190 PDF

Biyani's Think Tank
Concept based notes

Semiconductor Physics,
Electronic Devices and Circuits
(BCA Part-I)

Ashish Sharma
M.Sc. (Physics)
Anupama Upadhyay
M.Sc. (Physics)
Lecturer
Deptt. of Information Technology
Biyani Girls College, Jaipur

PDF Created with deskPDF PDF Writer - Trial :: http://www.docudesk.com
For more detail :- http://www.gurukpo.com

Published by :

Concept & Copyright :
Biyani Shikshan Samiti
Sector-3, Vidhyadhar Nagar,
Jaipur-302 023 (Rajasthan)
Ph. : 0141-2338371, 2338591-95 l Fax : 0141-2338007
E-mail : acad@biyanicolleges.org
Website : www.biyanithinktank.com; www.biyanicolleges.org

Price : 50/-

While every effort is taken to avoid errors or omissions in this Publication, any mistake
or omission that may have crept in is not intentional. It may be taken note of that
neither the publisher nor the author will be responsible for any damage or loss of any
kind arising to anyone in any manner on account of such errors and omissions.

Think Tanks
Biyani Group of Colleges

First Edition : 2009
Leaser Type Setted By:
Biyani College Printing Department

Preface

am glad to present this book, especially designed to serve the needs of the students. The
book has been written keeping in mind the general weakness in understanding the
fundamental concept of the topic. The book is self-explanatory and adopts the Teach
Yourself style. It is based on question-answer pattern. The language of book is quite easy and
understandable based on scientific approach.
The inclusion of some mathematical formula, units and the values of universal constants are
given where required which make the use of book quite easy. Further we have tried to solve and
include each step of numericals for easy and quick understanding.
Any further improvement in the contents of the book by making corrections, omission and
inclusion is keen to be achieved based on suggestions from the reader for which the author shall be
obliged.
I acknowledge special thanks to Mr. Rajeev Biyani, Chiarman & Dr. Sanjay Biyani, Director
I look forward to receiving valuable suggestions from professors of various educational
institutions, other faculty members and the students for improvement of the quality of the book. The
reader may feel free to send in their comments and suggestions to the under mentioned address.
Authors Authors Authors Authors

I
(Acad.) Biyani Group of Colleges, who is the backbone and main concept provider

Syllabus
B.C.A. Part-I
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS,
ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
[This course is of introductory nature as such rigorous mathematical analysis should be avoided
and emphasis should be on concepts and contents of mathematical expressions]
1. Structure of Matter (Molecule, Atom), Atomic Structure (Energy Levels and Electronic
Configuration), Intermolecular Forces, Phases of Matter, Types of Solids, Crystal
Structure of Solids, Atomic Bonding (Ionic Covalent and Metallic Bondings), Energy
Band Theory of Crystals, Energy Band Structure of Insulators, Semiconductors and
Metals.
2. Mobility and Conductivity, Electrons and Holes in Intrinsic, Semiconductor Elementary
Properties of Germanium and Silicon, Donor and Acceptor impurities, Extrinsic
Semiconductors, Generation and Recombination of Charges, Diffusion.
3. Energy Band Structure of Open Circuit P-N Junction, Depletion Region, P-N Junctions as
a Rectifier, Current Components of a P-N Diode, Ideal Voltage, Ampere Characteristics,
Temperature Dependence of the V-I Characteristics, Diode Resistance Varactor Diodes,
Junction Diode Switching Times, Breakdown Diodes, Tunnel Diode, Semiconductor
Photodiode, Photovoltaic Effect, Light Emitting Diodes.
4. Half-wave and Full-wave Rectifiers, Ripple Factor, Efficiency, Voltage Regulation,
Inductor Filters, Capacitor Filters, L and Section Filters, Regulated Power Supplies,
Information about SMPS Supply.
5. Bipolar Junction Transistors, Bipolar Transistor Action, Basic Principle of Operation
Open Circuited Transistor, Transistor Biased in Active Region, Current Components in a
Transistor, Characteristic Curves in Common Emitter, Common Base and Common
Collector Configurations, Expression for , and , Hybrid Parameters of a Transistor.
6. Transistor as an Amplifier, Frequency Response of an Amplifier, RC Coupled Amplifier,
Feedback Concepts and Oscillator.
7. Elementary Information about Field Effect Transistors, Thyristors, Optoelectronic
Devices and Display Devices.


