Soils of The Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Terms of references
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Soil Science and Agrochemistry - Bucharest; joint authors: P. G`[tescu (Chap. 4), Institute of Geography - Bucharest; N. Panin (Chap. 5), Romanian Center of Marine Geology and Geoecology - Bucharest; Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment.- Lelystad: RIZA, 1996.- 174 p. : 33 figures; 10 tables ; 30 cm.- RIZA nota nr. 96.96.070; ISBN 90-369-5037-6 Key words: Danube Delta, soil classification, soil map, Holocene deposits, salinity, alkalinity, land-use
Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta/ I. Munteanu,; Research Institute for
Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve
Preface
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This report is the result of a scientific co-operation between Romanian and Dutch soil scientists. Within the framework of a co-operation between the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Authority (DDBRA) and the Danube Delta Institute (DDI) and the Dutch Institute for Inland Water Management and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA), an agreement was signed with the Romanian Research Institute for Soil Science and Agrochemistry (RISSA) to produce the Soil Map for the Danube Delta and this matching report. For the Dutch partners in this co-operation, the Danube Delta is a good reference area for ecological restoration projects in the Dutch Rhine Delta. For the Romanian partners in the co-operation, the Dutch experience of ecological research and ecological restoration is a good reference point for their management and restoration projects in the Romanian Danube Delta. A good detailed Soil Map and its explanatory report are highly necessary for the development of management plans for the delta area and for ecological restoration plans in its Biosphere Reserve. The field work and laboratory analyses were carried out by the RISSA in Bucharest and the DDI in Tulcea, Romania. The GIS digitizing was carried out by the DDI in Tulcea. The cartography, the digital map processing, the review of the explanation and printing were part of the Dutch contribution. Because of the good co-operation, the qualified specialists and the perseverance, we have succeeded in making these good accessible products. We hope that this soil map on a scale of 1:100,000 and the report will be used as basic information for many purposes, especially for ecological restoration, monitoring and preservation of the Danube Delta ecosystem.
Prof. Dr. C. R~ut~ director, RISSA
R. {tiuc, M.Sc. director, DDI
A.W. de Haas, M.Sc. head of Research Division, RIZA
Contents
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1 Abstract 13 2 3 3.1 3.2 Introduction 15 Background Information 17 History of the Soil Survey in the Danube Delta 17 Soil database 17
4 Geography 21 4.1 Geographic position 21 4.2 Main geographic units 21 Danube Delta 21 Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex 22 The Isaccea-Tulcea Sector of the Danube flood plain 23 4.3 Hypsometry 23 4.4 morphohydrographic features 24 4.4.1 Predeltaic landform categories 24 4.4.2 Riverine levees 24 4.4.3 Marine levees 24 4.4.4 Hydrographic network 25 4.4.5 Lakes 26 4.5 Hydrology 27 4.6 Climate 28 4.7 Vegetation 29 4.8 History of Human Settlement 30 Settlements 30 Population 30 Traditional occupations 30 Navigation 31 4.9 Land-use In the Delta 31 4.10 Natural geomorphologic processes and changes induced By Man 32 5 5.1 5.2 5.3 Geology 35 Introduction 35 General morphology 35 Processes and dynamic factors controlling the delta morphology and development 38 5. 4 Geological setting and Holocene evolution of the Danube Delta 40 Pre-quaternary evolution 40 Quaternary evolution 41 Holocene evolution 41 5.5 Types of Sediment facies in the Danube Delta 46 5.6 Head deposits 48 6 Soils 51
6.1 Soil Classification 51 6.2 Characterisation of the Main Soils 52 6.2.1 ALLUVIAL SOILS 53 Land-use 53 6.2.2 LIMNOSOLS (Underwater Soils) 53 Land-use 53 Soil pollution of aquatic sediments 53 6.2.3 GLEY SOILS 53 6.2.4 PSAMMOSOLS AND SANDS 53 6.2.5 SOLONCHAKS 53 Land-use 53 6.2.6 SOLONETZ 53 6.2.7 KASTANOZEMS (Chestnut Soils) 53 Land-use 53 6.2.8 CHERNOZEMS 53 Land-use 53 6.2.9 HISTOSOLS 53 Land-use 53 6.2.10 ANTHROSOLS and NOT SOILS 53 7 Soil Map Legend 53 7.1 Mapped area and scale of soil mapping 53 7.2 Field Work 53 7.3 SOIL MAP 53 7.4 Soil map legend 53 7.5 Soil map legend characterisation 53 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.5.1 8.5.2 8.5.3 8.5.4 8.5.5 8.5.6 Soil Salinity and Alkalinity; Pyrite Formation and Acidity 53 Soil salinity 53 Type of soil salinity 53 Soil alkalinity 53 Pyrite formation and soil acidity 53 Main adverse processes in AREAs used for Agriculture 53 Organic matter depletion 53 Salinisation 53 Acidification of peat soils (see Chapter 6.2.9 and 8.4) 53 Aridification 53 Wind erosion 53 Subsidence 53
References 97 Appendices 103 I. Printed map II. Main properties of the different soil types III. Examples of all soil types and results of analyses IV. Errata in the printed Soil Map
Acknowledgements
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Sometimes miracles become reality. After more than 15 years of field work, during changing circumstances, the report on the `Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta is finally finished. I would like to express my thanks to all the people who have been involved over the years in the work finalised by this report. First of all, I would like to thank my colleagues who participated in the field work, enduring the hard conditions of the Danube Delta: M. Toti, G. Cip~ianu, G. Burcea, I. Piciu, St. Trandafir, Ch. Dobrescu (RISSA Bucharest); Jenic~ Hanganu (DDI - Tulcea): Gh. Lupa[cu, E. Rusu (Biological Centre - Ia[i); S. Panaitescu (OSPA - Pite[ti) and M. Antemir (OSPA - Tulcea). Also my thanks to the specialists from RISSA who carried out the huge amount of soil analyses: P. Vasilescu, Beatrice Kovacsovics, Nina Rizca, Eugenia Iacob and Maria Constantinescu. Special thanks to my colleagues Gh. Curelariu and C. Grigora[ who besides their important contributions in the field survey assisted me in the pre-processing of the soil data analysis and prepared some cross sections and diagrams included in this report. The maps and drawings were done by Mrs Dragot~ Mihacla and Mrs Violeta Nicolescu, and Miss Camelia P\rvu typed.
Special recognition to Prof. Dr. C. R~ut~, director of the RISSA for his unending support given to the soil survey in the Danube Delta. I would like to thank M.Sc. H. Drost (RIZA) for carrying out the projectmanagment and arranging the financial problems. Special thanks to M.Sc. U. Menke and M.Sc. H.J. Winkels of the Soil Science division (RIZA) for their support and expert help during this project. Many thanks to the computer specialists I. Grigoras and A. Constantinescu, DDI - Tulcea, and A. Groeneweg, C. Roelfsma, J.W. Duinker from the Survey Department - Delft, for their work of digitizing and preparing the soil map and the thematic maps for printing. At last but not least I am deeply grateful to my wife, Maria Munteanu, as a colleague who has participated in the field survey in the delta for many years but also for her continuous encouragement, without which the soil map and the soil report would not have been achieved.
I. Munteanu, June 1996
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List of figures 1 The Danube Delta topographical names and position of transects presented in Figures: 10, 11, 12, 16a, b, 17, 20, 21, 22, 24a, b, 25, 27, 28 Geographic units of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve Land-use in the Danube Delta Major morphological and depositional units of the Danube Delta Tectonic units of the Danube Delta area Geological cross section through the Danube Delta First stage of the Danube Delta evolution Types of sediment facies in the Danube Delta The main phases of Holocene Danube Delta evolution Cross section of Holocene deposits in the eastern part of Pardina Polder Cross section of the Dunav~] area (before embankment) Cross section of the Isaccea-Tulcea sector of the Danube flood plain Particle size distribution of the main mineral deposits in the Danube Delta Texture of head deposits in the Pardina Polder, a) 0-50 cm, b) 50-100 cm and c) 100-150 cm Texture of head deposits in the Carasuhat Polder, a) 0-50 cm, b) 50-100 cm and c) 100-150 cm Cross section through riverine levees of the Danube Delta, a) riverine part and b) marine part Cross section through Sireasa Polder Physical composition of some unripened soils of the Danube Delta, a) Limnosol and b) Semisubmerged Gley Soil Changes in soil ripening status of some Gley Soils of the Uzlina experimental field Cross section in the Letea complex Cross section in the Dranov area Cross section through Sinoe Lake and Chituc Peninsula Types of salt accumulation in Solonchaks of the Danube Delta Cross section through Chilia loess plain Cross section in the area Mati]a-Merhei Phytocoenoses and soil development on the edges of the Danube Delta lakes, in a floating organic soil (plaur) area Cross section in a landscape of floating Histosols in the Danube Delta (Uzlina area) Cross section through Puiu-Ro[u area Mapped area and the level of information used Types of soil salinity in the Danube Delta Variation in pH, soluble salts and gypsum in an Acid Sulphate Hemic Histosols Schematic cross section of an area with Potentially Acid Hemic Histosols overlying sandy substratum Changes in organic matter content (a) and of salt distribution (b) in the Pardina Polder
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33
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List of tables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Organisation of Soil Database on a scale of 1: 50,000 of DDBR Temperature parameters of the Danube Delta Land-use in the RDDBD (according to Ecological zonation Act 82/1993) Correlation between different soil classifications Distribution of the soil types in the Romanian Danube Delta Classification of main subtypes of Limnosols Some examples of groundwater salt composition from Solonchaks of the Danube Delta Breakdown of organic carbon (C) in some samples of organic materials taken from Danube Delta (by Pyrophosphate and Natrium hydroxide method) Some characteristics of organic matter of a Hemic Histosol from the Isaccea-Tulcea sector of the Danube Flood Plain Soil Map Legend Characterisation
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1 Abstract
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The Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (580,000 ha) is situated northwest of the Black Sea in Eastern Europe. Four geographic divisions can be distinguished; the Danube Delta, the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex, the Isaccea-Tulcea sector of the Danube flood plain and the shallow marine waters. The last named division is not included in the presented soil map. The delta is like many other deltas a very low and flat area, with a mean elevation of 0.52 m above Mean Black Sea Level. From a depositional point of view, the delta can be divided into the delta plain, the delta front and the prodelta. The delta plain starts at the apex, where the river Danube splits into the Chilia distributary and the Tulcea distributary. The latter one divides further on into the Sulina and Sf. Gheorghe distributaries. The delta front represents the shore of the delta and the prodelta lies off-shore. The morphology and development of the delta has been controlled by several processes. The most important ones influencing sediment transport and sedimentation are river input, meteorological factors, wave action, sea level and marine currents. The delta is situated in an area where the earths crust is moving rather quickly, resulting in strong subsidence and substantial sediment accumulations. These deltaic conditions started in the Quartenary, when the Danube started flowing into the Black Sea basin. The actual geomorphology of the delta plain shows the interaction of the river and the sea during the Holocene. The evolution of the delta is studied by using radiocarbon datings. The main sediment facies types are; marine littoral deposits, lacustrine littoral deposits, fluvial deposits, marsh deposits and loessoiide deposits. Active pedological data gathering started in the Danube Delta in 1975. The soils of the delta were surveyed on a scale of 1:50,000. The data were entered into a general soil database on a scale of 1:50,000. The attributes given to each cartographic unit (polygon) of the database are polygon number, soil type, subtype, soil ripening, topsoil texture, landform, artifact type, head deposit, drainage/inundability and land-use. The abovementioned soil survey and database entry and interpretation resulted in a soil map on a scale of 1:100,000 and this scientific report. The soils in the Danube Delta are closely related to the above mentioned geography and Holocene evolution of the area. The soil map legend consists of 41 soil legend units representing 9 major soil groups; Alluvial Soils, Limnosols or Underwater Soils, Gley Soils, Psammosols and Sands, Solonchaks (including Solonetz), Kastanozems, Chernozems, Histosols and Anthrosols. The prevailing soils are Gley Soils and Histosols, followed by Alluvial Soils and Psammosols. The frequent occurance of Gley Soils, Histosols and Limnosols emphasize the high value of the area as a wetland.
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The main soils occurring in the Danube Delta are characterised and their actual use is explained. In Chapter 6 and the first appendix the main properties of all soil types (given in the legend to the soil map) within the major soil groups are given and explained. In the third appendix the results of profile description, classification and analytical research are added as examples of several soil types. The accessibility of the soil map and legend is ensured by also adding the names according to the FAO/UNESCO Revised Legend and the USDA Soil Taxonomy apart from the Romanian soil names. There are 15 columns in the legend explaining the legend symbols, soil names and types, their occurrence, landforms and parent material, land-use and human settlement, soil water regime, mechanical filtering capacity, bearing capacity, susceptibility to salinisation, susceptibility to acidification, susceptibility to wind erosion, susceptibility to organic or nutrient depletion, vulnerability to chemical contamination, general ecological value and some special remarks. Processes occurring in the soil like salinity, alkalinity, pyrite formation and acidity are elucidated in the final chapter. The soil map and its database are available in a Geographic Information System (ARCINFO-GIS) at the DDI/RISSA in Romania and at the RIZA in the Netherlands. This database can and will be used to derive several additional maps in the near future based on the information gathered and interpreted for this soil map and included in this report.
