage of any pus resulting from infection. As long
as the wound can drain, it generally will not become life-threatening, regardless
of how unpleasant it looks or smells.

Cover the wound with a clean dressing. Place a bandage on the dressing to hold it
in place. Change the dressing daily to check for infection.

If a wound is gaping, you can bring the edges together with adhesive tape cut
inthe form of a "butterfly" or "dumbbell" (Figure 4-7).
121

In a survival situation, some degree of wound infection is almost inevitable. Pain,

swelling, and redness around the wound, increased temperature, and pus in the
wound or on the dressing indicate infection is present.

To treat an infected wound--

 Place a warm, moist compress directly on the infected wound. Change the
compress when it cools, keeping a warm compress on the wound for a total
of 30 minutes. Apply the compresses three or four times daily.
 Drain the wound. Open and gently probe the infected wound with a sterile
instrument.
 Dress and bandage the wound.
 Drink a lot of water.

Continue this treatment daily until all signs of infection have disappeared.

If you do not have antibiotics and the wound has become severely infected, does
not heal, and ordinary debridement is impossible, consider maggot therapy,
despite its hazards:

 Expose the wound to flies for one day and then cover it.
 Check daily for maggots.
 Once maggots develop, keep wound covered but check daily.
 Remove all maggots when they have cleaned out all dead tissue and before
they start on healthy tissue. Increased pain and bright red blood in the
wound indicate that the maggots have reached healthy tissue.
 Flush the wound repeatedly with sterile water or fresh urine to remove the
maggots.
122

 Check the wound every four hours for several days to ensure all maggots
have been removed.
 Bandage the wound and treat it as any other wound. It should heal
normally.

Skin Diseases and Ailments

Although boils, fungal infections, and rashes rarely develop into a serious health
problem, they cause discomfort and you should treat them.

Boils

Apply warm compresses to bring the boil to a head. Then open the boil using a
sterile knife, wire, needle, or similar item. Thoroughly clean out the pus using
soap and water. Cover the boil site, checking it periodically to ensure no further
infection develops.

Fungal Infections

Keep the skin clean and dry, and expose the infected area to as much sunlight as
possible. Do not scratch the affected area. During the Southeast Asian conflict,
soldiers used antifungal powders, lye soap, chlorine bleach, alcohol, vinegar,
concentrated salt water, and iodine to treat fungal infections with varying degrees
of success. As with any "unorthodox" method of treatment, use it with caution.

Rashes

To treat a skin rash effectively, first determine what is causing it. This
determination may be difficult even in the best of situations. Observe the
following rules to treat rashes:

 If it is moist, keep it dry.

 If it is dry, keep it moist.
 Do not scratch it.

Use a compress of vinegar or tannic acid derived from tea or from boiling acorns
or the bark of a hardwood tree to dry weeping rashes. Keep dry rashes moist by
rubbing a small amount of rendered animal fat or grease on the affected area.

Remember, treat rashes as open wounds and clean and dress them daily. There
are many substances available to survivors in the wild or in captivity for use as
antiseptics to treat wound:
123

 Iodine tablets. Use 5 to 15 tablets in a litre of water to produce a good

rinse for wounds during healing.
 Garlic. Rub it on a wound or boil it to extract the oils and use the water to
rinse the affected area.
 Salt water. Use 2 to 3 tablespoons per litre of water to kill bacteria.
 Bee honey. Use it straight or dissolved in water.
 Sphagnum moss. Found in boggy areas worldwide, it is a natural source of
iodine. Use as a dressing.

Again, use non-commercial prepared materials with caution.

Frostbite

This injury results from frozen tissues. Light frostbite involves only the skin that
takes on a dull, whitish pallor. Deep frostbite extends to a depth below the skin.
The tissues become solid and immovable. Your feet, hands, and exposed facial
areas are particularly vulnerable to frostbite.

When with others, prevent frostbite by using the buddy system. Check your
buddy's face often and make sure that he checks yours. If you are alone,
periodically cover your nose and lower part of your face with your mittens.

Do not try to thaw the affected areas by placing them close to an open flame.
Gently rub them in lukewarm water. Dry the part and place it next to your skin to
warm it at body temperature.

Trench Foot

This condition results from many hours or days of exposure to wet or damp
conditions at a temperature just above freezing. The nerves and muscles sustain
the main damage, but gangrene can occur. In extreme cases the flesh dies and it
may become necessary to have the foot or leg amputated. The best prevention is
to keep your feet dry. Carry extra socks with you in a waterproof packet. Dry/wet
socks against your body. Wash your feet daily and put on dry socks.