Content

S. No. Name of Topic Page No.
1. Structure of Solid 7-11
1.1 Types of Solids
1.2 Crystal Structure of Solids
1.3 Atomic Bonding
1.4 Energy Band Structure

2. Transport Phenomena in Semiconductor 12-17
2.1 Mobility and Conductivity
2.2 Semiconductor Ge and Si (Intrinsic
Semiconductors)

2.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors
2.4 Diffusion

3. Semiconductor Diodes 18-25
3.1 Open Circuit P-N Junction
3.2 Temperature Dependence of the V-I Curve
3.3 Types of Diodes

4. Rectification & Power Supply 26-31
4.1 Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier
4.2 Filters
4.3 SMPS Supply

S. No. Name of Topic Page No.
5. Bipolar Junction Transistor 32-39
5.1 Basic Principle
5.2 Characteristic Curves in Different Configurations
5.3 Hybrid Parameters of a Transistor

6. Amplifiers and Oscillators 40-46

6.1 Transistor as an Amplifier
6.2 RC Coupled Amplifier
6.3 Feed Back Concepts and Oscillator

7. FETs, Thyristors and Opto-electronic Devices 47-53
7.1 Elementary Information about FET
7.2 Thyristors
7.3 Opto Electronic Devices


Chapter-1

Structure of Solid

Q.1 What do you understand by Interatomic and Intermolecular Forces? How are
they different from each other?
Ans.: The Net force of attraction between atoms is called Interatomic Force whereas
the net force of attraction between molecules is called Intermolecular Force.
Interatomic Forces are mainly of four types :
(i) Ionic Bond (ii) Covalent Bond
(iii) Metallic Bond (iv) Vander Waals Bond
Types of Intermolecular Forces :
(i) Dipole Dipole Interactions
(ii) Instantaneous Dipole Induced Dipole Interactions
(iii) Hydrogen Bond
Differences between Interatomic an Intermolecular Forces :
(i) Intermolecular Forces are generally weaker than the Interatomic Forces.
(ii) The equilibrium separation of two molecules is large compared to the
equilibrium separation of two atoms.
(iii) Intermolecular Forces are generally dependent on the relative orientation
of two molecules in addition to the dependence on the distance between
then but for Interatomic Forces it s not so.
Q.2 What do you understand by Space Lattice? List the name of Fundamental
Crystal System.
Ans.: Lattice : The Lattice is defined as an array of points in space such that the
environment about each point is same with the environment about any other
point.
Linear Lattice : It is are array of infinite points is one dimension.
Two Dimensional Lattice : It is a repetition of linear lattice in another direction
by a regular interval of distance.

Space Lattice or Three Dimensional Lattice : If the points of two dimensional
lattice are repeated in another non-coplanar direction by a regular interval of
distance, then they form three dimensional lattice called Space Lattice.
Fundamental Types of Lattice :
(i) Cubic
(ii) Tetragonal
(iii) Orthorhombic
(iv) Rhombohedral
(v) Hexagonal
(vi) Monoclinic
(vii) Triclinic

Q.3 What do you mean by Crystalline and Amorphous Solids? Point out some
important differences between them.
Ans.: The solids which have regular and periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules
in a definite and long range order are called Crystalline Solids.
Amorphous or Glassy Solids : Solids which do not have any permanent shape
or do not have any regular and periodic arrangement of atoms or molecules are
said to be Amorphous Solids.

Difference between Crystalline and Amorphous Solids

S.No. Amorphous Solids Crystalline Solids
These are isotropic in nature. These are anisotropic.
All the bonds in the
Amorphous Solids are not
equally strong.
All bonds have same bond
strength.
These are not bounded by flat
surfaces.
The Crystalline Solids are
bounded by the flat surfaces.
They lack a long-range order
of bounding in their structure.
There is definite and long range
order of arrangement of atoms

or molecules in a Crystalline
Solid.

Q.4 What are Conduction Band, Valance Band and Forbidden Gap. Explain these
bands by proper diagrams.
Ans.: Valance Band : The energy band in which the valance electrons are situated is
called Valance Band.
Conduction Band : The allowed energy band above the Valance Band (i.e.
having higher energy state) which is almost empty in the unexcited state is called
Conduction Band.
Forbidden Energy Gap : In between the Conduction and Valance Bands there is
an energy gap in which no allowed energy level is situated. This energy gap is
called Forbidden Energy Gap.


As shown in above figure PQ represents Conduction Band, RS is Valance Band
and QR is Forbidden Energy Gap.