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Introduction
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This Explanatory Report and the Soil Map on a scale 1: 100,000 of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (DDBR) have been produced in the framework of a trilateral agreement, between the Research Institute of Soil Science and Agrochemistry-Bucharest (RISSA), the Danube Delta Institute-Tulcea (ICPDD) and the RIZA of the Directorate-General of Public Works and Water Management - Lelystad. The publication of the map and the report should fulfill the following objectives. Providing the national and international scientific community with an easily accessible and complete information about the nature and geographic distribution of the main components of the soil cover and of pedogenetic conditions within the DDBR. Providing a scientific base for a correct understanding of the specific biofunctions of soils in the Danube Delta ecosystem. Providing a complete qualitative and quantitative inventory of the soil resources to fill in the global resources inventory of DDBR. Providing the pedological basis for the general and local management policy and the use of the soil and related resources (i.e. vegetation) in the DDBR, and providing a basis for choosing the measures best suited to rehabilitate (renaturalise) the disaffected and damaged areas in the DDBR. Providing the pedological basis for building a general model for future landscape evolution of the DDBR.
Chapter 3 of the report gives a short overview of (soil) research in the Danube Delta. Chapter 4 deals with the geography of the area and Chapter 5 with the geology in the delta. Chapter 6 describes all the soils of the Danube Delta. Chapter 7 gives an overview about the making of the soil map on a scale of 1:100,000. In Chapter 8 more information about the salinity and alkalinity of the soils can be found. Appendix I is the printed Soil Map which is added to the report in the fold of the front cover page. The main properties of the different soil profiles are listed in Appendix II and examples of typical soil profiles of the Danube Delta are given in Appendix III. Appendix IV is a listing of Errata in the printed Soil Map.
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Background Information
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3.1
History of the Soil Survey in the Danube Delta
The first data about the soils of the Danube Delta were recorded at the beginning of this century and are attributed to biologists (Antipa, 19131914, 1914, 1915, 1941; Pallis, 1916) and to soil scientists (Nabokih, 1915-19161). Further pedological data were gathered much later (Gustiuc and Chiritza, 1958; Conea et al., 1964; Teaci and Pop, 1964; Munteanu et al., 1964). The pedological information and maps made before 1975 cover less than 25% of the delta territory because of the inaccessability of the marshes and lakes as well as to conceptual limits which restricted soil surveys from only being carried out on subaerial land. An extensive soil survey was developed in 1975 when the concepts for the classification of Limnosols (for subaquatic soils) and semi-submerged Gley Soils (for marsh soils) were introduced (I. Munteanu, 1975, 1982). New methods were adapted partly as a result of Dutch experience (I. Munteanu et al., 1976) for soil mapping and sampling in marshy lands and lacustrine areas. The main most recently printed soil maps of this area are on a scale 1:400,000 (Popp, Teaci, 1963) and on a scale 1:200,000 (I. Munteanu et al., 1964 and I. Munteanu, Ana Conea 1964).
3.2
Soil database
The general soil database for DDBR is on a scale of 1:50,000. The field survey of the largest part of the delta was carried out on this scale. The first step was to simplify the larger scale soil maps drawn at 1:10,000 and 1:25,000 to a scale of 1:50,000 and afterwards assembling all the maps on topographical sheets, at the same scale using transparent paper. The second step was to compile a soil map legend for the whole area of DDBR. In order to simplify the work and to avoid making several maps, every soil mapping unit (which corresponds either to a soil association or soil consociation) was transformed into a complex soil mapping unit by adding the main physical characteristic of environmental conditions, i.e. landforms, head deposits, drainage, land-use, etc. This kind of soil mapping unit represents a soil landscape (or soil scape ) unit called a pedotop in the Romanian soil science literature (Florea, 1987). Because it not only represents a soil association but also a soil association together with its most important environmental factors, this unit is somewhat similar to the soil mapping unit (Daroussin, 1995). The attributes given to each cartographic unit (polygon) of the 1:50,000 database are as follows : Polygon number : consists of two numbers, the first one on the topographical sheet and the second one on the general map of the DDBR
quoted from Kovda (1946)
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Soil (type/subtype/phase) :
- 12 soil types, - 21 characteristics at subtype level, - 9 characteristics at phase level, - 6 classes of soil ripening.
Top soil texture : 7 texture classes Landforms : 6 types and 32 subdivisions Artifacts : 4 types Head deposits (parent soil materials) : - 5 types of mineral head deposits based on texture classes, and 24 subdivisions, classified according to origin. - 3 types of organic deposits based on the organic matter content - 6 classes of depth of sandy substratum below loamy/clayey deposits and 6 classes of thickness of organic deposits. - 7 specific characteristics of head deposits. Drainage & inundability : - 6 classes in natural state - 4 classes in the changed (diked and drained) state. Land-use : 4 categories The organisation of the DDBR Soil database is shown in Table 1.
............................. Table 1. Organisation of Soil Database on a scale of 1: 50,000 of DDBR.
Map Polygon (P) Topographical sheet coordinates L-35-107A (3168 polygons) Polygon no. 1, 2,300 Linkages between Polygons and SMUs Polygon P1 P3 P5 SMU SMU1 SMU1 SMU9 Attributes i.e. Soil Landforms
Soil Mapping Unit (SMU) Soils Environmental conditions (1334 SMUs)
Position of STU within organisation of SMU SMU STU Attribute SMU1 STU1 SMU2 STU4 i.e. area SMU3 STU4 Soil Profile database Adapted from EEC Soil database
Soil Typological Unit (STU) Soil name, top soil texture, etc.
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Geography
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4.1
Geographic position
The Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve (DDBR) is situated in the eastern part of Europe and lies at the intersection of 45N (parallel of latitude) with 29E (longitude) (Figure 1). The total area of the DDBR is of about 580,000 ha more than half of which (338,100 ha) belongs to what is commonly called the Danube Delta while the remaining area is shared between the upstream Danube flood plain (Tulcea - Isaccea sector 9,100 ha), the RazimSinoe lagoon complex (101,500 ha), the neighbouring strip from the Black Sea (130000 ha) up to the 20 m isobath, and the Danube river between Cotu Pisicii and Isaccea (1,300 ha). In this text only the continental part of the DDBR is discussed.
4.2
Main geographic units
The geography of the Danube Delta area as it has been recorded through time shows substantial differences if compared with presentday maps. These differences originate perhaps on the one hand from the accuracy of old cartographic maps but also from changes resulting from the geomorphologic processes of evolution and accretion of this very dynamic physiographic unit. Three out of the four geographic divisions of the DDBR (Figure 2) have been included in the soil map: the Danube Delta, the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex and the Isaccea -Tulcea sector of the Danube flood plain, the marine waters up to 20 metres isobaths are not included. Danube Delta The Romanian geographic literature referring to the Danube Delta (G`[tescu, 1989), means the area from the first bifurcation of the Danube river (Ceatalul Chiliei) and the area bordered by the Black Sea to the east, the Chilia branch to the north and Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex to the south. On the basis of landforms, morphometric and hydrographic characteristics, the Danube Delta is divided in two main subunits: the fluviatile (riverine) delta, situated to the west of the initial beach ridge Jibrieni-Letea-Caraorman-R~ducu-Ceamurlia, and the fluvio-marine (or marine) delta which extends east of this line, up to the Black Sea (Figure 2). The fluviatile (riverine) delta ( 258,100 ha) represents the oldest part which was developed within the former gulf of the Danube river. Its main characteristic, is the relatively large extension of riverine levees, while the depressionary lacustrine areas are generally smaller, dispersed and partly subjected to an intensive silting process. The fluvio-marine (or marine) Delta ( 180,000 ha) includes the marine levees, Letea, Caraorman and S~r~turile and one of the most important lacustrine complexes (Ro[u-Puiu-Lumina). It is affected by major morphohydrographic changes in the contact zone with the Black Sea.
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Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex
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From the genetic point of view, this area is not considered as belonging to the Danube Delta. Indeed, it represents the old Halmyris Gulf, isolated from the Black Sea by beach ridges formed under the action of longshore drift sedimentation. These beach ridges, which belong to several generations, divided the former lagoon into a rather heterogeneous lacustrine complex, 85% of which are occupied by lakes. The Isaccea-Tulcea Sector of the Danube flood plain This area represents the right-hand side of the river valley between Isaccea city and the first Delta bifurcation (Ceatalul Chiliei). The physiography (frequency of lakes and predominance of low-lying areas) of this flood plain sector is quite similar to the fluviatile part of the Danube Delta.
4.3
Hypsometry
The Danube Delta is a very low flat plain, lying 0.52 m above Mean Black Sea Level (MBSL) with a general gradient of 0.006 m/km. It is th worth noting that at the beginning of the 20 century (according to the
map drawn by Vidra[cu, 1911)2 the absolute altitude of the Danube Delta was + 0.31 m above MBSL. Although an increase of the absolute altitude following silting and accretion could have occurred, the difference of 0.21 m cannot be explained by the above-mentioned natural processes alone, so some errors of measurements must also occur in the old Danube Delta map. Being close to the Black Sea level, in the case of the Danube Delta, the hypsometry is limited to a very narrow range of values. The maximum difference in altitude is 15 m and is given by the highest point (+12.4 m) of the Letea dunes and the lowest lake bottom (-3 m) from the marine part of the delta. The maximum depth of the Danube branches was not considered: -39 m Chilia, -34 m Tulcea and -26 m Sf. Gheorghe branch. Compared to the Black Sea level, only 20.5% of the delta area is below 0 m. The rest (79.5%) is above 0 m the most of which (54.6%), is in the range 0-1 m above MBSL. If, the 1-2 m range (18.2%) and that of below 0 m are added to this range, more than 93% of the delta area is within the 3 m range of hypsometry. By comparing these figures with those on the older maps it can be seen that since of the beginning of this century the area situated below 0 m has diminished by more than 50% (from 45.4 to 20.5%), at a calculated rate of 1,150 ha/year. Although these figures are not absolute, they can be considered as a good indicator of the general trend of evolution of the delta area. The embankments which developed in the Danube flood plain and in the delta itself have made an important contribution to this process, by restricting the area of possible inundation resulted in an intensification of silting (alluvial sedimentation) in areas remaining in the natural state. The hypsometry of the Tulcea-Isaccea flood plain sector ranges between 4.2 m on the riverine levees and +1.0 m at the bottom of the lakes.
Serviciul Pescariilor Statului
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In the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex the highest point, 48 m absolute altitude, is found on Popina island and the lowest one, - 3.0 m, at the bottom of Razim lake. However, more than 99% of the area is in a 5 m range of hypsometry, given by the difference in absolute altitude of the lake bottoms and that of the marine levees (2.2 m). If compared to the Black Sea Level, only 15% of the area (marine levees) is above 0 m level (= MBSL).