Burns

The following field treatment for burns relieves the pain somewhat, seems to help
speed healing, and offers some protection against infection:

 First, stop the burning process. Put out the fire by removing clothing,
dousing with water or sand, or by rolling on the ground. Cool the burning
124

skin with ice or water. For burns caused by white phosphorous, pick out the
white phosphorous with tweezers; do not douse with water.
 Soak dressings or clean rags for 10 minutes in a boiling tannic acid solution
(obtained from tea, inner bark of hardwood trees, or acorns boiled in
water).
 Cool the dressings or clean rags and apply over burns.
 Treat as an open wound.
 Replace fluid loss.
 Maintain airway.
 Treat for shock.
 Consider using morphine, unless the burns are near the face.
125

Camouflage

In a survival situation, especially in a hostile environment, you may find it

necessary to camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your movement. It may
mean the difference between survival and capture by the enemy. Camouflage and
movement techniques, such as stalking, will also help you get animals or game for
food using primitive weapons and skills.

Personal Camouflage
When camouflaging yourself, consider that certain shapes are particular to
humans. The enemy will look for these shapes. The shape of a hat, helmet, or
black boots can give you away. Even animals know and run from the shape of a
human silhouette. Break up your outline by placing small amounts of vegetation
from the surrounding area in your uniform, equipment, and headgear. Try to
reduce any shine from skin or equipment. Blend in with the surrounding colours
and simulate the texture of your surroundings.

Shape and Outline

Change the outline of weapons and equipment by tying vegetation or strips of

cloth onto them. Make sure the added camouflage does not hinder the
equipment's operation. When hiding, cover yourself and your equipment with
leaves, grass, or other local debris. Conceal any signalling devices you have
prepared, but keep them ready for use.

Color and Texture

Each area of the world and each climatic condition (arctic/winter,

temperate/jungle, or swamp/desert) has colour patterns and textures that are
natural for that area. While colour is self-explanatory, texture defines the surface
126

characteristics of something when looking at it. For example, surface textures

may be smooth, rough, rocky, leafy, or many other possible combinations. Use
colour and texture together to camouflage yourself effectively. It makes little
sense to cover you with dead, brown vegetation in the middle of a large grassy
field. Similarly, it would be useless to camouflage yourself with green grass in the
middle of a desert or rocky area.

To hide and camouflage movement in any specific area of the world, you must
take on the colour and texture of the immediate surroundings. Use natural or
man-made materials to camouflage yourself. Camouflage paint, charcoal from
burned paper or wood, mud, grass, leaves, strips of cloth or burlap, pine boughs,
and camouflaged uniforms are a few examples.

Cover all areas of exposed skin, including face, hands, neck, and ears. Use
camouflage paint, charcoal, or mud to camouflage yourself. Cover with a darker
colour areas that stick out more and catch more light (forehead, nose,
cheekbones, chin, and ears). Cover other areas, particularly recessed or shaded
areas (around the eyes and under the chin), with lighter colours. Be sure to use an
irregular pattern. Attach vegetation from the area or strips of cloth of the proper
colour to clothing and equipment. If you use vegetation, replace it as it wilts. As
you move through an area, be alert to the colour changes and modify your
camouflage colours as necessary.

Shine

As skin gets oily, it becomes shiny. Equipment with worn off paint is also shiny.
Even painted objects, if smooth, may shine. Glass objects such as mirrors, glasses,
binoculars, and telescopes shine. You must cover these glass objects when not in
use. Anything that shines automatically attracts attention and will give away your
location.

Whenever possible, wash oily skin and reapply camouflage. Skin oil will wash off
camouflage, so reapply it frequently. If you must wear glasses, camouflage them
by applying a thin layer of dust to the outside of the lenses. This layer of dust will
reduce the reflection of light. Cover shiny spots on equipment by painting,
covering with mud, or wrapping with cloth or tape. Pay particular attention to
covering boot eyelets, buckles on equipment, watches and jewellery, zippers, and
uniform insignia. Carry a signal mirror in its designed pouch or in a pocket with
the mirror portion facing your body.
127

Shadow

When hiding or traveling, stay in the deepest part of the shadows. The outer
edges of the shadows are lighter and the deeper parts are darker. Remember, if
you are in an area where there is plenty of vegetation; keep as much vegetation
between you and a potential enemy as possible. This action will make it very hard
for the enemy to see you as the vegetation will partially mask you from his view.
Forcing an enemy to look through many layers of masking vegetation will fatigue
his eyes very quickly.

When traveling, especially in built-up areas at night, be aware of where you cast
your shadow. It may extend out around the comer of a building and give away
your position. Also, if you are in a dark shadow and there is a light source to one
side, an enemy on the other side can see your silhouette against the light.