Q.5 Compare the resistivities of Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators. What
the order of Forbidden Energy Gap in there substances?
Ans.: Conductors : In conductors, forbidden energy gap is not present i.e. Eg = 0. At
normal temperatures their electrical conductivity is very high of the order of 10
6

to 10
8
mho/m and resistivity is very low of the order of 10
-8
to 10
-6
Ohmm.
Insulators : The forbidden energy gap Eg in insulators is very large. Their
conductivity is very small of the order of 10
-12
to 10
-18
mho/m. The resistivity of
such materials is very high of the order of Eg > 5 ev.
Semiconductors : In these materials there is a finite forbidden energy gap
between their conduction and valance bands but it is much less their the
forbidden energy gap of insulators, It is of the order of 1 ev.
The conductivity of semiconductors is of the order of 10
-7
to 10 mho/m and
resistivity of the order of 10
-1
to 10
7
ohm-m.

Q. 6 Write down the Postulates of Bohrs Atomic Model.
Ans.: Postulates of Bohrs Atomic Model : According to Bohrs Model, an atom is
composed of electrons moving in various fixed circular or elliptical orbits around
a heavy nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.

Diagram : An Atomic Structure


Electrons : Electrons are negatively charged elementary particles moving around
the positively charged nucleus in different but fixed orbits. Mass of an electronic
is 9.1 x 10
-31
kg and charge on electron is -1.6 x 10
-19
coulomb.
Nucleus : It is a central hard care of an atom and contains protons and neutrons.
Neutrons are electrically neutral while protons carry positive charge equal to the
magnitude of electrons charge. Mass of Both protons and electron is about 1840
times of electrons mass.
Atomic Number (Z) : The number of protons on atom has is called its Atomic
Number (Z).
Atomic Mass Number (A) : The total number of protons (Z) and neutrons (N)
contained in the nucleus of an atom is called its Atomic Mass Number (A).


Chapter-2

Transport Phenomena in Semiconductor

Q.1 Write down the relation between Drift Velocity and Current Density.
Ans.: Current Density : The electric current passing normally through a units area of
the metal wire is called Current Density (J).

I
J
A
=
As shown in figure, let a potential
difference V is applied between the
ends of the wire of length L and
cross section area A.
If number of free electrons per unit volume in wire are n then total number of
electrons passing through unit area of the wire in time t seconds will be (nAVdt)
and flow of charge will be
d
Q qnAV t =
Where q Charge of an electron

d
qnAV t Q
I
t t
= =

d
I qnAV =
Current Density
I
J
A
=

d
J qnV =
Q.2 What is Intrinsic Semiconductor? Give examples of Intrinsic Semiconductors?
What are the charge carriers in them?
Ans.: Intrinsic Semiconductor : When a semi conducting material is pure and in its
natural from it is called Intrinsic Semiconductor. The examples of Intrinsic
Semiconductors are Germanium (Ge) and
Silicon (Si).
Crystal Structure : Both Silicon and
Germanium has four valance
electrons. For stability every atom
shares one electron from the
neighboring four atoms to complete the

valance orbit. Thus the valance electrons of each atom form covalent band with
one electron of each of its four neighbors. The crystal structure of both Silicon
and Germanium is diamond structure in which the bands form a tetrahedron.
Charge Carriers : At absolute zero temperature, all semiconductor behaves as
insulator and no charge carrier exist. As the temperature increases, some electron
from valance band, reach the conduction band after crossing the forbidden
energy gap. Due to this a vacant site is created is valance band is called a Hole.
Thus free electrons and holes are created in pairs simultaneously. Therefore in
intrinsic semiconductors both electrons and holes are the charge carriers.

Q.3 What are Extrinsic Semiconductor? Explain the construction of N and P-Types
Semiconductors with necessary diagrams.
Ans. Extrinsic Semiconductor : The conducing of Intrinsic Semiconductor is low.
When semi conducting material Germanium and Silicon are doped with a
controlled amount of an impurity element, the conductivity increases. The
semiconductors so obtained are called Extrinsic Semiconductors.
Extrinsic Semiconductors are of two types :
(i) N-Type Semiconductor
(ii) P-Type Semiconductor
N-Type Semiconductors : If an element of fifth group as arsenic or antimony is
added to Germanium or Silicon whose valancy is four, the semiconductor
obtained is called N-Type Semiconductor.
As shown in fig.(1), when a pentavalent
impurity atom replaces a tetravalent atom of
Germanium or Silicon, four valance
electrons of the impurity atom form
covalent band respectively with one
electron of each of the neighboring atoms, while
the fifth electron remains almost free. Thus every
atom of the impurity element of fifth group
contributes one free electron as a charge carrier
and due to this property fifth group
impurity is called Donor Impurity.