4.4
morphohydrographic features
These features include: the predeltaic landforms, riverine and marine levees (beachridges/sandbars, and coastal dunes); the hydrographic network (main branches, secondary streams and canals) and lakes (G~[tescu and Driga, 1983). 4.4.1 Predeltaic landform categories These are represented by the continental remnants of the Chilia field and the central part of the Stipoc levee, cut off from the Bugeac Plain which extends to the north of the Chilia branch. These landforms consist of loess deposits, which contain buried soils in them. The Chilia field shows a gradual decrease of the absolute altitude (4.5 m) north to south, and northwest to southeast. In the same directions the loess deposits are increasingly covered by riverine deposits, and as a consequence the landscape changes slowly from a typical loess plain into a deltaic one. Among the predeltaic landforms, the small islands of Popina and Bisericu]a (Triassic limestone) found in the Razim lake should be mentioned, and also the little island (consisting of Silurian green schists) located in the apex of the Histria marine levee. The ancient town of Histria was founded on this island. The total area of predeltaic landforms is estimated at being 8,200 ha (2.6% of the delta). 4.4.2 Riverine levees The riverine levees represent the landforms resulting from the deposition of alluvial materials during the floods which overflow the stream banks. The levees are well developed along the main branches (Chilia, Sulina and Sf. Gheorghe) up to those bifurcations (Ceataluri) forming true alluvial plains which are more than 3 m high. Downstream, the riverine levees decrease both in height and in width, so in the marine part of the delta, near to sea, they are only 0.3 m high and between 50 and 100 m wide. Besides the riverine levees which accompany the main branches, similar landforms but which are smaller in size also develop along the secondary streams and canals of the riverine delta. The total area occupied by riverine levees represents 6% of the delta. The build-up of canals and of platforms for storage of harvested reed, resulted in man-made levees which are higher but narrower than the natural ones. 4.4.3 Marine levees These landforms were developed by a combination of marine and riverine transport and sedimentation processes. Being perpendicular to the direction of main river branches, the marine levees act as dams within the delta area. The circular marine streams characteristic of the
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Black Sea basin as well as waves are the main factor which caused and is still causing the formation of these levees (5.3). The only Danube contribution to the marine levee genesis is the supply of alluvial material. This sediment is subsequently taken over by the waves and marine streams. Besides the Danube, an important source ofbuilding materials are the north-western Black Sea cliffs and shell debris originating from the marine platform. Within the delta the largest marine levees are those of the so-called initial beach ridge Letea, Caraorman and Crasnicol, which were formed approximately between 10,000 and 11,000 years ago. These initial beach ridges dammed in the former deltaic gulf (see Chap. 5) separating the present-day fluvial delta behind them. These levees which represent the juxtaposition of several beach ridges and consist mainly of sandy deposits, are mainly characterized by their maximum height (12.4 m Letea and 7 m Caraorman), their dune fields resulting from aeolian erosion of sandy deposits, and by the plant associations found there. Due to the richness of the flora, the forests of Letea and Caraorman have been declared nature reserves. The third complex of marine levees is S~r~turile, which has an intermediate position between the initial beach ridge and the present-day sand bars: with the apex on the seashore it fans out in a northeast to southwest direction across the delta. The numerous narrow and low sand bars scattered through the marine delta also belong to the same landform type. The Sakhalin island, developed at the mouth of the Sf. Gheorghe branch, represents one of the best examples of the genesis of these landforms. Another important group of marine sandy levees is that of Chituc, Istria and Lupilor, found within the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex. The Chituc levee (also known as the Chituc Peninsula) is situated between the Black Sea and the Sinoe lake. It consists of a NE-SW orientated succession of low beach ridges (0.3-2.0 m above MBSL) and elongated depression areas (0.3-0.2 m above MBSL) which can fill up with sea water during big storms. The aeolian erosion of sandy deposits (dune relief) are limited to a narrow strip close to the seashore and are higher than 1.0 m above MBSL. The Saele (Istria) levee lies between the Sinoe and Nunta[i lakes. It consists of a N-S oriented juxtaposition of low beach ridges with a maximum height of 1.2 m (70% being situated below 0.5 m MBSL). Only the axial part is a little bit higher (1.0-1.3 m) and partly aeolian eroded. The Lupilor levee, situated between the Sinoe and Zmeica lakes, represents a narrow (600-1000 m wide), and low (0.5-1.5 m) beach ridge association. The side facing the Zmeica lake is higher (1.5-2.0 m) and in some places there is some slight dune relief. The marine levees represent 8% of the total delta area. 4.4.4 Hydrographic network The hydographic network plays an important role in the appearance, evolution and functioning of the delta system. The main branches and the secondary streams have evolved over time, depending on the neotectonic factors and intensity of the silting processes. Starting with the first civil engineering works on the Sulina branch in th the 19 century, the natural self-regulatory process of the hydrographic
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subsystem has been disturbed by man motivated by economic goals. Under these conditions besides the natural streams, a network of artificial canals were built aiming to improve the water circulation in some parts of the delta or to serve as waterways for different economic objectives or activities (fish ponds, agricultural polders, transport of harvested reeds, etc.). Major changes were also made to the Sulina th and Sf. Gheorghe branches. Thus, at the end of the 19 century with a view to achieving a marine waterway, the Sulina was shortened from 91.9 km to 63.7 km. Recently, the main meanders of the Sf. Gheorghe branch have been cut off, its length being reduced from 108 to 70 km. According to the most recent measurements (P. G`[tescu and Driga, 1983) the total length of the natural (or partially modified) streams is about 1,743 km and that of the canals is about 1,753 km. Among the new canals, made especially for transport purposes, it is worth mentioning the Mila 35 and Caraorman canals which have disturbed the normal water flow and have caused silting and other negative effects in the environment. 4.4.5 Lakes The lakes represent another important morphohydrographic feature of the DDBR landscape. A recent inventory of the lakes within the delta has revealed that before 1980 there were 668 lakes with a total area of 31,262 ha (9.28% of the delta area). Because of the embankment and drainage of the Pardina and Sireasa agricultural polders the number of lakes was reduced to 479 and the area to 25,794 ha (8.06% of the delta area). In the western, upper part of the delta, where siltation is more intense, the lakes are more numerous, small (less than 40 ha) and shallow (< 1.0 m depth) while in the lower lying of the eastern part, their number is reduced but the individual size is considerably larger: Fortuna 977 ha, Gorgova 1,377 ha, Isac 1,101 ha, Mati]a 652 ha, Merhei 1,057 ha, Ro[u 1,445 ha, Lumina 1,367 ha, Puiu 865 ha, Dranov 2,170 ha, etc. Their average depth is 1-2 m, sometimes up to 3 m. The ox-bow lakes are an exception e.g. Belciug which is 7 m deep. In the same way, with decreasing of the siltation intensity, the lakes exhibit other morphohydrographic features. In the western part of the delta most of the lakes are bordered by riverine levees and their bottom is above MBSL or even 1.0 m above MBSL. The lakes in the eastern part of the delta, which form big functional lacustrine complexes, have a shoreline formed by reeds and plaur (organic floating soils = pseudo shoreline).The lacustrine coefficient (ratio between the area covered by lakes/area not covered per surface unit) is 0.093 for the whole Delta, with large variations from one unit to another. The largest (0.247) lacustrine coefficient is found in the Gorgova-Isac area. The Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex is the largest lacustrine area of Romania covering 101,500 ha. Formed by closing off the old marine gulf of Halmyris, it is separated from the Black Sea only by a narrow beach ridge. The connection to the Black Sea is nowadays under control and is made through two outlets (guri) at Portita and Periteasca. The most important of these lakes are Razim, Sinoe, Zmeica and Golovitza. The depths of these lakes range between 1.0 and 3.5 m. The deepest one is Razim (3.0 -3.5 m) and the shallowest is Zmeica (1.0 m). Only
26
Sinoe lake is still brackish. The other ones have been transformed into freshwater lakes (their water is used for irrigating inland arable areas) by supplying them with water from the Danube especially from the Dunav~] and Dranov canals.
4.5
Hydrology
The predominance of the aquatic environment in the Danube Delta is due to the high discharge of water which the river has at the delta junction (first bifurcation). During the period 1921-1990, the average 3 -1 annual water discharge was 6,570 m /s with a mean variation range 3 -1 of about 5,700 m /s at the delta entrance. The extreme values were 3 -1 3 -1 recorded in June 1970 at 15,440 m /s and in 1954 at 1,610 m /s . 3 -1 The highest values quoted in the literature are 17,700 m /s in 1958 3 -1 or even 35,000 m /s in 1897. The variation of the water discharge from the Danube in the 1921-1990 period at the first bifurcation and that of its main distributaries shows a decrease in the water discharged from the Chilia branch (from 63.8 to 58%), in favour of the Sulina branch (from 11.2 to 19.9%) and of the Sf. Gheorghe branch (from 19.0 to 22.5%). These changes are caused by hydraulic works carried out at the mouth of the Sulina branch, and are due to the construction of some canals in the delta (Bondar, 1972; G~[tescu and Driga, 1981). The water discharge flowing through the delta increased gradually from 3 -1 3 -1 260 m /s between 1951 and 1960 to 620 m /s in the 1981-1990 3 -1 period, 120 m /s of which was consumed by processes of evaporation. In the 1921-1960 period the amount of alluvia carried by the Danube at the delta peak was about 67.5 million tons/year (2138 kg/s). The extreme values recorded were 162 million tons in 1941 and 19.8 million tons in 1921. In the last few decades, especially after building of the Iron Gates dam, the average annual suspended sediment -1 discharge decreased significantly: from 41.3 million tons (1308 kg/s ) -1 in the 1971-1980 period, to 29.2 million tons (926 kg/s ) between 1981-1990. The amount of suspended sediments coming into the delta -1 is about 46 kg/s (1.5 million tons/year) a large part of which is deposited in secondary streams, canals and lakes. The big canals which were built in the last 30-35 years have resulted in the silting-up of e.g. the Sireasa, Fortuna, Gorgova, Uzlina, Ro[u, lakes (Bondar, 1970, 1973; G~[tescu 1966, 1985, 1993). The salt content and the chemical composition has a small range of variation. Between 1946 and 1990 the degree of mineralisation shows a slow but continuous increase in salt content: 290 mg/l (1960-1970), 350 mg/l (1971-1980) and 400 mg/l (1980-1990). This increase is due to chloride and sulphate anions and sodium and magnesium cations. The Danube provides mostly chlorides and sulphates as sources of salts for groundwater and soils. The main pollutants introduced by the Danube are, ammonia, nitrogen and phosphorus anions. The annual variation of water discharge shows a wintertime minimum (with small range of amplitude) followed by a significant maximum in summertime and another minimum in autumn. The summertime maximum represents 33% of the annual water discharge while the autumn minimum (which corresponds to the period of highly polluted water) represents only 17-18% of the annual water discharge.
27
The diking of large areas inside the delta and the dense network of canals has led to a quasicanalisation of the water flow, which directed rapidly towards the eastern part of the delta and out into the Black Sea, with negative effects on soils and ecosystems.
4.6
Climate
The Danube Delta has a is a continental-temperate climate with some pontic (marine) influence. The different temperature parameters are shown in table 2.
............................. Table 2. Temperature parameters of the Danube Delta.
western part (Tulcea) average annual air temperature minimum monthly air temperature (January) maximum monthly temperature (July) absolute minimum air temperature (date) absolute maximum air temperature (date) 11.0 C -1.5 C (-8 C /+3 C)
eastern part (Sulina) 11.6 C 0.2 C (- 9.2 C /+5 C) 22.4C -25.6 C (29-2-1929) 37.5 C (2-8-1946)
remarks non periodic oscillations of about 2C (colder winter/milder winter)
22.8 C -27.2C (18-1-1963) 39.7 C (2-8-1945)
Thus, the average annual air temperature has moderate values with a slow increase from west to east. The average number of hours sunshine is about 2,300-2,500 hours a year, and global solar radiation 2 reaches 125-135 kcal/cm . Number of winter days (Tmax< 0 C) ranges between 15 on the seashore and 20 in the western part. In cold years this number may increase up 20 (19 at Sulina and 23 at Tulcea in 1963) while in warmer years it may be lower than 4. Number of days frost (Tmin< 0C) ranges between 83 in the western part and 60 in the eastern part. Frost can occur from October to April. In cold years there may be more than 100 days frost in the western and central part and less than 80 on the seashore. Similar variation in the number of days when frost occurs has been recorded in warm years: below 60 days in western part (56 days at Tulcea and 55 days at Gorgova, in 1966) and below 30 days near the Black Sea. Number of summer days (Tmax>25C) is 40-50 and indicates the differences between the western and eastern part of the delta. The number of tropical days also varies (Tmax>30 C): 1 at Sulina and 20 at Tulcea. The amount of atmospheric precipitation is influenced by the north Dobrogean tableland and by the Black Sea, and shows a decrease from west to east: 450 mm at Tulcea, 400 mm on the Letea and Caraorman marine levees and 343 mm at Sulina. The number of days with rainfall decreases from 100 in the western part to 90 at the Black Sea. The maximum amount of rainfall is recorded in June amounting to 45-55 mm and the minimum in February amounting to 18-35 mm, showing the same trend to decrease towards the east. The continental nature of the climate is evidenced by the high and erratic annual
28
fluctuation in the amount of rainfall: e.g. at Sulina 690 mm were recorded in 1934 and only 133 mm in 1920. The snow starts to fall in the second week of December and may continue until the middle of March, but snow cover only remains occasionally on the higher levees. The number of days when snow falls range from 15 in the west to 11 in the eastern part. The air humidity of about 80%, is the highest in Romania, and increases towards the east: 78% at Tulcea and 84% at Sulina. In wintertime air humidity in Sulina may reach up to 90%. The number of cloudless days is 66 at Tulcea and 80 at Sf. Gheorghe, and the number of cloudy days falls from 98 at Tulcea to 90 at Sf. Gheorghe. The potential evapotranspiration is > 700 mm/year. The Danube Delta has one of the highest atmospheric moisture deficits ( 350-400 mm) in Romania. Aeolian conditions are characterised by the high frequency of winds. Winds blow 80% of the year and with almost the same frequency from all directions. However, the prevailing wind is from the NW (15.4% Tulcea, 19.7% Gorgova, 17.5% Sf. Gheorghe) followed by the N wind (12.3% Tulcea, 18.6% Gorgova and 13.1% Sf. Gheorghe). The highest speed winds are recorded near the sea : Sulina 8.4 m/s from the N, St., Gheorghe 5.5 m/s from the NE and Gorgova 3.6 m/s from the NE. The breezes blow from the Black Sea between 10 a.m. and 8 p.m. (day breeze) and towards the Black Sea between 11 p.m. and 7 a.m. (night breeze). Based on changes in the different climate components from west to east it can be stated that there is a fluvial delta and a marine delta topoclimate, and even a littoral topoclimate. In each of these major topoclimates, there is a mosaic of elementary topoclimates corresponding to the different components of the delta landscape (lakes, streams and canals, swamps with reeds, willow forests, shifting or fixed dunes, forests, plantations, agricultural polders, etc.).
4.7
Vegetation
The indigneous vegetation largely prevails in the Danube Delta although major reclamation works have been carried out for agriculture, pisciculture and silviculture. The vegetation of the Danube Delta has been recently mapped and described by Hanganu et al., 1994. About 70% of this vegetation consists of reed marshes, followed by reed mace marshes (Typha angustifolia), Scirpetum, sedge marshes (Carex elata), and reed vegetations on floating peat (plaur). In lakes, canals and secondary streams aquatic plants are represented by submerged and floating species: Nymphaea sp., Nuphar, Trapa natans, Potamogeton sp., Myriophyllum sp., Utricularia sp.. The willow forms forests on the higher riverine levees (Salix trianda, S. fragilis, S.alba) and the grey, little willow (Salix cincraea) is found on lower ones. On the Letea and Caraorman marine levees, in low, wet places oak forests-called Hasmace - ( Quercus robur, Q.pedunculiflora) have developed with ash trees (Fraxinus angustifolia, F. pallisiae) and various bushes and climbing plants (Vitis silvestris, Periploca graeca). On the dunes characteristic arenaceous plant associations (with
29
Koeleria pyramidata, K.glauca, Festuca pallens, etc.) are found. In areas with saline soils, associations of halophilous plants (with Salicornia herbacea, Suaeda maritima, Puccinellia distans, Aeluropus littoralis, Limonium gmelini) are frequent.
