A Model to Predict and Understand Rolling Contact Fatigue in Wheels and Rails M. C.

Burstow AEA Technology Rail, Jubilee House, 4 St. Christophers Way, Pride Park, Derby, DE24 8LY, UK Abstract Over the last five years AEA Technology Rail, as part of research funded and managed by the UK Rail Safety and Standards Board (RSSB), have been researching a model to predict rolling contact fatigue (RCF) crack initiation in rails. This paper describes the application of the model to predict RCF at a particular site and how it was able to help to understand the causes of RCF at that site. A less detailed form of the model has also been developed which can analyse long sections of route and highlight specific curves which are at risk of developing RCF. Together, these models form useful tools for identifying the causes of RCF and helping to determine appropriate mitigation measures to reduce and manage RCF. The model has also been developed to predict the occurrence of RCF on wheels. An example is also given of this application, showing how it can successfully explain why the wheels of some vehicles experience RCF more than others. Introduction In recent years much research has been undertaken to better understand the causes of rolling contact fatigue (RCF). In the UK, the Rail Safety & Standards Board (RSSB) have funded and managed research to develop a Whole Life Rail Model (WLRM) [5] which can be applied to understand the causes of RCF and help track engineers to better manage it. This paper describes one part of the WLRM, a model to predict RCF crack initiation [1], which has been shown to give very good predictions of the locations at which RCF is likely. It has also helped further our understanding of RCF and the factors that influence it. In the UK it has been observed that RCF occurs mainly on the high (i.e. outside) rail of curves and is most prevalent in high speed curves of moderate radius (1200-1500m). However, RCF rarely occurs continuously through a site or curve, but tends to appear in clusters, such as that shown in Figure 1. This shows a cluster of large RCF cracks for which there is no clear trigger in the track, such as a weld or other irregularity, which could be responsible for them. Their appearance is marked by a rapid change from an area of uncracked material to a region containing large RCF cracks. However, the model developed in this work has been able to help explain the mechanisms by which such clusters of cracks form. To develop the model detailed surveys of a number of sites containing RCF cracks have been undertaken. Vehicle dynamics simulations have then been performed to predict the wheel/rail forces and vehicle behaviour through these sites. This has allowed an understanding of both the magnitude of the forces responsible for generating RCF and the vehicle behaviour associated with them to be obtained. As a result of these studies, it has been possible to identify three distinct mechanisms by which RCF is generated [3]. These have been referred to as: Mode 0 (where steady-state forces generated during

Direction of Traffic

300mm long cluster of large RCF cracks Figure 1: Typical cluster of large RCF cracks on the high rail of a curve curving are sufficient to initiate RCF growth), Mode 1 (where conformality between the wheel and rail profiles result in small changes in the wheelset lateral position resulting in large changes in the wheel/rail forces), and Mode 2 (where discrete irregularities in track alignment result in increased wheel/rail forces as the wheelset attempts to negotiate a piece of track). In all the studies which have been conducted to date it has been found that Modes 0 and 2 are the most prolific in the UK system, although in some cases a combination of two modes can act to either increase or reduce the severity of RCF. A Model of RCF Crack Initiation The RCF crack initiation model assumes that the energy expended at the wheel/rail interface results in plastic deformation of the material in the contact patch, and can ultimately result in the formation of RCF cracks. This energy is generated by the shear forces (T) and creepages ( ) in the contact patch, and is the work done by the wheel in steering through a given track geometry or alignment. It has also been shown to be related to the wear rate of the material [4] and is often referred to as the wear number, T. The relationship which has been developed between the energy dissipated in the contact patch and the number of cycles to initiate an RCF crack is shown in Figure 2. At low T values there is insufficient energy to cause permanent plastic deformation and no RCF damage is incurred. At increasing values of T there is an increasing level of RCF damage, until a point is reached where RCF damage starts to reduce with increasing energy input. This is where wear/fatigue interaction increases, with an increase in the material wear rate effectively removing damaged material before RCF cracks can form. Such a variation in fatigue life has been demonstrated experimentally [2] through laboratory testing of small specimens at a range of creepages. Application To be able to utilise the fatigue damage model (Figure 2) it is necessary to know the forces at the wheel/rail interface. These forces, which are transient in nature, can be most readily obtained from vehicle dynamics simulations, employing models of the appropriate railway vehicles for the section of route being analysed, together with a description of the track geometry. The output from each dynamic simulation is the variation in shear force and creepages in the contact patch at each time step through the simulation. These can then be as input to the RCF crack initiation model, which converts the contact patch energy at each time step into a measure of the amount of fatigue damage generated by that vehicle. By performing simulations for representatives of each vehicle type seen at a site it is possible to