The energy level of the valance electron of the
pentavalent element lies in forbidden energy gap of
the intrinsic semiconductors just below the
conduction band. This energy level is called Donor
Level.
In N-Type Semiconductors, electrons are majority charge carries.

P-Type Semiconductor : This type of
semiconductor is formed when third group
element like boron is added as impurity in Ge
or Si material. Due to adding of trivalent
impurity, three valance electrons of
impurity atom form covalent bands
respectively with one electron of each of the
three neighboring atoms but the band of the
fourth atom remains incomplete and a
deficiency of electron exists there. This
vacancy is called Hole. Hole has ability to capture available electron there on the
impurity of third group is called Acceptor Impurity.

In P-Type Semiconductor, acceptor level lies
slightly above the valance band of
semiconductor. Holes are the majority charge
carries in P-Type Semiconductor.

Q.4 Derive the expression of conductivity of an Intrinsic Semiconductor in terms
of mobility.
Ans.: In Intrinsic Semiconductors, both electrons and holes are the energy charge
carries.
When a battery is connected between the two ends of a semi-conducting
material, both electrons and holes move in
definite direction.

The drift velocity of both electrons and holes, is proportional to intensity of
applied electric field. i.e.

n
V E
n n
V E =
And
p
V E
p p
V E =
Here &
n p
are mobilities of electrons and holes respectively.
If current density of electrons is Jn and of holes is Jp then total current density is
an intrinsic semiconductor is
J = Jn + JP
But we know that
Current Density = Number Density of Charge Carriers X Charge X Drift Velocity
Jn = nqVn = nnqE
And Jp = nqVp = ppqE
J = Jn + Jp
OR J = qE (nn + pp ) amp/m
2

The electrical conductivity of the semiconductor

J
E
= = q (nn + pp ) mho/m.

Q.5 Derive of the expression of conductivity on N and P Types of Semiconductors.
Ans.: We have derived the expression for current density in a semiconductor in last
question and got
J = q (nn + pp ) E
And therefore conductivity

J
E
= = q (nn + pp ) mho/m
For N-Type Semiconductors
n = ND
Where ND is the number density of donor impurities
Further, n >> p
Therefore, = q NDn
For P-Type Semiconductors
p NA
Where NA is number density of acceptor impurities

Further, P>>n
Therefore, q Na p
Thus is Extrinsic Semiconductors the conductivity depends on the number
density of donor or acceptor impurity atoms.

Q.6 Explain of formation of depletion larger in P-N Junction Semiconductor.
Ans.: In a P-N Junction, P-type semiconductor material is joined to N-type material in
atomic sense. The P- material has a large hole density while the N- material has a
large free electron density. In this way at the junction a gradient of density of
charge carriers developed. Due to this, the holes diffuse from P-side to N-side
while electrons diffuse from N-side to P-
side.
This process of diffusion affects only a
narrow region near the junction
between X1 and X2.
Due to the diffusion of electrons from N to
P-side and holes from P to N-side, in a thin
layer at the junction the holes capture the
electrons and the charge carriers no
longer remain free. This region of the junction thus depleted of free charge a
carriers and the larger so formed is called Depletion Layer.


Chapter-3

Semiconductor Diodes

Q.1 What is a P-N Junction Diode?
Ans.: P-N Junction : When a P-type semi conducting material is joined to a N-type
material is the atomic sense, the device is called P-N junction. During the
formation of a P-N Junction a potential barrier is developed at the junction. This
potential barrier abstracts the flow of free charge carriers (electrons & holes). PN
junction has a special feature that it allows the flow of current easily in one
direction but obstruct the flow of current in opposite direction. Thus P-N
Junction acts as a rectifier diode therefore this device is called P-N junction
Diode.

Q.2 Explain the working of P-N Junction Diode. Discuss its Forward and Reverse
Bias.
Ans.: Working of P-N Junction Diode : P-N Junction diode has a very special feature
that it allows the flow of current only in our direction and obstruct the flow of
current ins other direction so this device is used in rectifies circuits.
Forward Biasing of a P-N Junction Diode :
P-N junction, If P-terminal is joined to
positive terminal of battery and N-terminal to
negative terminal then the diode is said to be
Forward Biased.
By a Forward Bias, the height of the
potential barrier at the junction is reduced because the field applied by the
external source at the depletion larger is opposite to the field present there due to
the potential barrier.

In Forward Bias, current flows in the circuit from
P-region to N-region of the diode; By increasing
the biasing voltage current increase exponentially
the dynamic resistance offered by the P-N
junction is very low of the order of 100 ohm.