4.8
History of Human Settlement
Settlements The first signs of human settlements discovered in the delta date from before the Middle Ages and even as far back as the Neolithic age. This fact is witnessed by the ruins of the ancient Greek cities of Histria and Argamum built on the western side of the present-day Razim-Sinoe th th lagoon complex in the 6 -5 centuries B.C. The tumuli found on the Chilia loess plain gave rise to the hypothesis that a Greek city, Achilea th was founded there in the 5 century B.C. Aegysos, situated on Monument Hill in the eastern part of the present-day town of Tulcea, is another city founded by the Greeks in the 3rd century B.C. and was conquered by the Romans two centuries later. In the Byzantine period, th starting in the 10 century several settlements developed, including the present-day town of Sulina which is mentioned by Constantine VII the Porphyrogenitus (950) by the name of Sollina. During the Turkish th Empire, which started at the beginning at the 15 century, some new settlements - e.g. Caraorman (1819) were established. Major changes to human settlement in the delta were induced by the establishment of the European Danube Commission (1856), the beginning of the Sulina waterway hydraulic engineering work and first of all by the 1877 war when Dobrogea and the Danube Delta were returned to Romania. Following these events a range of a new towns were founded: Cri[an 1877, Ilganii de Jos 1899, P~tl~geanca 1900, Vulturu 1918, which had to be added to the former ones: Pardina and Sfi[tofca founded in the th th 18 century and C.A. Rosetti at the beginning of 19 century. The most recent settlement in the Danube Delta is Maliuc founded in 1953 at the same time as the Reed Experimental Station which operated there for 15 years. Population th In the 20 century the population of the Danube Delta fluctuated between 15,000 and 21,000 inhabitants, being strongly influenced by the two world wars and the development of the town of Tulcea. The population of 15,590 recorded in 1990 was the lowest population recorded this century. Because migration takes place mostly among young people below the age of 35 years, the decline in the population is associated with an ageing phenomenon. One of the goals of the DDBR is to prevent migration of the population of the Danube Delta. Traditional occupations Since the ancient times, fishing has been the main occupation of the inhabitants of Danube Delta. Although today the supply of fish has diminished and changed in quality, this occupation continues to be a basic one. The localities where fishing is the main trade are Cri[an, Mila 23, Gorgova, and Sf\ntu Gheorghe (the last mentioned town is also involved in sea fishing).
30
The second main occupation with great extension has been (and still is) sheep and cattle breeding, which, from a temporary condition (being practised by the shepherds coming there with their flocks in wintertime from the Eastern Carpathians and the Moldavian Tableland), became a th permanent occupation in the last decades of the 19 century. The localities with traditions in cattle breeding are Letea, Periprava, C.A.Rosetti, Sfi[tofca and Caraorman. Traditional agriculture has been practised successfully by the inhabitants of those localities which have good supplies of arable land: Chilia (Kastanozems developed on loess deposits), Pardina, Plaur, S~lceni, Ceatalchioi and P~tl~geanca, all working on alluvial soils of the riverine levees with a low risk of inundation. Owing to poor soils (sandy soils) agriculture has been practised to a lesser extent on the marine levees of Letea and Caraorman. After 1960, these traditional occupations of fishing and agriculture were drastically modified by extending reed exploitation (abandoned later on), fish ponds, large agricultural and forestry polders. Navigation The Danube and its mouths have been used for navigation since antiquity (Petrescu, 1957). The Persian king Darius the first, sailed with his fleet from Pontus Euxinus (Black Sea) into the Istros (Danube) up as far as Noviodunum (Isaccea) during the war against the Scythes (514 BC). Navigation on the Danube was also important during the th thStephen the Great s rule (15 century) and under Turkish rule (17 th 18 centuries). Conditions for an intensified modern system of navigation were created only after the hydraulic engineering works, which involved shortening and deepening the Sulina branch, had been carried out between 1862 and 1902. This allows ocean-going ships to enter as far as Br~ila harbour. The sea traffic on the Sulina branch near harbours of the Danube, Tulcea, Reni (Ukraine) Gala]zi and Br~ila rose from 1.8 million tons/year in 1938 to 8.5 million tons/year in the last decade. Besides the transport of goods, the transport of passengers also plays an important role in the Danube Delta.
4.9
Land-use In the Delta
At present about 52.8% (306,100 ha) of the DDBR is considered as an economical zone (Table 3, Figure 3). An area of 50,600 ha is a completely protected zone, and another 223,000 ha is used as buffering zones. 58.2% of this area is in the natural state and 41.8% is included in different types of land-use which prevent unrestricted flow conditions. The most important land-uses are agriculture (14.2%) and pisciculture (12.9%) mainly located in the western, riverine part of the delta. It is important to emphasize that the Danube Delta is to some extent still affected by reclamation works (22.3%). But, by proper management it is possible to reduce their impact on the natural ecosystems. One very important way of doing this is to renaturalize the abandoned manmade fish ponds and some agricultural polders (e.g. Holbina-Dunav~] and Popina II fish ponds, Babina-Cernovca agricultural polders).
31
............................. Table 3. Land-use in the DDBR (according to the Ecological Zonation Act 82/1993)
Total DDBR area of which : I Complete protected zones II Total Buffering zones of which marine buffering zones III Total Economic zones of which agricultural polders - fish ponds - silviculture - built-up areas, private and official properties (Act 18/1991) - zones proposed for ecological rehabilitation - other uses in free hydrological conditions
580,000 ha 50,600 ha 223,300 ha (103,000 ha) 306,100 ha (43,391 ha) (39,567 ha) (6,442 ha) (27,243 ha) (11,425 ha) (178,032 ha)
100% 8.7% 38.5% (46.1%) 52.8% (14.2%) (12.9%) (2.1%) (8.9) (3.7%) (58.2%)
4.10 Natural geomorphologic processes and changes induced By Man

Under natural conditions the main geomorphologic processes are silting and accretion of alluvial material (45-48 million tons/year) carried by the Danube, filling up the lakes with organic undecomposed residues, aeolian erosion of the higher part of marine sandy levees, formation of beach ridges and accretion of secondary deltas at the mouths of the Chilia and Sf. Gheorghe branches. In this respect the most typical example is the subdelta/secondary delta of Chilia which has exhibited an accretion rate of 40-80 m/year during the last 100 years. Another secondary delta, but with a different shape (laterally orientated), is also developing at the mouth of Sf. Gheorghe branch (Panin, 1989). The process of marine erosion affects the whole Romanian Black Sea shore (Banu et al., 1983; G~[tescu and Driga, 1984, 1985, 1986). It is mainly caused by the slow rise of the sea water level (2-4 mm/year in the last century). This erosion is intensified by the reduction of the solid discharge from the Danube because of the dam construction for hydraulic power plants along the river and its tributaries. The average rate of retreat of the shoreline is of 3.7 m/year, which means a loss of 47 ha/year from the delta and the Razim-Sinoe complex area. The maximum rate of 17.5 m/year, was noticed between Sulina and Sf. Gheorghe branches. The man-made geographic changes inside the delta (G~[tescu, 1985, 1993) are mainly consequences of different land-use policies promoted in the last half of this century. Thus, during the 1960-1970 period, the so-called reed period, a network of canals and earth platforms was created. Between 1970-1980 the fish period many areas were diked, and leveled to be used for commercial fish-farming. The decade 19801989 the agriculture period marks an explosive extension of agricultural polders (Pardina-27,000 ha, Sireasa-7,500 ha). All these
32
human interventions considerably modified the local landscape and influenced the functioning of the delta ecosystem.
33
34
Geology
........................................................................................
5.1
Introduction
Deltas are sedimentary systems formed by the deposition of detrital material carried by rivers to their mouths in either marine or lacustrine basins. The first to notice the deltoid shape of these systems was, probably, Herodotus studying the Nile Delta nearly 2,500 years ago. His Histories provide the first information on the Danube (Istros) and its delta. Since ancient times the Danube Delta has been an object of interest to European peoples. Interesting descriptions of geographic features and of some general sedimentation processes at the mouths of the Danube to the Pontus Euxinus are contained in ancient Greek and Roman sources, for example the writings of Polybius, Strabon, Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Arrianus and especially Claudios Ptolemaios (Ptolemy) are worth mentioning. A large number of works have been written on this subject in modern times the most important of which are: Antipa, 1915, 1941; Br~tescu, 1942; Lep[i, 1942; Pfannenstiel, 1950; Zenkovich, 1956; Cote], 1960; Bleahu, 1963; Liteanu, Pricajan, 1961, 1963; Almazov et al., 1963; Banu, 1965; Panin, 1974, 1983, 1989; G~[tescu and Driga, 1985; G~[tescu, 1989; Bondar, 1970, 1973.
5.2
General morphology
The Danube Delta can be divided into three major depositional systems: the delta plain, the delta front and the prodelta (Figure 4). The Danube deep-sea fan must be added to these 3 systems which is situated beyond the shelf break extending over several hundred metres into the water down to the abyssal plain, just over 2,200 m (Wong et al., 1994). The delta plain starts from the first bifurcation of the Danube, called the Ceatal Izmail; here the river divides into two distributaries: a northern one-the Chilia, and a southern one-the Tulcea. The Chilia distributary, the main distributary of the delta system (approx. 62-63% of the total water discharge of the Danube and approx. 65% of its sediment discharge), is 117 km long and forms a lobate delta with numerous distributaries (the main two are the Oceacov and the Stary Stambul distributaries). The Tulcea distributary flows for 17 km between Ceatal Izmail and Ceatal Sf. Gheorghe, where it divides into two other branches: Sulina and Sf. Gheorghe. The Sulina distributary was straightened for sea navigation by cutting off the meander loops in the 1868-1902 period, and at present it is 63 km long. Its water discharge represents about 17.5% of the total Danube discharge. The Sf. Gheorghe distributary is 109 km long and it takes over approx. 20-21% of the total water discharge and approximately 19.5% of the sediment discharge of the
35
36
Danube. A small secondary delta has formed at its mouth, with a main branch the Sf. Gheorghe-Kedrilles (the prolongation of the main channel) and two subordinate distributaries: Seredne and G`rla Turcului. About 54 km from the mouth of the Sf. Gheorghe distributary the Dunav~] canal begins which was formerly a secondary distributary flowing southwards (initial bifurcation point at 60 km). The present-day morphology of the Danube Delta shows evidence of the Jibrieni-Letea- R~ducu-Ceamurlia-Caraorman line which marks the boundary between the upper or fluvial delta plain to the west and the lower, marine delta plain, covering an area of approx. 180,000 ha, to the east. In the marine delta plain there are numerous beach ridges, some of these are: Jibrieni-on Ukraine territory, Letea, Caraorman, S~r~turile, Peri[or, Chituc). In the fluvial delta plain noteable features are the fluvial levees, meander-belt-bodies, interdistributary depressions with their hydrographic network and a special feature, the Stipoc lacustrine spit. The delta front area covers an area of about 130,000 ha and can be divided into: the delta front platform (approx. 80,000 ha) and the delta front slope (approx. 50,000 ha), see Figure 4. The main delta distributaries debouche into zones with different bathymetry: in the north, the Chilia distributary flows into a continental shelf area, 20-25 m deep, while in the south, at the mouth of the Sf. Gheorghe distributary, the depth of the water is considerably greater: 30-40 m. This differentiates the morphology of the delta front into the two above- mentioned areas. The Chilia delta front platform, with a slight gradient (0.002-0.004) extends for 1.5-2.5 km up to the 5-7 m isobath, and from the delta front slope it extends offshore to a depth of 15 m in the north and 20 m in the south, where it is much steeper (0.007-0.01). The delta front of the Sf. Gheorghe branch consists of a platform containing the main distributary mouth-bar, the lateral littoral bar called Sakhalin island, the mouth-bars of the Turcu and Seredne secondary distributaries and the area behind the Sakhalin island. The platform extends into the water to a depth of 12 -15 m, with a gradient of 0.0030.005. The delta front slope, with a gradient of 0.008-0.01, extends offshore into the water to a depth of 35-40 m. The prodelta lies offshore, at the base of the delta front at a depth of 50-60 m depth, covering an area of more than 550,000-600,000 ha. The outer eastern boundary of the prodelta in front of the main delta distributaries can be accurately identified (Figures 5 and 6). On the contrary, the southern boundary is more difficult to define on account of the strong southern drift of the fine-grained sediment load discharged into the sea by the Danube which is stumping the prodelta limit. The effect of this material is felt all over the continental shelf even south of Constan]a. The delta front and especially the prodelta display a pattern of elongated depressions, swales, resembling some small valleys or submarine channels, 4-10 m deep, bordered by lateral levees or ridges. These channels seem to constitute ways of discharging turbid flow yield by the river distributaries especially at high flood.