Movement

Movement, especially fast movement, attracts attention. If at all possible, avoid

movement in the presence of an enemy. If capture appears imminent in your
present location and you must move, move away slowly, making as little noise as
possible. By moving slowly in a survival situation, you decrease the chance of
detection and conserve energy that you may need for long-term survival or long-
distance evasion.

When moving past obstacles, avoid going over them. If you must climb over an
obstacle, keep your body level with its top to avoid silhouetting yourself. Do not
silhouette yourself against the skyline when crossing hills or ridges. When you are
moving, you will have difficulty detecting the movement of others. Stop
frequently, listen, and look around slowly to detect signs of hostile movement.

Noise

Noise attracts attention, especially if there is a sequence of loud noises such as

several snapping twigs. If possible, avoid making any noise at all. Slow down your
pace as much as necessary to avoid making noise when moving around or away
from possible threats.

Use background noises to cover the noise of your movement. Sounds of aircraft,
trucks, generators, strong winds, and people talking will cover some or all the
sounds produced by your movement. Rain will mask a lot of movement noise, but
it also reduces your ability to detect potential enemy noise.
128

Scent

Whether hunting animals or avoiding the enemy, it is always wise to camouflage

the scent associated with humans. Start by washing yourself and your clothes
without using soap. This washing method removes soap and body odours.
Avoiding strong smelling foods, such as garlic, helps reduce body odours. Do not
use tobacco products, candy, gum, or cosmetics.

You can use aromatic herbs or plants to wash yourself and your clothing, to rub
on your body and clothing, or to chew on to camouflage your breath. Pine
needles, mint, or any similar aromatic plant will help camouflage your scent from
both animals and humans. Standing in smoke from a fire can help mask your scent
from animals. While animals are afraid of fresh smoke from a fire, older smoke
scents are normal smells after forest fires and do not scare them.

While traveling, use your sense of smell to help you find or avoid humans. Pay
attention to smells associated with humans, such as fire, cigarettes, gasoline, oil,
soap, and food. Such smells may alert you to their presence long before you can
see or hear them, depending on wind speed and direction. Note the wind's
direction and, when possible, approach from or skirt around on the downwind
side when nearing humans or animals.

Methods of Stalking
Sometimes you need to move, undetected, to or from a location. You need more
than just camouflage to make these moves successfully. The ability to stalk or
move without making any sudden quick movement or loud noise is essential to
avoiding detection.

You must practice stalking if it is to be effective. Use the following techniques

when practicing.

Upright Stalking

Take steps about half your normal stride when stalking in the upright position.
Such strides help you to maintain your balance. You should be able to stop at any
point in that movement and hold that position as long as necessary. Curl the toes
up out of the way when stepping down so the outside edge of the ball of the foot
touches the ground. Feel for sticks and twigs that may snap when you place your
weight on them. If you start to step on one, lift your foot and move it. After
making contact with the outside edge of the ball of your foot, roll to the inside
ball of your foot, place your heel down, followed by your toes. Then gradually
129

shift your weight forward to the front foot. Lift the back foot to about knee height
and start the process over again.

Keep your hands and arms close to your body and avoid waving them about or
hitting vegetation. When moving in a crouch, you gain extra support by placing
your hands on your knees. One step usually takes 1 minute to complete, but the
time it takes will depend on the situation.

Crawling

Crawl on your hands and knees when the vegetation is too low to allow you to
walk upright without being seen. Move one limb at a time and be sure to set it
down softly, feeling for anything that may snap and make noise. Be careful that
your toes and heels do not catch on vegetation.

Prone Staking

To stalk in the prone position, you do a low, modified push-up on your hands and
toes, moving yourself forward slightly, and then lowering yourself again slowly.
Avoid dragging and scraping along the ground as this makes excessive noise and
leaves large trails for trackers to follow.

Animal Stalking

Before stalking an animal, select the best route. If the animal is moving, you will
need an intercepting route. Pick a route that puts objects between you and the
animal to conceal your movement from it. By positioning yourself in this way, you
will be able to move faster, until you pass that object. Some objects, such as large
rocks and trees, may totally conceal you, and others, such as small bushes and
grass, may only partially conceal you. Pick the route that offers the best
concealment and requires the least amount of effort.

Keep your eyes on the animal and stop when it looks your way or turns its ears
your way, especially if it suspects your presence. As you get close, squint your
eyes slightly to conceal both the light-dark contrast of the whites of the eyes and
any shine from your eyes. Keep your mouth closed so that the animal does not
see the whiteness or shine of your teeth.