Reverse Bias : If the P-terminal of P-N junction is connected to negative terminal
of the battery and N-terminal of the diode to positive terminal of the battery, the
applied bias is called Reverse Bias.
In Reverse Bias, the height of potential
barrier as well as the thickness of depletion layer
is increased. Thus the availability of free
charge carriers is reduced and their flow is
obstructed by the barrier the current in this state
is almost zero only a small current in
microamperes flow due to the thermally generated holes in a N-material and free
electrons in P-region.
In Reverse Bias, state the dynamic resistance of P-
N Junction diode is very large (10
6
ohms) Thus P-
N Junction allows current to flow easily in
forward bias state and obstructs the flow of
current in reveal bias state.

Q.3 Give circuit diagrams to obtain characteristic curves of a P-N Junction Diode.
Ans.:

The circuit of
Forward Biasing of a
P-N Junction
Diode

The circuit of Reverse
Biasing of a P-N Junction
Diode


Volt-Ampere
Characteristics of a P-N
Junction Diode

Q.4 Explain the phenomena of Avalanche Breakdown and of Zener Breakdown.
Ans. Avalanche Breakdown : This breakdown takes place due to strong electric field
in depletion layer. Due to this, there is a direct rupture of covalent bands and
electron-hole pairs so generated acquire a large amount of kinetic energy from
this field and collide with immobile ions, thereby generating further electron-
hole pairs. This process is cumulative in nature and results in avalanche of
charge carriers in very short time. This mechanism is called Avalanche
Multiplication.
Zener Breakdown : When P and N regions are heavily doped, the change charge
carrier density at the junction is abrupt and depletion layer of very thin width is
formed. The charge carriers of opposite nature are concentrated on both sides of
this layer. Due to this, strong electric field is generated is the depletion layer due
to its very small width even at nearly zero bias.
When diode is reverse biased, field across depletion layer becomes very high. In
this state the valance band of P-region comes in front of conduction band of N-
region and the electrons start flowing from valance band of P-region to
conduction band of N-region by tunnel effect due to strong electric field. This
type of breakdown is called Zener Breakdown.

Q.5 Explain the working of Zener Diode. How is it used for the Voltage
Stabilization?
Ans.: In reverse bias state, when applied voltage exceeds a certain limit, the current
through the P-N diode increases abruptly. This reverse voltage at which current

increases sharply, is called Zener Voltage. The ordinary diode may got damaged.
But zener diode is made to work in this breakdown region.

Symbol of Zener Diode
To obtain constant DC Voltage, regulated power supply is used. Zener diode is
used in many different type of Voltage Regulators for Voltage Stabilization.
Example : In Transistor, Shunt Regulator, Transistor Series Regulator, Zener
Diode Shunt Regulator.
Zener Diode Shunt Regulator :
As shown in circuit diagram -
Vi = VZ + RS I
or VZ = Vi RS I _ _ _ _ (1)
and current through zener
diode will be
IZ = I IL _ _ _ _ _ (2)
We know that variation in input voltage Vi and load current IL makes output
voltage unregulated.
When a zener diode is connected in parallel with load RL, then zener diode keeps
the output voltage constant is all conditions for example, If voltage variation DC
takes place at any instant in the input voltage Vi. Let it changes the current by an
amount dI. This current variation simultaneously changes the current through
zener with the same amount, but the load current IL remains constant and thus
voltage across load remains equal to zener voltage Vz. Similarly if the load
current changes, the zener current increases or decreases to keep the current
through RS. Constant as seen from equation (1).

Q.6 Explain the principle of Varacter Diode.
Ans.: Varacter Diodes: The varacter is a reverse biased diode having a useful property
that the diodes in reverse bias state that the diodes in reverse bias state acts as a
capacitor whose capacitance varies with the applied reverse voltage.
The width of depletion layer increases with the
reverse voltage. In this state P and N region of
the diode are like the plates of the capacitor and

the depletion layer is like the dielectric. We know that capacitance is inversely
proportional to the distance between the plates. Consequently larger the reverse
voltage, the larger is the width of depletion layer and hence the smaller the
capacitance. It means that the barrier capacitance is controlled by the reverse
voltage.
The varacter diode is widely used in FM
Radio, TV receiver etc.