37
5.3
Processes and dynamic factors controlling the delta morphology and development
River input The Danube fluvial system has the following characteristics (Almazov et al., 1963; Stancik et al., 1988): length of the river course-2,860 km; drainage basin of approx. 81,700,000 ha, characterised by a mean annual rainfall of 816 mm, a mean annual evaporation of 547 mm and a mean annual runoff of 246 mm. The sediment discharges of the Danube are described in Chapter 4.5. Meteorological factors-wind system The western and north-western areas of the Black Sea basin are marked by active atmospheric circulation, being situated at the interference of the routes of Atlantic and Polar, Mediterranean and Euro-Asian continental air masses. Thus, winds exceeding 2 m/s are recorded for 80-90% of the year, winds exceeding 6 m/s for 30-55% and those exceeding 11 m/s for 4-15%. The prevailing winds are from the northern directions (40-50% of the time); these northern winds are also the strongest. The frequency and duration of storms from the northern directions are clearly predominant (55%). Waves The waves in the western and north-western parts of the Black Sea basin can be classified according to Diaconu et al. (1978). The waves below 0.2 m are calm (smooth) and they represent 49.1% of all the data concerning the waves. The other two are wind waves (33%) and swell (17.9%). The most frequent wind waves are recorded along NEtrending, corresponding to the prevailing wind direction, while from the east almost 40% of swell waves are recorded, due to the refraction of waves in shallow water. The mean and maximum heights of wind waves (5.2 m at Constan]a, 7.0 m at Sulina at the jetties end) and swell are higher in the eastern direction in which the wind reaches its maximum. The energy of storm waves can reach high values: on 17 February 1979 a storm was recorded of 12,242 KWh/m. Usually, the energy reaches approximately 2,000 KWh/m (Sp~taru, 1984). This power is due to the distribution of river sediment input along the delta shore. Sea level The variations in the level of the Black Sea depend on seasonal, multiannual or eustatic changes in sea water levels as well as on the deformation of the open water surface under the influence of different external forces. The changes in seasonal sea water volume are mainly due to the seasonal variations in river water supply and of rainfall: this type of changes in sea level can reach 20 -28 cm amplitudes. The multi-annual fluctuations due to variations in annual river water discharge as a consequence of climatic cycles can reach up to 20 cm. The eustatic fluctuations of the Black Sea level, from the end of the Pleistocene to the present day, generally correspond to the variations in level reported for the oceanic basins. In the last two thousand years, the Black Sea level has risen about 4 m on the western seashore.
38
During the last century limnographic observations have shown that the sea level has been rising at a rate of 2-3 mm/year. The deformational oscillations include seiches, wind surges and tides. The seiches in the north-western and western areas of the Black Sea last for a few minutes up to 13 hours and with amplitudes of a few centimetres up to 2.0 m. Storm surges from a northerly, north-easterly, easterly and south-easterly direction are positive and the rise in sea level induced does not exceed 1.2-1.5 m. The tide in the Black Sea has an average cycle of 12 hours and 25 minutes and has amplitudes of only 7-11 cm (Bondar et al., 1973; Sorokine, 1982). Marine currents and longshore sediment current The atmospheric circulation and other hydrological and morphological factors give rise to a general cyclonal water circulation, within the upper water layer down to about 1,000 m, in the Black Sea. In the north-western and western areas of the sea, the longshore drift current associated with the cyclonal circulation gets its movement impulse from the water discharged from the rivers debouching into this area (Dnieper, Southern Bug, Dniester, Danube). This current which is 50-75 miles wide flows southward to the Bosphorus at a mean speed of 20-30 cm/s. The strong gusty winds from northern directions double or even triple the speed of the current, while those from southern directions diminish and deviate the currents from the general circulation system. In the littoral area of the Danube Delta, there is, even during calm periods, usually a southward current with velocities of 5-50 cm/s depending on the water supply from the rivers. In addition to this current, the wind with a different velocity and stability generates a complex current system generally corresponding to the wind direction. These wind currents become stable, strong and affect the whole of the water layer down to a depth of 40-50 m only when the wind velocity exceeds 10 m/s and lasts longer than 10-12 hours. The velocity of the wind currents reaches 100-150 cm/s at the surface and more than 3040 cm/s near the littoral sea bottom. The prevalence of strong winds from the northern directions results in a doubling of the annual frequency of southward currents compared to the frequency of northward currents. The morphologic features of the seashore determine the local perturbations of the longshore wind current system. Thus, under the influence of northern winds, the jetties of the Sulina distributary, extending far offshore (approx. 8 km), generate an 8-10 km diameter long ellipsoidal anticyclonic eddy of direction situated to the south of the above-mentioned jetties. The fluvial outflow has to be added to these marine currents. The fluvial outflow penetrates into the sea basin like a turbulent jet, spreading offshore and being deviated southwards (Bates, 1953). With respect to the Danube Delta seashore, the longshore drift current flows towards the south. Its intensity is high enough to transport the coarse-grained discharge from the Danube many tens of kilometres south of the mouths of the distributaries along the shore. The shift of a contrary direction to the longshore drift, caused by reverse winds, makes it possible that the river-borne sediments occur on the opposite side to the drift-direction side of the river mouth. This area is called zone of littoral diffusion, and in the case of the Danube
39
distributaries, it lies to the north of their mouths and extends only up to a few kilometres. Another local perturbation of littoral sediment movement is induced by the eddy circulation south of the Sulina jetties. The southward longshore drift of the Danube sediment load can be seen in the entire Holocene evolution of the Danube Delta.
5. 4
Geological setting and Holocene evolution of the Danube Delta
Pre-quaternary evolution The Danube Delta overlaps the Predobrogean Depression, which lies mainly on the Scythian Platform ( Figure 5). The boundary of these units with the North Dobrogea Orogen is represented by the Sf. Gheorghe fault zone which otherwise influences the direction of the
course of the Danube in the Gala]zi-river-mouth area. The sequence of the deposits covering the Scythian Platform which constitute the filling material of the Predobrogean Depression displays six sedimentation cycles (Patrut et al., 1983). These are: (a) pre-Mesozoic cycle (Paleozoic), calcareous/dolomitic; (b) Lower Triassic cycle; very thick (400-2,500 m), slightly unconformable over subjacent deposits and consisting of red continental detrital deposits interlayered with effusive rocks; (c) Middle-Upper Triassic cycle, transgressive, marine, lower part is built up of carbonate rocks (350-450 m limestones and 500-600 m dolomites) and the upper part is built up of detrital rocks (450 m); (d) Jurassic cycle, transgressive, marine, consisting of detrital deposits at the bottom (Middle Jurassic, 500-1,700 m thick) and carbonate ones at the top (Upper Jurassic, 1,000 m thick in the southern area); (e) Lower Cretaceous cycle, overlying Jurassic deposits, consisting of red continental deposits of varying thickness (approx. 500 m); (f) Sarmatian/Pliocene cycle, overlying various Mesozoic deposits and consisting of alternating layers of clay, sand and sandstone (200-350 m thick). Figure 6 shows the different layers in the subsoil.
40
Quaternary evolution The Danube Delta is situated in an area of high mobility of the earths crust, repeatedly affected by strong subsidence and major sediment accumulations. The deltaic conditions began here during the Quaternary, when the Danube started flowing into the Black Sea basin. The Danube Delta edifice is formed by a sequence of detrital deposits from several tens of metres up to 300-400 metres thick. The important Quaternary changes in the sea level have strongly influenced the evolution of the Danube Delta. The Wrmian regression, and especially that of the Neoeuxinian stage of the Black Sea (about 18,000-15,000 years B.C.), when the sea level fell to approx. -100 m, resulted in intense erosion of the delta deposits. A lot of the old Quaternary deposits were probably removed in this way. Today, deposits assigned to the Karangatian and Surojskian stages (Wrmian interstadial) can still be recognised, located to the east of the LeteaCeamurlia-Caraorman line and preserved beneath some erosion relicts of the predeltaic relief. Therefore, the Danube Delta edifice was formed mainly during the Upper Pleistocene and the Holocene. Holocene evolution The actual geomorphology of the Danube Delta plain expresses the interaction of the river and the sea during the Holocene (Panin, 1974, 1983; Panin et al., 1983). The evolution of the delta with its basic processes and factors controlling its genesis and development. This means in fact to understand the spatial distribution of a great number of morphologic features, mainly beach ridges, corroborated with data regarding texture, geochemical and mineral facies, faunal assemblages, as well as age determinations for example by the radiocarbon dating method. The beach ridges can be grouped into sets according to their position and trend. These sets express the progradation stages and can be dated by fauna analyses and mainly 14 by C dating. Finally the results show the main stages of the evolution of the Danube Delta during the Holocene (Panin, 1974, 1983; Panin et al., 1983).
41
At the beginning of the Holocene, when the sea level rose to about the present-day mark existed the so-called Danube gulf, in the delta area. A spit was formed at its mouth, between the Jibrieni promontory to the north and Murighiol- Dunav~] promontory to the south, during the period 11,700-7,500 years B.P. It is called the: Letea-Caraorman initial spit (Figure 7). The initial spit was formed from relief relicts of the Pleistocene delta basement, such as the one in the Caraorman area. The material of the initial spit was carried by the longshore drift from an adjoining area in the north, the mouths of the southern Bug, Dniester and Dnieper rivers. Sediment of this type is assigned to type a (Figure 8). This was the blocked delta stage of the Danube, when the river was forming its delta inside a lagoon sheltered by the initial spit. Between the southern end of the initial spit and the Murighiol-Dunav~] Promontory there was a passage through which the first branch of the Danube, Paleo-Sf. Gheorghe, flowed into the sea. The first delta of the Danube was formed in this area, - called the Sf. Gheorghe I Delta (Figure 9). Its development is connected to the 9,000-7,200 years B.P. period. Only the northern part of this delta can still be recognised; today it consists of three main sets of fossil beach ridges (Erenciuc, Caraorman-p~dure and Caraorman-sat) built up of a type sediments. Only in the extreme eastern and youngest part of the Caraorman-sat set, can a sediment input of different origin be identified. The first sets were formed from the first, although reduced, of the Danube alluvial load, introduced into the littoral area by the second branch of the distributary river of Sulina. The Sulina sedimentary load was then eroded by the waves and longshore currents and redistributed to the last of the beach ridges in the Caraorman-sat set.
42
43
44
During the stage of maximum progradation of the Sf. Gheorghe I Delta, expressed by the Caraorman-sat set of beach ridges, the paleo-distributary Sf. Gheorghe formed meanders with wave lengths of 10-14 km, amplitudes of 5-7 km and curvature indices rm/w exceeding 2.0 (Panin, 1976). This process was probably induced by a very low relief energy. The excessive elongation of the distributary channel and the low relief energy led to a partial filling of the Sf. Gheorghe paleodistributary. The filling-up and gravitational pull of the depression situated in the north, determined the development of a new branch of the river, the Paleo-Sulina distributary. The Paleo-Sulina distributary, bifurcating at Nuf~ru-Rusca, had meander belts with wave lengths and amplitudes similar to those of the Paleo-Sf. Gheorghe branch ( = 14-16 km, = 5-7 km rm/w = 2.672.78). As the Paleo-Sf. Gheorghe became gradually filled up, the PaleoSulina took over more and more water and sediment discharge and started forming its own delta edifice, the Sulina Delta (Figure 9). The development was slow at first, its shape being controlled by waves and littoral drift; the later increase of water and sediment discharge as well as the discharge effectiveness index determined a rapid progradation and the lobate shape of the Sulina Delta, with three and then five distributaries. The development of the Sulina Delta took place between 7,200-2,000 years B.P. The maximum progradation of the Sulina Delta into the sea, its front exceeding the present-day shoreline by 10-15 km, coincided with the Phanagorian regression when the sea level was at the -2-4 m mark. At the same time, in the southern part of the delta area, a small secondary delta, the Cosna Delta, was formed by a secondary distributary, the Dunav~]. The Sulina Delta has a complex composition. Its southern wing is represented by the sets of beach ridges: Iacub, Puiulet, Lumina, Ro[u, Ro[ule], Ivancea (Figure 9) and consists of sedimentary material carried by the Danube, assigned to type b sediments. At the beginning of the development of this delta the northern wing only consisted of type a material, forming the R~ducu, Hudacova and R~duculet sets. Then, the Letea South, Letea North, Rosetti West and partly the Rosetti East sets consisted, in their northern section, of type a material. The Sulina Delta distributaries flowing northward: Magearu, Movil`, Sinehradca, carry type b (Danubian) material, so that the beach ridges of Capa]~na-Ilarion and Mohammed, Ifim, Pocora, Sinehradca, Movil~, {chiopu, Cherhanoi, Uje, Sulina and the south-eastern part of the Rosetti-West set are built up of this type of material. To the NW of the Magearu distributary there is a limited area of littoral diffusion (Figures 8 and 9). By the end of Phanagorian regression, when the sea level fell by a few metres (-2 -4 m) and the relief energy increased, the Sf. Gheorghe distributary was drained and a new generation of meander bands defined by = 2.4-5.0 km, = 1.5-4.0 km and rm/w values of 1.49-2.1 was formed. In the north, the initial spit was broken and a new distributary, the Chilia, appeared. The next stage, which took place during the following 2,000 years, coincides with a present-day rise in sea level. By then the Sulina distributary was partly clogged, the Rusca meander bend was abandoned and the Sulina continued to be supplied by the secondary,
45
anastomosed P~p~dia channel. The Sulina Delta was gradually eroded, while the Chilia distributary in the north, and the Sf. Gheorghe distributary, in the south, built up their own deltas, the Chilia Delta and the Sf. Gheorghe II Delta, respecting. These two deltas consist of material carried by the Danube (type b). Type a material, supplied by the longshore drift, accumulated north of the Chilia distributaries and constitutes the Jibrieni formation. The northern side of the Sf. Gheorghe II Delta is represented by the S~r~turile formation, almost exclusively consisting of sedimentary material removed by erosion of the Sulina Delta. The trend of the beach ridges of this formation is indicating the shoreline retreat in the north (by the erosion of the Sulina Delta) and its advancement in the south (corresponding to the progradation of the Sf. Gheorghe II Delta front). The southern wing of the Sf. Gheorghe II Delta mainly consists of the alluvial deposits carried by the Sf. Gheorghe distributary, type b material (Figures 8 and 9). Precisely during that time, there was a secondary delta, called Sinoe Delta (Figure 9). The Cosna and Sinoe Deltas are in fact the successive developmented stages of the same secondary delta formed by a less important distributary, the Dunav~]. During the first centuries A.C. the Sinoe Delta was eroded and its material was redeposited as beach ridges forming the Istria and Chituc accumulative formations. Therefore, it can be stated that the Cosna-Sinoe Delta existed during the 3,500-1,500 years B.P. period.