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Figure 2: RCF crack initiation damage function compare the contribution of each vehicle type to the overall RCF condition and identify those vehicles which contribute the most to RCF damage. By performing simulations for different track or vehicle conditions it is also possible to compare the effects of different RCF mitigation measures, such as changes in wheel/rail profile or changes to the track alignment. Detailed Site Modelling The model has been applied to predict the occurrence of RCF at a number of sites. In each case the predictions have been validated through comparison with the locations and surface lengths of RCF cracks in each site. Consequently, it has been possible to use the model to help understand the causes of RCF at each site and the contribution to RCF damage of different vehicle types and track geometry features. One of the sites which have been modelled was a compound curve of which the section which was studied comprised the transition into a curve of 700m radius, followed by sections with radii of 1400m and 850m. Site observations revealed fairly long clusters of RCF cracks on the high rail of the curve throughout the main body of the curve with smaller RCF clusters in the transitions. Figure 3a compares the predictions of the locations of RCF clusters with those observed at the site. The results are presented as viewing the high rail of the curve in plan view, with the gauge face towards the top of the figure. The vehicles pass from left to right, and the observed positions of RCF clusters are shown with a solid black outline. The shaded contours indicate the predicted positions of RCF clusters. In this case the clusters of RCF are centred around two regions, which correspond to the two parts of the curve with the tightest radii, and provide a good correlation with the observed locations of RCF cracks. Figure 3b compares the variation of the measured surface crack lengths in each cluster with the predicted magnitude of the RCF damage parameter. Again, good correlation is observed with the largest cracks being found where the fatigue damage parameter is a maximum. By performing simulations for the design track geometry (i.e. with all track irregularities removed) it was possible to show that, at this site, RCF was being generated by the quasi-static (Mode 0) forces generated during curving. This is also illustrated in Figure 3b, where the variation in damage parameter through the site for the quasi-static simulation is shown. In this case RCF is predicted continuously

through the length of the 700m and 850m radius sections of the curve, not just in clusters, and that for most of the curve the RCF would be more severe than that which is currently in track. In this case then, the irregularities in track alignment were altering the vehicle behaviour so that RCF damage was reduced. However, in the transitions into the curve and between the 700m and 850m radius sections, the converse is true and the track geometry misalignments tend to increase the track forces, causing RCF to be a)

Width of rail head Direction of Travel b)

Crack Length/mm -or- Damage Index
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increased. Figure 3: Comparison of observed and predicted RCF on high rail of curve showing a) locations of RCF clusters, and b) variation in surface crack length Simplified Modelling: Quasi-Static (Mode 0) RCF Predictions The analysis of the previous site showed that quasi-static curving forces can be a significant contributor to RCF crack formation. To identify those sites which are at risk of generating RCF from quasi-static forces alone a simplified modelling approach has been developed. This uses the results of quasi-static vehicle dynamics simulations from a range of curve radii and cant deficiency conditions, without considering the effects of track irregularities. For each curve/cant combination and vehicle type quasi-static curving analyses have been examined to determine the appropriate fatigue damage index pertinent to those conditions. For any length of route it is possible to predict the quasi-static RCF (Mode 0) occurrence from a knowledge of the curvature and cant deficiency for each curve on a route and the number of vehicles of each type which use the route. The results of applying this to a 35 mile long section of a UK mainline are shown in Figure 4, which compares the predictions with the known locations of RCF sites along the route. Also indicated are the locations of junctions and S&C. Where relatively continuous sections of RCF are known to exist there is a

good correlation with the predicted locations of RCF sites. Where the observed RCF is shown to exist over a much shorter section (and may appear as spikes on the graph) then there is not usually an equivalent prediction from the model. However, these positions do correlate well with the locations of S&C. At these points RCF will be most likely driven by local track irregularities (Mode 2), which have not been simulated in this study. The model therefore shows that, in many of the curves which exhibit RCF on this route, quasi-static curving forces are a significant contributor to the incidence of RCF.
Observed RCF Predicted RCF S&C Locations