Q.7 Explain the principle and working of Photodiode.
Ans.: Photodiode : It is a light a sensitive device which converts light signals into
electrical signals. It is a special type of diode which operates in reverse bias.
Construction of
Photodiode :
Photodiode is made of a
semiconductor P-N
diode kept in a sealed
opaque plastic of glass
casing. It has a small
transparent window
through which light falls at
junction.
Working of Photodiode : When light falls or junction of PN diode, electron-hole
pairs are generated in the semiconductor material. Due to movement of these
pairs, current flow in reverse bias. The magnitude of current depends on the
intensity of light. Higher the intensity of light IL, higher is the reverse current that
flows through the circuit.
Use of Photodiode : Photodiode is generally used in photo-detection devices,
logic circuits etc.
Q.8 Explain working of Light Emitting Diode. Mention its applications.
Ans.: Light Emitting Diode (LED) : P-N junction diode emits light when it is forward
biased. Such type of diode is called Light Emitting Diode.
These diodes are made from Gallium Phosphide (Ga) Materia or Gallium
Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) material.
The amount of light emitted by the diode is directly proportional to the forward
current i.e. higher the forward current, higher is the intensity of light emitted.
Characteristic Curve
of Varacter Diode

When LED is
forward biased, the
electrons from N
region and holes from
P region move
towards the junction and
recombine. In this process the electrons lying in the conduction band of N-region
fall into the holes in the valance band of P region. As a result energy of electrons
decreases and the energy equivalent to the difference of energy between the
conduction band and valance band is radiated in the form of light in LED.

Q.9 Describe the construction and circuit symbol of a Photovoltaic Cell.
Ans.: Photovoltaic Cell : If the Potential difference is generated between the ends of
the semiconductor material due to light radiator fall on it, then this effect is
called photovoltaic effect and semiconductor device using this effect is called
Photovoltaic Cell. The generated potential difference depends upon the intensity
of light and the load. A Photovoltaic Cell consists of semiconductor material
such as silicon, germanium etc. which is joined with the metal plate as shown in
fig. below :


Chapter-4

Rectification & Power Supply

Q.1 Define Rectification and Rectifier. What are the types of Rectifier?
Ans.: Rectification : Rectification is the process by which alternating voltage is
converted into direct voltage.
Rectifier : The electrical device which rectifies an alternating voltage is called a
Rectifier. In a rectifier the characteristic property of a diode of unidirectional
conduction is used by which a low resistance is offered to the flow current in on
direction and a high resistance is offered for flow in opposite direction.
Rectifiers are mainly of two types :
(i) Half Wave Rectifier : In which only one diode is used and only half of the
cycle of input alternating voltage is used.
(ii) Full Wave Rectifier : In which the full wave of the input alternating
voltage is used.

Q.2 Describe working of Half Wave Rectifier with the help of circuit diagram.

Ans.: Half Wave Rectifier :

As shown in figure, in Half Wave Rectifier, the source of alternating voltage is
connected to primary coil of a transformer and the secondary coil to a diode D
and load resistance in series.

Suppose voltage on transformer is Vi = Ep sin t the voltage induced in
secondary is Vs = n Ep Sin t = Em sin t, where n ratio of turns in
secondary and primary coil.
For positive half cycle of Vi, the end A of secondary coil is at positive voltage and
B at negative voltage. In this state, diode is forward biased and current i flow in
the circuit. During other half cycle, A is at negative voltage and end B is at
positive voltage. In this state P-N diode is reverse biased and no current slows.
Thus thorough the load RL connected in the output circuit current flows only for
half cycle of the cycle of input voltage Vi.
The output voltage is always positive (unidirectional) but varies with time i.e.,
the output voltage is pulsating.

Q.3 Determine following quantities in Full Wave Rectifier :
(i) Average Value of Pulsating Current
(ii) Efficiency
(iii) Ripple Factor
Ans.: Full Wave Rectifier :
(i) Average Value of Pulsating Current :
Idc =
1
T

0
T
idt

=
1
T

/ 2
1
0
T
i dt
+
2
/ 2
T
T
i dt

OR Idc =
1
T

/ 2
0
sin
T
m
I t
dt +
/ 2
( ) sin
T
m
T
I t
dt
=
m
I
T

/ 2
0
T
Cos t
| |
|
\
-
/ 2
T
T
Cos t
| |
|
\

=
m
I
t
( )
/2
0
cos
T
t - ( )
/2
cos
T
T
t
=
m
I
2
2 2 2
. 0 . .
2 2
T T
Cos Cos Cos T Cos
T T T
( | | | |
+ +
| | (
\ \

Idc =
2
m
I

2
T
| |
=
|
\

(ii) Efficiency :

Rectification Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier
D

Output C Power
Input AC Power
=
dc
ac
P
P
=
Output DC Power of Full Wave Rectifier
2
2
2
4
m
dc dc L L
I
P I R R
= =
Input AC Power of Full Wave Rectifier
2
2
( ) ( )
2
m
ac rms L L
I
P I R R R R = + = +
Efficiency
2
2
2 2
4
8 0.812
( ) ( )
1
2
m L
L
m L L
L
I R
R
I R R R R R
R
= = =
+ + | |
+
|
\