5.5
Types of Sediment facies in the Danube Delta
The Danube Delta plain displays a few main types of facies sediments : Marine littoral deposits, occurring in the marine delta plain, constitute fossil and actual beach ridges which generated the littoral accumulative formations of Caraorman, Letea, S~r~turile, Istria, Chituc, Jibrieni, Peri[or etc. (Figures 8 and 9) by juxtaposition. There are two basic types: - deposits formed by the longshore drift from the north (type a) of sediment deriving from the mouths of the rivers Southern Bug, Dniester and Dnieper. They consist of quartz sands with very high silica content (89-95%) and a particularly reduced alumina content (average value 1.5%) and iron oxide content (mean value 0.12%). The heavy mineral content is very small (0.1-0.3%), while the characteristic mineral assemblage contains minerals highly resistant to transport and environmental changes: garnets (5060%), ilmenite (12-18%) and tourmaline (6-10%). - littoral deposits of Danubian origin (type b), represented by sands finer grained than those of type a, yielding smaller SiO2 contents (60-85%) and higher Al2O3 (1.7-8.0%), Fe2O3 (0.3-3.3%) and TiO2 (0.1-1.6%) contents. The heavy mineral contents are important significant (2-3%), the characteristic assemblage includes: amphiboles (15-35%), garnets (5-35%), opaque minerals, predominantly ilmenite (5-15%) and epidote (9-12%). The tourmaline ratio decreases to 0.5-1.5%. Two sub-types can be distinguished : subtype b1 of littoral diffusion, characterised by mixing with type a material and subtype b of a normal littoral
46
transfer, preserving obvious characteristics of the sediments carried by the Danube. One should also note a marine erosional subfacies (present-day or fossil erosion), displaying deposits rich in heavy minerals, the residue reaching 35%, as well as a subfacies related to terrigenous material deficit, in which the terrigenous material is partly replaced by shell debris (CaCO3 up to 45-50%). The lacustrine littoral deposits formed in the Danube gulf behind the initial spit, more precisely in the fluvial delta plain. These deposits constitute the lacustrine spits called Stipoc and Ro [ca-Suez (Figure 10). The following average contents were recorded: SiO2-66%, Al2O38.5%, Fe2O3-1.8%, TiO2-0.8%, CaO-7%, etc. The heavy fraction occurs in reduced amounts (approx. 0.1%) being represented by the following assemblage: amphiboles, garnets, epidote, opaque minerals (prevalent ilmenite). The deposits of the Stipoc spit contain lacustrine manganese nodules. Mesolithic and Neolithic vestiges have been found here. The fluvial deposits, genetically related to the Danube distributary system, can be assigned to several types: (a) bed-load and mouth-bar deposits, (b) subaqueous and subaerial natural levee deposits, (c) crevasse and crevasse-splay deposits, (d) point bar and meander belts, (e) decantation deposits in intradeltaic depressions or intradistributary areas. There is a transition from one type of deposit to another, depending on the transporting capacity of the water current. The first type of fluvial deposit, the bed-load and the mouth-bar deposits will only be dealt with here. They consist of sands mixed with finer grained sediments and plant debris and have the following average chemical composition: SiO2 (69%), Al2O3 (7.5%), Fe2O3 (1.15%), TiO2 (0.47%), CaO3(3.4%), etc. The heavy fraction represents 1.8-4.7% and consists of the following assemblage: garnets (18-37%), amphiboles (16-30%), epidote (5-10%), opaque minerals (4-7%). These are the sediments which contribute mostly to the delta front protrusion and supply the littoral area with sandy material (original material for the type b deltaic sediments).
47
Marsh deposits, usually of organic origin, are formed in depressed areas with marsh vegetation. Loessoiide deposits (Upper Pleistocene) were formed in the delta area during its emergence when the sea level fell in the Quaternary. These deposits are exposed in the northern part of the delta, in the Chilia Promontory, which is the southern prolongation of the Bugeac Plateau. Loess-like deposits also occur as eroded relief relicts within the Stipoc lacustrine bar and at the bottom of the littoral accumulative formations of Caraorman and Letea-R~ducu.
5.6
Head deposits
From the physical and chemical point of view, the top part ( 2 m thickness) of the Danube Delta deposits (also called head deposits) consists of a relatively large variety of mineral and organic materials. On the basis of the clay fraction (< 0.002 mm) content, the mineral deposits may be classified into four main groups: A. Sandy and sandy loamy deposits (with < 20% clay content), which include both marine and riverine lacustrine/lagoonal, deposits. This group is further divided into: A1 - coarse sandy (< 2% clay content); A2 - fine sandy (< 5% clay content); A3 - sandy-loamy sandy (< 12% clay content) and A4 - loamy sandy and sandy loamy deposits (5-20% clay content). B. Loamy deposits (20-32% clay content). This group includes both: B1 loamy aeolian loess, and B2 riverine-lacustrine / lagoonal deposits. C. Clayey-loamy-clayey deposits (> 32% clay content). It includes : C1 - clayey loamy-loamy clayey deposits (32-60% clay content), and C2 loamy clayey-clayey deposits (> 45% clay content). This group is mostly represented by marshy-lacustrine (decantation and interdistributary areas) deposits, commonly with organic material interbeddings. D. Highly calcareous (> 25% CaCO3 ) deposits. They are represented by : D1 - lacustrine lime, and D2 - shell debris deposits. E. The organic (peat) deposits may be divided in three subgroups: E1 peat and floating organic soils (plaur), E2 peat with mineral interbeddings, and E3 peat on sandy substratum.
The cross sections (Figures 10 and 11) highlight the layering and the nature of the head deposits in different parts of the Danube Delta. Thus, it can be seen that the Pardina polder lies on thick sandy deposits, while in the Dunav~] area the first 5 m of the surface consists of peat and clay. The Issacea-Tulcea sector of the Danube flood plain
48
(Figure 12) is underlain by very thick peat deposits which are perhaps filling up an old sunken karst relief of the North-Dobrogea Plateau. The specific differences in the particle size distribution among the main types of mineral deposits are illustrated in Figure 13. The change in particle size with depth, within the first 150 cm of the soil profile in the Pardina and Carasuhat polders, are shown in Figure 14 abc, and 15 abc, respectively.
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50
Soils
........................................................................................
6.1
Soil Classification
The base of the soil classification is the 1978 version of the Romanian System of Soil Classification (RSSC) in which some improvements have been made to integrate the specific features of the soil covering of the DDBR. Thus, a new soil type called Limnosols has been introduced to designate permanently underwater (subaqueous) soils. Other important additions consist of several new characteristics used at subtype level, i.e. : acid sulphate, alluvial, brackish, calcareous, hypercalcareous, carbonatic coprogenic, cumulic, deep muddy, floating, fibric, hemic, marly, psamic, sapric, sapropelic, semisubmerged, shelly, terric, thapto-histic and thionic. The definitions of all characteristics are given in Appendix I. A rough correlation of the taxonomic units according to the RSSC identified in the DDBR, on soil type level, with the FAO/UNESCO Revised Legend (1990) and the USDA-Soil Taxonomy (as modified according to the 1994 Keys) is given in Table 4. Table 4. Correlation between different soil classifications
No 1 2 3 Romanian classification Castanozems (Light chestnut Soils) Chernozems Gley Soils FAO/UNESCO Revised Legend (1988) Kastanozems Chernozems Gleysols (pp) Fluvisols(pp) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (1994 Keys) Calcixerolls Haploxerolls Aquents (pp) Fluvents (pp) Aquepts (pp) Aquolls (pp) nonclassified Aquisalids Natraquolls Xerofluvents Xeropsamments (pp) Humaquepts (pp) Xerarents Histosols
4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Limnosols Solonchaks Solonetz Alluvial Soils Psammosols Anthropic Soils (Anthrosols) Histosols (Peat Soils)
nonclassified Solonchaks Solonetz Fluvisols Arenosols (pp) Gleysols (pp) Anthrosols Histosols
Please note: No close correlation exists between the Romanian taxonomic concepts and the FAO-UNESCO Legend and the USDA-Soil Taxonomy. Most differences occur concerning the diagnostic horizons/properties used in the Romanian classification compared to those of both the above-mentioned systems. Problems in the correlation mainly arose with Alluvial Gleysoils, Psammosols and Limnosols.
51
Alluvial Gley Soils. In the FAO/UNESCO Legend it is recommended that these soils are included to Fluvisols. Taking into account that in the Danube Delta these soils receive small amounts of fresh alluvia, are very wet (predominantly semisubmerged), strongly reduced and often unripened one could thought that they should be included to Gleysols. So, almost all mineral hydromorphic soils which developed on alluvial deposits were classified as third level units of Gleysols (i.e. Fluvi-Eutric Gleysols, Marshy-Fluvi-Mollic Gleysols a.s.o.). As Fluvisols (Gleyi-Eutric Fluvisols) are classified only the Alluvial Gley Soils with gleyic properties below 50 cm depth (50-125 cm according to the Romanian Classification). In the USDA Soil Taxonomy, Alluvial Gley Soils with aquic conditions within 50 cm of the soil surface, are usually included in Aquepts and Aquents.Those with lower hydromorphy are classified as Fluvents (Aquic Subgroups). Psammosols. In the FAO/UNESCO Legend Psammosols almost correspond with Arenosols. Only those with Histic H horizon (Peaty Psamosols) are included in Gleysols. In the USDA Soil Taxonomy, Psammosols are divided into different taxa: Xeropsamments (Typic Psammosols), Psammaquents (semisubmerged Psammosols) and Humaquepts (Mollic/Peaty Psammosols). Limnosols. No equivalent is provided for these Underwater Soils neither by the FAO/UNESCO Legend nor by the USDA Soil Taxonomy. They could only be assigned only to German Classification (See chapter 6.2.2). A special problem of classification is the soil moisture regime as defined by the USDA Soil Taxonomy. The soils of low-lying, currently flooded, areas have with no doubt an aquic or peraquic soil moisture regime. With respect to the soil of the continental remnants (i.e. Stipoc, Chilia), that of riverine/marine levees and of diked/drained areas, they seem to have an xeric moisture regime, whilst the eastern part of the delta, close to the Black Sea is assigned to an aridic soil moisture regime3. Taking into account that no special data processing concerning the soil moisture regime has been done, only aquic and xeric moisture regimes have been retained for making the correlation with the USDA Soil Taxonomy. The soil temperature regime is without exception mesic, that means the annual soil temperature is 8C or higher but lower than 15C.
6.2
Characterisation of the Main Soils
A theoretical characterisation of the morphological, physical, chemical and ecological properties of typological (taxonomic) soil units at genetic type/subtype level, as they are included in the soil map is given below. Although the first soil name used is the Romanian one, the order of presentation is that of the FAO/UNESCO Legend. In Table 5 an overview is given about the distribution of the different soil types in the Danube Delta. For each unit of the soil map the occupied area in hectares and also the percentage of cover is listed.
Unpublished data provided by the USDA-SCS, through courtesy of Prof. R.W.Arnold.