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Figure 4: Comparison of predicted and observed RCF sites over a 35mile section of route From these analyses it is possible to see that predictions of RCF crack initiation assuming quasi-static vehicle behaviour can be used as a filter to determine which curves are likely to generate Mode 0 RCF. Sites where quasi-static behaviour is predicted to be insufficient to generate RCF, but RCF cracks are observed, may be those where RCF can be eliminated (or significantly reduced) by focussing on the quality of track geometry. At other sites changes to track quality are unlikely to have a significant impact, and RCF may best be managed through controlled grinding. The model can also be used in situations where new vehicles are to be introduced onto a particular route. By comparing predictions for the effects of the change in traffic or vehicle types on RCF it would be possible to determine those curves at risk of increased RCF and to determine appropriate maintenance and management strategies. Wheel RCF Modelling When negotiating a curve the contact patch on a wheel will experience equal and opposite forces to those experienced by the rail. It is therefore not surprising that wheels should also experience RCF cracking. However, as a wheel will experience many more fatigue cycles in a given period of time than a rail, and will also see a much wider range of curves and track geometry, it is more difficult to identify the conditions which generate RCF on wheels. Also, as the forces generated in the contact patch act on the wheel in an opposite direction to those which act on the rail, the locations where wheels experience forces sufficient to generate RCF are different to those where they are generated on rails. Figure 5a shows a typical pattern of RCF on a wheel. Whereas rail RCF is generated towards the gauge corner of the rail, when the wheelset has moved laterally so that the flange is close to the gauge corner of the rail, Figure 5a shows RCF developing towards the field side of the wheel. This indicates that it is generated when the wheel flange has moved away from the rail, which occurs most often when the wheel is running on the low rail of a curve. Thus, rails tend to be susceptible to RCF on the high rail of curves, whereas wheels will be susceptible when the wheel is negotiating the low rail of a curve. The RCF model which has been developed for rail RCF has also been developed to predict RCF in wheels by analysing the forces which are developed on the wheel (i.e. opposite to those developed on

the rail). An application of this is shown in Figure 5b, which shows a prediction for the wheel shown in Figure 5a on two different routes. As can be seen, the model predicts an increase in RCF damage at the same lateral location on the wheel at which RCF has been observed. The figure also shows how this is affected by route. Simulations have been performed for the same vehicle operating over two different routes. In the first case the route contained many curves with radii in the range 1000-1500m, whereas the second route had a much higher proportion of tangent track. It can be seen that the route with a higher percentage of curves was much more perceptible to causing RCF on the wheels. The model can therefore be used to help identify which parts of a route contribute most to RCF damage on wheels and help evaluate the effects that, for example, changes to the wheel profile may have on the life of the wheel. a)

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RCF Damage

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Figure 5: a) Wheel containing typical RCF cracks towards the field side of the wheel, and b) predictions of the locations of RCF cracks on the wheel for operation over two different routes Conclusions A model of RCF crack initiation has been developed which utilises dynamic vehicle simulations to predict the locations on a section of rail which are at risk of developing RCF.

The model can be used to perform what-if? studies to help understand the causes of RCF and the effects of different mitigation and control strategies. It has also helped understand the forces responsible for RCF and how they are generated at the wheel/rail interface. A simplified version of the model has also been developed which uses quasi-static vehicle simulations to identify particular curves on a route which are at risk of developing RCF. It has been demonstrated that this can be used to help identify the mode of RCF generation over long sections of a route, and that a large proportion of RCF may be contributed to by quasi-static forces. The model has also been adapted for predicting RCF in wheels, and has been shown capable of predicting the location on the wheel tread where RCF can develop. Acknowledgement The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of RSSB in developing this model; and the cooperation of a variety of organisations, including Network Rail, Corus, MMU and BakerRail Services who have all contributed to different parts of these projects. References [1] M. C. Burstow, J. Benyon, A. S. Watson, A. E. Beagles, M. Beagles, Current developments in the whole life rail model to predict rolling contact fatigue in rails, Proceedings of the World Congress on Railway Research (WCRR 2003), Edinburgh, UK, October 2003, pp445-451, (2003). [2] P. Clayton, D. N. Hill, Rolling contact fatigue of a rail steel, Wear, Vol. 117, 319-334, (1987).

[3] M. Dembosky, K. Timmis, Rolling contact fatigue (RCF) What we have learnt, Proceedings of Railway Engineering 2005, 8 th International Conference, London, UK, 29th-30th June 2005. [4] R. F. Harvey, I. J. McEwen, The relationship between wear number and wheel/rail wear in the laboratory and the field, BRR Report TM VDY 001, June 1986. [5] A. S. Watson, M. Beagles, M. C. Burstow, Management of rolling contact fatigue using the whole life rail model, presented at the World Congress on Railway Research (WCRR 2001) , Cologne, Germany, November 2001.