Percentage Efficiency
81.2
%
1
L
R
R
=
| |
+
|
\

Maximum Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier will be 81.2% when R < < RL.
(iii) Ripple Factor : The alternating variation present in the output of Full
Wave Rectifier is called Ripple. It is measured by a constant called Ripple
Factor.
Ripple Factor

ac
dc
I The effective valueof ac component in output
r
The dc component in output I
= =
OR
1/2
2
2
1
rms
dc
I
r
I
| |
=
|
\

Substituting the value of Irms and Idc for a Full Wave Rectifier

1/ 2
2 2
2
. 1
2 4
m
m
I
r
I
| |
=
|
\

1/2
2
1
8
r
| |
=
|
\

r = 0.482
r =48.2%

Q.4 Draw the circuit diagram of a Bridge Rectifier and explain its working.
Ans.: Bridge Rectifier :

As shown in figure Bridge Rectifier consists of four diodes D1, D2, D3 & D4 which
are connected to form a network just like wheat stone bridge.
Working of Bridge Rectifier : When AC voltage Vi = Ep sint is applied across
the ends of the primary coil of transformer then Vs = nEp sint is induced
between the ends E and F of its secondary coil. During the half cycle of Input
voltage when E is positive with respect to Point F, diodes D1 & D3 are forward
biased and D2 & D4 are reverse biased. Consequently a current slows through the
diodes D1, & D3. During Next half cycle, diode D2 & D4 conduct and current
flows only through then. Thus it is clear that for both half cycles the currents
flows through RC in one direction only.
Q.5 What are Filters? Describe the working of Shunt Capacitor Filter.
Ans.: Filter : Filter is an electric circuit used for smoothing output current i.e. to
separate the AC component from the pulsating output current of the rectifier. It
is made by combining inductors and capacitors.
Shunt Capacitor Filter :

In this type of filter, a capacitor C is connected is parallel with the load resistance
RL. Filtration of AC component from diode output voltage depends upon the
energy storage capacity of the capacitor C. When diode (Suppose D1) output
voltage increases (Say from t1 to t2 as shown in figure) the capacitor stores energy
by charging to the peak B of the corresponding Input cycle upto time t2. Beyond
t2 when input voltage decreases from its peak value, the diode D1 disconnects
from the source and load. So it stops conducting and capacitor starts discharging
energy thorough the load RL.

In the next half cycle of Input, this process takes place through diode D2. The
process continues for other cycles and the rectifier with capacitor filter gives the
wave form of the output voltage like ABCD curve shown in figure.
Q.6 Explain the working of Series Inductor Filter.
Ans.: Series Inductor Filter : The ripple in the rectifier output can be reduced by
connecting high independence inductor L in series with lead Resistance RL.

Working of Series Inductor Filter : When diode output current tends to rise
above the average value, of the inductor L stores energy in due to rise in the
current in the form of magnetic energy and offers impedance to AC component
and no resistance to DC component. Thus AC component is blocked and only
DC component reaches at the load. When the load current decreases below
average, it develops additional only in the inductor due to outflow of magnetic
energy and resists the decrement of the output load current. In this way the
fluctuation in the output current decreases by the inductor L.

Q.7 Sketch block diagram of SMPS.
Ans.: SMPS :

Block Diagram of Switching Mode Power Supply

Chapter-5

Bipolar Junction - Transistor

Q.1 What is Transistors? Draw notations for PNP and NPN Transistors.
Ans.: Transistor : When a third doped element is added to semiconductor diode in
such a way that two P-N Junctions are formed, the resulting device is known
so Transistor.
Transistor is small in size and very light in weight. It needs a very low voltage
source and has longer life.
There are two types of Transistor :
(i) PNP Transistor

(ii) NPN Transistor


Q.2 Explain different types of Transistor Biasing.
Ans.: The connection of correct polarity of voltage across its two junctions for proper
working of transistor its known as Transistor Biasing. There are three ways of
biasing transistor :
(i) Forward Active : In this biasing, emitter base junction is made forward
biased and collector base junction is reverse biased. This biasing is called
Forward Ative and generally used in Amplification.

(ii) Saturation : IN this biasing, both emitter base junction and collector base
junction are forward biased. In this mode the transistor has very large
current to flow and used as a closed switch.

(iii) Cut Off : In this biasing both junction are reversed biased and transistor
has practically no current to flow and used as open switch.