52
Table 5. Distribution of the soil types in the Romanian Danube Delta

symbol Ak Ac Ag Am A Lr Lu Lc Ln Lb Ls Lk Lh Lt Gb Gk Gm Ga Gp Gs Gw Gh Pk Pg Pm Pb Pp Ph Nk Nz Sg Sm Cg Hn Ht Hd Hs Hj M soil type hectares 53900 21300 600 22300 6600 3100 70200 1400 300 4400 10300 32400 6000 6000 400 9000 88400 400 10100 8000 18400 6800 12900 11800 20000 63500 3800 11200 700 3900 18800 15500 7200 2400 8100 6600 1500 900 900 110600 36700 58300 8900 2500 4200 10400 10400 % 13.3 5.3 0.1 5.5 1.6 0.8 17.3 0.3 0.1 1.1 2.5 8.0 1.5 1.5 0.1 2.2 21.8 0.1 2.5 2.0 4.5 1.7 3.2 2.9 4.9 15.6 0.9 2.7 0.2 1.0 4.6 3.8 1.8 0.6 2 1.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 27.2 9.0 14.4 2.2 0.6 1.0 2.6 2.6
Alluvial Soils
Calcareous Alluvial Soil Hypercalcareous and Hypercalcareous-Gleyed Alluvial Soils Calcareous-Mollic Alluvial Soils and Calcareous-Gleyed Alluvia Calcareous-Mollic Alluvial Soils often with relictgleyzation Calcareous-Gleyed-Mollic Alluvial Soils
Limnosols or Underwater Soils

Calcareous Muddy Limnosols Calcareous Sandy Limnosols Hypercalcareous Limnosols Coprogenic Limnosols Sali-Sodic (brackish) Limnosols Sali-Sodic (brackish) Sandy Limnosols Calcareous/Hypercalcareous-Histic Limnosols Sandy-Calcareous/Hypercalcareous-Histic Limnosols Histic Limnosols partly potentially acid sulphate
Gley Soils
Calcareous-Marshy-Mollic Gley Soils Calcareous -Alluvial Gley Soils and Thapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils Calcareous-Mollic Alluvial Gley Soils Calcareous-Marshy Alluvial Gley Soils Marshy-Mollic/Peaty/Thapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils Semisubmerged-Alluvial Gley Soils Semisubmerged-Mollic/Peaty and Mollic/Peaty/Thapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils Semisubmerged-Histic and Histic/Thapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils
Psammosols and Sands

Calcareous Psammosols Calcareous, Gleyed Psammosols Calcareous, Gleyed Mollic Psammosols Calcareous, Marshy/Semisubmerged Psammosols Calcareous, Marshy/Semisubmerged-Mollic/Peaty Psammosols Calcareous, Marshy/Semisubmerged Peaty Psammosols Calcareous, partially shifting Sands and Calcareous Psammosols Shifting-Shelly Sands
Solonchaks
Gleyic Solonchaks Gleyi-Mollic Solonchaks and Gleyi-Mollic Solonetz
Kastanozems
Gleyed Chernozems
Histosols
Floating, Potentially Acid Hemic-Fibric Histosols Potentially Sulphate Acid Hemic Histosols Hemic-Terric and Potentially Sulphate Acid Hemic-Terric Histosols Potentially Sulphate Acid, Terric, Sapric Histosols Sulphate Acid Hemic Histosols and Histic Solonchaks
Anthrosols
Calcareous Anthrosols and not soils
53
6.2.1 ALLUVIAL SOILS These are very young soils, which in a natural landscape, are mostly characteristic of riverine levees in the fluviatile (western) part of the Danube Delta that receives fresh sediments regularly. The levees are high enough (2-5 m above MBSL) to be moderately well-drained and aerated, at least in the upper part of the soil profile (after floods, the groundwater table drops to below a depth of 2-3 m). In their natural state they are occupied by grasslands, mixed or not with willow forests. These soils are also dominant in some agricultural polders (Pardina, T~taru, Tulcea-Nuf~ru, etc.). They originate mainly from Gley Soils and Limnosols which have lost their hydromorphic properties following artificial drainage. In the Pardina polder more than 2/3 of these soils have been overdrained (groundwater table at a depth of 3-4 m) and most of them originate from former Histosols as a consequence of in situ peat combustion as the result of inappropriate technologies used to convert organic soils into arable land. Morphologically Alluvial Soils are characterised by an ochric, mollic or an Ap horizon and all show layering immediately below the top horizon; some of them present an irregular distribution of organic matter within depth. The soil texture varies from coarse to fine. They have a neutral to moderate alkaline to alkaline reaction ( pH (H2O) = 7.5-8.4) and are calcareous on the surface. These coarse textured ones are generally poor in organic matter and macronutrients while the medium and fine textured ones are better supplied. The main properties of each alluvial soil subtype are given in Appendix II, Table II.1. In the Danube Delta, Alluvial Soils occur predominantly in consociation with fresh alluvia. Another widespread association (Figure 16) is with Gley Soils, found mainly in the lower parts of riverine levees or in areas where the river shoreline has wandered, leaving behind a succession of low-lying ridges (covered by Alluvial Soils) and elongated shallow depressions (occupied by Gley Soils), see Figures 16 and 17).
Land-use Large areas of Alluvial Soils (about 35,000 ha) are diked and cultivated. Under proper management these soils are productive for a
54
wide range of dry land crops, but due to the climatic dryness, without irrigation the yields are low to very low. Barley, Lucerne, sunflower and to a lesser extent winter wheat seem to be the best suited crops. The coarse and the medium textured soils are very sensitive to organic matter and macronutrient depletion. Those rich in silt are also susceptible to puddling, crusting and compaction. The risk of wind erosion, in dry and snowless winters is also present. When used for forestry, poplar has proved to do well on these soils. In natural ecosystems Alluvial Soils support a relatively narrow range of vegetation cover, from dry grasslands on the higher levees up to willow forests on the medium ones. Taking into account their low level of organic matter and supply of macronutrients, the moderate to low water storage capacity and hence the risk of dryness, the ecological value of the alluvial soils of the DDBR is moderate. Being continually resuppliedby new alluvia their ecological parameters (mostly available nutrients, water storage and filtering capacity) are not stable over time. Their quality depends on the frequency of flooding and the amount of sedimentation.
6.2.2
LIMNOSOLS (Underwater Soils)
The lacustrine/ lagoonal deposits from the lake bottoms have been classified under this name (Lat. - Limus = mud, swamp - Munteanu, 1982). These sediments are mostly composed of mineral suspensions carried down by the riverine waters and those produced by chemical and biological processes which take place in eutrophic water bodies and sediments. The organic matter content from decaying remnants of floating and subaquatic vegetation plays an important role as well as the products of the aquatic fauna. In the Limnosols of the Danube Delta and Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex, several biological and biochemical processes are taking place, the most important of which include: organic matter accumulation, mainly from decaying remnants of floating and subaquatic vegetation; a small part of organic matter
55
is allochthonous (washed and eroded from inland soils, transported and deposited here by flowing water); formation of sulphides, by reduction of water soluble sulphates and of those resulting from organic matter decomposition; this process often ends by the formation of pyrite (FeS2); formation of volatile organic carbon compounds (mainly CO2 and CH4), the result of anaerobic transformation of organic matter; formation of calcareous mud (marl or lacustrine lime) as a result of photosynthetic activity of floating (mainly Characeaes) and subaqueous vegetation.
From theb pedological point of view the Limnosols fulfil the morphological requirement and almost all the biofunctions of the terrestrial soils. Thus, a typical (coprogenic) Limnosol is characterised by a thick (40-100 cm) limnic A horizon, olive grey (5 Y 3 -5/1) or dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4-5/2), which changes quickly to light olive grey or pale olive (5 Y 6-7/2, or 5 Y 6/3-4) on exposure to the air. The deeper layers are Cr horizons of greenish grey (5 GY) colours. Thin layers of sedimentary peat or marly materials often occur. The soil material is very soft (muddy) and slightly sticky. The water content ranges between 300 and 500% (Figure 18a.). The n value is 1.4 3 and the volume density is less than 0.6 (0.3-0.6) g/cm . The organic matter content of the top layer varies widely, from 1-2% (Protolimnosols) up to more than 50% (Histic Limnosols). The calcium carbonate content shows a very large range from 2-3% up to more than 80% (lacustrine lime). The soil reaction varies from slightly acid to alkaline. The rH value is 10 to 19. Limnosols are generally slightly saline or non-saline soils except those of lagoonal water bodies which are moderate saline and/or alkaline. The Kubiena natural system of soil classification (1953) is the only one which includes subaquatic soils, therefore, a correlation of the Danube Delta Limnosols with this system is thought to be useful. This is as follows: Table 6. Classification of the main subtypes of Limnosols
Limnosols from the Danube Delta muddy - sapropelic sandy (psamic) hypercalcareous coprogenic sali - sodic (brackish) sali sodic (brackish) - sandy calcareous histic sandy (psamic) calcareous histic histic Approximate corresponding soil in Kubiena classification Protopedon (pp) limnischer Sapropel (pp) Sandwattgyttja sandiger Protopedon SeemergelProtopedon Seekreide Protopedon eutrophe Gyttja Kalkgyttja seewasserhnliche Gyttja sandige seewasserhnliche Gyttja Kalktorf-Gyttja sandiger Kalktorf-Gyttja Torfgyttja
A artificial presentation of the main subtypes of Limnosols with their properties is given in Appendix II, Table II.2.
56
In the DDBR, Limnosols occur mainly in association with Histosols. This happens in lake basins invaded by floating Histosols (Figures 25 and 28). No other kind of association has been found, perhaps because Limnosols are by their nature confined to lacustrine areas. Land-use The biofunctions of Limnosols within the aquatic ecosystems are similar to those of the soil within the terrestrial systems, for example they act as - support and growth medium for subaquatic vegetation, - habitat for bentic fauna, - storage and immobilisation of heavy metals brought by riverine waters - a filter, which can help protect lake waters and groundwater from chemical pollution, as well as the effect on the waterbody from above, by producing volatile organic carbon (CH4-CO2) and H2S emissions. Under the Danube Delta climatic conditions, many Limnosols will change into Alluvial or Gley soils if they are artificially drained (6.2.1, 6.2.3). Following physical and chemical ripening, wide (2-5 cm), irreversible cracks develop and reduced, greenish grey colours change into yellowish brown often with large rusty spots on the faces of the peds. These changes may only occur 2-3 years after the artificial drainage was put into operation. The speed of ripening depends on the hydraulic conductivity of the substratum. If the deeper subsoil is sandy, the ripening can take place in less than 2 years (i.e. Pardina polder). Drained and cultivated, the former Limnosols behave like Alluvial/Gley Soils, but containing more silt they are more susceptible to crusting. The high CaCO3 content and alkaline reaction (after drainage the pH is usually 8.5-8.7) may induce a high rate of phosphate immobilisation, and low accessibility of some trace elements (Cu, Zn, Fe). So, the natural fertility of these soils is generally lower than of the `real Alluvial Soils. The rate of mineralisation is rather high, hence in 5-10 years they may lose more than 3/4 of their organic matter and nitrogen reserves (8.5.1). In the natural state, the ecological parameters of the Limnosols are subject to change following the evolution of the biochemical and sedimentation processes of the lake basins. They may accumulate and retain large amounts of pollutants by river waters, hence preventing to being further widespread in the environment. But in the longterm they may become a chemical time bomb. For the time being an ecologically quantitative statement of different Limnosol subtypes cannot be made yet. A qualitative, general ecological estimation is given in Chapter 7. Soil pollution of aquatic sediments Delta areas are thought to be the most polluted parts of a river system because of the decreasing flow velocities. In 1994 soil samples of Limnosols in an area with active sedimentation were taken and dated 137 134 with Cs and Cs gamma activities (Winkels et al., 1995). In general the heavy metal content in the aquatic sediments of the Danube Delta is relatively low compared to those of the Rhine Delta. Even when the actual heavy metal content in the suspended solids are compared, the contents are lower in the Danube river except for nickel.
57
According to Dutch standards the aquatic sediments are not contaminated with cadmium, arsenic, chromium, lead, and polychlorinated biphenyls. Slightly elevated levels of pollution are found for zinc. The sediments are slightly polluted with mercury and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and are polluted with copper and nickel. No analysis has been carried out on pesticide and oil content.
6.2.3
GLEY SOILS
In natural (unmodified) conditions Gley Soils are the main component of the soil cover of the intermediate relief between 0.0 and 1.5 m above MBSL. Parent materials are represented mostly by alluvial deposits but few of them have also been developed on loess deposits (Chilia loessial plain). In terms of Soil Taxonomy the soil moisture regime is an aquic to peraquic one. Thus, the groundwater table is permanently at less than a depth of 1.5 m and, unless embanked, they may be flooded each year from 1 to more than 6 months a year. If the Gley Soils are not drained and cultivated, they are occupied predominantly by reed vegetation, reed mace and sedges. Forests with Salix alba/fragilis or grasslands with Agrostis stolonifera and Carex sp. can be found on the riverine levees. The morphological profile of these soils is of an Ag-ACg-Cr or Ag-Cr type. According to the Romanian classification, associated with wetness, the reduced conditions of these soils are evidenced by the presence of reduced gleyic colours (reductomorphic properties as defined by WRB) in more than 50 percent of the soil matrix of a horizon whose upper limit starts within 125 cm of the soil surface. The boggy and semisubmerged subtypes are permanently wet and show reduced gleyic colours in more than 95% of the soil matrix, starting within 50 cm of the soil surface. The rH values in the reduced horizons are of 19 or less. Unless the soil texture is loamy sand or coarser, mostof these soils are physically unripened with n values of > 0.7 (Figures 18b and 19). When organic layers occur on the top soil or are buried in the soil profile, a potentially acid (sulphidic) horizon may be found. Gley Soils are represented by a large variety of genetic subtypes: A synthetic presentation of the most important properties of these soils is given in Appendix II, Table II.3. In the Danube Delta, Gley Soils form different associations depending on the local landform, parent materials and hydrological conditions. Thus, on the loess plain of Chilia they are associated with Chernozems and Solonchaks, on the riverine levees they are associated with Alluvial Soils (Figure 16) while in low-lying areas they are usually associated with Histosols. The transitional forms are the Histic Gleysols (Figure 25). Land-use In the natural landscape, the Gley Soils represent the pedological support of wetlands. Their main biofunctions are to provide water and nutrients for a luxurious vegetation and to act as a protective layer against the pollution of groundwater by contaminants brought by flood water. Their ecological parameters (available nutrients pH, buffering and filtering capacity, water storage capacity, etc.) are more stable than
58
those of alluvial soils. On the other hand most of these soils are in a relative equilibrium (climax) with the present-day vegetation. In agricultural polders, following artificial drainage, most of the Gley Soils change into Alluvial Soils. Due to their large supply of easily mineralisable organic matter and macronutrients and due to their favourable physical properties, under good management (including irrigation) Gley Soils are highly productive for a wide range of crops: maize, winter wheat, barley, sunflower, soybeans etc. The yields are high especially in the early years (5-15 years) of cultivation. A decline in productivity occurs following the depletion of organic matter and macronutrient reserves, induced by the extreme dryness of the prevailing climate in the Danube Delta.