Q.3 Discuss sign convention and signs of various voltage and current in a Junction
Transistor.
Ans.: Sign Conventions for Voltages and Currents in Transistor : In Junction
Transistor one of its terminal for input and output circuits.
Sign Convention for Current : Normally, current flowing into a Junction
Transistor is taken positive where as current flowing out of it is takes as
negative.
Sign Convention for Voltages : The voltage is taken as positive when terminals
symbol of transistor used as first subscript in symbol indicating voltage is
positive with respect to terminals symbol of transistor used as second subscript
in voltages symbol.

In NPN In PNP
VEB - +
VCB + -
VCE + -

Q.4 What do you understand from Junction Transistor Configurations and
Characteristic Curves.
Ans.: In Junction Transistor, all the electrical quantities at the output are in general
controlled by the electrical quantities at the Input. The four electrical quantities
related with input and output are :
(a) Input Current
(b) Input Voltage
(c) Output Current
(d) Output Voltage
The dependence of these quantities on one another is represented by different
curves called Characteristic Curves.
There are three basic configuration of Transistor :
(i) Common Base Configuration
(ii) Common Emitter Configuration

(iii) Common Collector Configuration

Q.5 Give the circuit diagram of Common Base NPN Transistor and give the
method of plotting input and output characteristics.
Ans.: Common Base Configuration : In this configuration base terminal is common in
input and output circuits. To represent the behaviour of NPN Transistor in this
configuration two sets of Characteristic Curves are drawn :

(i) Input Characteristics : In this
configuration IE is input
current and VEB is input
voltage. IC is output current and
VCB is output voltage. Keeping VCB
constant, the graph between IE and
VEB are called Input
Characteristics.

(ii) Output Characteristics : In
common base configuration, Ic is
output current and VCB is
output voltage.

Collector Current IC is a function of IE and VCB i.e.
Ic =
(VCB, IE)

Keeping IE constant the set of waves drawn between IC and VCB are called
Output Characteristics. The output characteristics of transistor in CB
configuration may be divided into three region of operation :
(i) Active
(ii) Saturation
(iii) Cutoff

Q.6 What do you understand from and of Transistor. Establish relation
between them.
Ans.: Current Amplification Factor () : In common base configuration, this is defined
as the ratio of collector current IC and emitter current IE keeping VCB constant.

C
E
I
I
=
Current Amplification Factor () : In common emitter configuration, the ratio of
IC and IB for constant VCE is called DC Current Gain and given as

tan
CE
C
B
V Cons t
I
I
| |
=
|
\

Relation between and :
For Junction Transistor, we know that
IE = IB + IC _ _ _ _ _ (i)

Dividing this equation by the IC, we get

1
+
=
B
C
I
I
+ 1 _ _ _ _ _ (ii)

1
=
1
+ 1

1
=
1
+

=
1
+
_ _ _ _ _ (iii)
Equation (ii) can be written as

1
=
1
- 1

1
=
1

=
1

_ _ _ _ _ (iv)

Q.7 Describe Hybrid Parameters of a Transistor.
Ans.: Hybrid Parameters of Transistor : To stand a four terminal network two
variables are taken as independent variables while two are taken as dependent
variables. In transistor Input current I1 and output voltage V2 control the
behaviour of internal circuit so there are taken as independent variables and
remaining the two are dependant variables.
V1 = f (I1, V2) _ _ _ _ _ (i)
I2 = f ( I1 , V2) _ _ _ _ _ (ii)
On taking total differentials
dV1 =
1
1
V
I
dI1 +
1
2
V
V
dV2 _ _ _ _ _ (iii)
And dI1 =
2
1
I
I
dI1 +
2
2
I
V
dv2 _ _ _ _ _ (iv)
OR V1 = h11 I1 + h12 V2 _ _ _ _ _ (v)
I2 = h21 I1 + h22 v2 _ _ _ _ _ (vi)


Here coefficient h11, h12, h21 & h22 are of different dimension so they are referred
as hybrid parameters.
hi = h11 =
1
1
V
I
Short circuited input impedance when V2 =0 its unit is
ohm.
hr = h12 =
1
2
V
V
Open circuited reverse voltage ratio when I1 =0 it
dimension less parameter.

hf = h21 =
2
1
I
I
Short circuited forward current gain when V2 =0 it is
dimension less parameter.
H0 = h22 =
2
2
I
V
Open circuited output admittance when I1 =0 its unit
is mho.

Send your requisition at
info@biyanicolleges.org

190 PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

190 PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biyani's Think Tank

Concept based notes

You might also like