The most sensitive of these soils are the coarse textured ones (sandy, sandy loam, loamy sandy texture). When excessive drainage is added, like in the Pardina polder, the fall in yield occurs after less than 10 years of cultivation. Crusting associated with risk of wind erosion may also occur. 6.2.4 PSAMMOSOLS AND SANDS
In the Danube Delta Psammosols and Sands are associated with marine sandbars (beach ridges) and coastal dunes of the marine delta and of the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex. Psammosols are defined by their sandy texture and the development of a weak soil profile. However, depending on the local landforms and hydrology, they show
59
significant differences in their morphology. Thus, on higher, welldrained parts of the relief (>1.5 m above MBSL) they have only a thin ochric A horizon, while on the less well drained ones (with groundwater table at <1.0 m deep) most of them have a mollic A horizon associated with oxymorphic/reductomorphic properties within 100 cm of the soil surface. In depressionary areas (intersandbars), marshy/ semisubmerged Psammosols with a mollic/peaty top horizon are often found.
Sands are characteristic of shifting or semi-permanent dunes (4 to 13 m above MBSL) and of shoreline sandbars and beaches. They do not show any trace of profile development, except for a very thin (2-5 cm) top layer fixed by roots, when a grass cover or forest plantation has been planted. The native vegetation cover of Psammosols varies widely: xerophillous dune plant associations (with Carex colchica, Ephedra distachia, Secale silvestris, Festuca beckeri) on the higher, dry parts of the relief and hydrophyllous associations on the lower sandbars and in the depressed areas. Bushes of Hyppophae rhamnodes and Eleagnus angustifilia are often present on medium dunes. Under flat, welldrained but not very dry conditions, Psammosols are covered by pastures including Cynodon dactylon, Agropyron pectiniforme and Artemisia austriaca. When the soil is saline, plant associations with hallophyllous species (with Juncus maritimum, Plantago crassifolia, etc.) occur. A notable exception are the oak forests (with Quercus pedunculiflora, Q. robur, Fraxinus Pallisiae, etc.) growing on the marshy-mollic Psammosols of the Letea and Caraorman dunes. Sands have a sparse vegetation cover, consisting of arenaceous species. Completely bare sands are rare, only on beaches and some areas on the Caraorman and Letea dunes. The particle size of Psammosols and Sands is coarse sandy in the central and western parts of the Letea and Caraorman dunes and fine sandy in the eastern and south-eastern region of the delta and in the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex. All Psammosols and sands are calcareous and in some places (i.e. Peri[oru) sandy deposits consist mostly of shell debris. Psammosols are very permeable soils with a low storage capacity for available water. In large areas the water supply in these soils is significantly improved because of shallow groundwater (<1.5m depth). Most Psammosols are very poor in organic matter, except those having a mollic/peaty top horizon. In the areas with mineralised, shallow groundwater, these soils are saline, and often show a strong alkaline + reaction (pH = 9-11) and a high exchangeable Na percentage (>15
60
%). The main characteristics of Psammosols are given in Appendix II, Table II.4.
The Psammosols form different consociations and associations depending on the variability of landforms and hydrological conditions. Thus, on the higher parts of the Letea, Caraorman and S~r~turile dunes they are associated with moving or semi-stabilised sands. In lower and less undulating areas, Psammosols form associations either with saline soils - Solonchaks (i.e. in the eastern and southern part of the Letea dunes), or with Gley Soils (i.e. in the western and southern part of the Caraorman dunes). On low-lying sandbars, these soils are associated with Histosols and Histic (Peaty) Gley Soils. The main types of linkages and associations formed by these soils are illustrated in the Figures 20, 21 and 22.
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Land-use The general level of fertility of Psammosols is very low. They are used mostly as grasslands and forests or plantations (poplar). Only very small areas, around villages and in farmers courtyards, are they cultivated with maize, potatoes, rye and barley. Some agricultural experiments carried out over the last few decades show that they react favourable when well-fertilized and irrigated, but the production costs are very high. When the Psammosols are cultivated and grazed, the main risks are wind erosion, leaching of fertilizers and at worst salinisation, if the groundwater is not very deep. From the ecological point of view Psammosols support a large variety of plant associations. They are very vulnerable soils both to wind erosion and to chemical pollution and offer little protection to groundwater against chemical contaminants. Due to their texture, sands have no other use than for wildlife purposes. 6.2.5 SOLONCHAKS
According to the Romanian system of soil classification, Solonchaks include all the soils having a salic horizon4 with its upper limit in the first 20 cm of the soil surface. The Solonchaks occur in areas with saline shallow groundwater at shallow depth, generally within 1.0 m of the soil surface (Table 7). Genetically, Solonchaks are mostly naturally induced, few of them have developed following embankment works for fish ponds or agricultural polders. Most of these soils are formed in sandy deposits of marine origin and often occupy depressed areas and low sandbars in the eastern and southern Letea dunes, eastern Caraorman and western S~r~turile dunes. Solonchaks are also found in the Buhaz area and Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex, or in the Chituc, Istria and Lupilor embankments.
Salic horizon in the RSSC is defined as: being >10 cm thick and the soluble salt content in
water extract 1:5 is : >1% (>24 dsm-1) or 1.5% (>32 dsm-1) if the salinity is the chloride or sulphate type, respectively. These figures are valuable for loamy texture, they are reduced by 7.5% if the soil is sandy or are increased by 15% if the soil is clayey. For organic soil materials the lower limit of salt content of salic horizon ranges from 2 to 3% for welldecomposed (sapric) peats up to 10 to 15% for the less well-decomposed (fibric) ones. For soils with a pH > 8.5, a figure of > 8dsm-1 is used.
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During big storms on the Chituc peninsula and in the northern part of S~r~turile dunes, Solonchaks are periodically flooded by sea water. Another profile is developed on the eastern part of the Chilia loessial plain; few of these soils are formed on alluvial or organic deposits. The morphology of the Solonchaks varies widely: starting from those without or only with a weakly developed ochric top horizon (5-10 cm thickness) up to those having a mollic or a histic horizon. All Solonchaks are strongly gleyed and show reduced gleyic colour patterns in the upper 20-30 cm of the soil profile or immediately below the histic horizon.
The salt content of the Solonchaks ranges between 0.9 % (on sandy deposits) up to 20% on organic soil materials. The most common salts are chloride or sulphate-chloride with sodium as the main cation except Solonchaks of the Chilia loessial field where calcium and magnesium are the dominant cations.. The mode of salt accumulation (Figure 23) strongly depends on the texture of the parent material and also on the former soil type upon which Solonchaks develop. Thus, the Solonchaks which were formed on sandy deposits, with evaporating saline groundwater mostly at/or close to the soil surface, have a leptic (10-20 cm thick) salic horizon. Solonchaks which developed in loamy-clayey, loamy deposits have a normal salic horizon of more than 50 cm thick. In both cases the Solonchaks are of an external type and show an upward gradient of salt accumulation (WRB-1994). The thickest pachic, salic horizon (of more than 1.0 m) and with the highest salt content (>4%) is reached in Histic Solonchaks within embanked areas. In these areas the previous salt accumulation was strongly accelerated following embankment works. These soils have a complex gradient type of saline profile. The soil reaction is slightly to moderately alkaline (pH = 7.6-8.9) in the
63
upper horizon and predominantly alkaline (pH > 8.5) in the deeper horizons where also a high percentage (VNa > 15%) of exchangeable + Na occurs. High pH values of 9.5-11.0 have also been recorded in Solonchaks developed on marine sands in the eastern part of the Letea dunes, in which sodium carbonate and sodium bicarbonate are present among the soluble salts. An exception is found in Histic Solonchaks which show a neutral to slightly acid reaction in the organic horizon and a more acid one in the underlying horizons (due to the pyrite oxidation caused by artificial drainage). The organic matter content ranges from approximate 1.0% in sandy Solonchaks up to 39% in the Histic ones. In Appendix II, Table II.5 an artificial characterisation of these soils is given. Depending on the type of landscape, Solonchaks form the following associations with other soils: in sandy areas with Psammosols, on Chilia loessial field with Solonetz and Gleysols, and on riverine relief with Alluvial Soils and Alluvial Gleysols. Land-use Solonchaks support a poor vegetation cover consisting of halloplyllous grasslands of very low quality for cattle. By their nature they show poor biodiversity. Their agricultural use (except rough grazing) is impossible without artificial drainage and leaching out of salts. The high salt content limits the growth of cultivated plants, because either it is toxic (nutrients are less available), or due to physiological drought created by the high osmotic pressure of the soil solution. A special problem of sandy Solonchaks which have been drained once is the high risk of wind erosion. Table 7. Some examples of groundwater salt composition from Solonchaks of the Danube Delta Total Anions Cations soluble (g/l) (g/l) 22+ 2+ + salts HCO3 SO4 Cl Ca Mg Na 2(g/l) + CO3 42.98 0.23 0.10 29.10 3.80 5.70 3.88 38.75 0.15 0.10 26.00 2.60 4.70 5.00 40.80 0.80 0.55 24.00 0.20 1.12 13.70 20.60 1.92 0.11 10.92 0.10 0.47 6.90 34.18 2.07 0.09 19.52 0.13 1.51 10.50 93.91 83.40 25.81 9.14 19.52 0.38 0.44 1.15 0.04 0.02 6.52 5.10 2.40 1.65 7.27 47.23 47.40 12.67 3.99 6.09 1.13 0.73 1.05 0.65 0.51 4.40 3.43 0.19 0.98 1.40 33.90 25.60 8.26 1.80 4.10
No
Location
Depth cm 65 143 94 118 50 70 60 15 60 47

x)
pH
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chilia field Chilia field Letea levee Letea levee S~r~turile levee Istria levee Lupilor levee Holbina II x) Holbina II x) Holbina II
7.3 7.1 8.7 9.2 8.1 7.1 2.6 4.5
0.17 0.20 0.43 0.18 0.36 0.35 0.70 0.09 0.06 0.13
Acid Sulphate Soils
6.2.6
SOLONETZ
These soils are of little importance in the DDBR. They occur as inclusions within the Solonchak areas of the eastern part of the Chilia
64
loessial plain. Like the surrounding Solonchaks, Solonetz develop on loamy loess deposits, but they occur on slightly better drained sites with the salinised groundwater table at a depth of 2-2.5 m (Figure 24). All Solonetz are of the mollic-gleyic subtype. The upper A horizon (less than 11 cm thick) is very dark grey and has a lamellar, platy structure. The natric B horizon (less than 20 cm thick) has the same colour but is evidenced by a columnar-prismatic, weakly developed structure. The Cg horizon occurs at a depth of 30-35 cm. The Solonetz show a clear increase in clay content in the natric B horizon as compared with the A horizon (37% compared to 23%). The organic matter content is about 2.4% and the N content of about 0.14%. The soil pH is 9.30 in the natric B horizon and below 9 (8.9) in the Cg2 horizon. Exchangeable Na is more than 15 (up to 30%) both in the natric B and the Cg horizons. Most part of Solonetz are now included within man-made fish ponds. The remaining areas are used as grasslands. In Appendix III, the profile Sm1 represents an example of Solonetz from the DDBR.
6.2.7
KASTANOZEMS (Chestnut Soils)
These soils, defined as being characteristic of the short grass steppe of the continental dry climate, are the only zonal soils of the Danube Delta. Their occurrence is restricted to the Chilia field and Stipoc, loessial/continental remnants from Bugeac plain of southern Bessarabia included in the delta. They occupy the highest altitude (3-6 m) and the best drained parts of these landforms. The parent material consists of loamy and lime-rich (11-13%) Wrmian loess. Depending on the drainage conditions, two subtypes of Kastanozems were identified: vermic (Kastanozems), located on better drained areas (groundwater table at a depth of 3-4 m) and Gleyic-Alkalised (sodicised) Kastanozems with groundwater table at a depth of 1.5-3.0 m. The horizon sequence is: A-AC-Ck, and A-AC-Cgk, respectively. The vermic Kastanozems have a mollic A horizon ( 35 cm thick), are dark brown (10YR 3/3) and have a moderately developed granular vermic structure, the texture is loamy and the organic matter content is 2.5-2.7%. The soil reaction of the A horizon is slightly to moderate alkaline (pH = 8.2-8.5) and becomes moderately alkaline in the lower part of the solum. The soil is calcareous from the surface, but although the lime content is high enough (10-12%) starting from the AC horizon, the Ck horizon is not very clearly expressed, (12-19%
65
CaCO3), perhaps because of the relative youth of the soil and deposits. Profile Kv (Appendix III) represents an example of a Calcaro-Vermic Kastanozem. The Gleyed-alkalised (sodicised) Kastanozems show similar morphological features, except for the occurrence of oxymorphic properties (rusty and grey spots) in the Ck horizons. These soils also have a moderate to strong alkaline reaction and show some compaction in the AC and Ck horizons. The data in Table II.6 (Appendix II) also indicate a relatively high percentage of + exchangeable Na in the AC and Ck horizons. In the Danube Delta, the Vermic-Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozems are associated with Gleyed Chernozems which are found in depressed areas (saucers) of the Chilia loessial plain. The Gleyed-Alkalised (sodicised) Kastanozems are either associated with Solonchaks or with Gleyed Chernozems depending on the salinity of the groundwater. Land-use The largest part of the Kastanozems is used as arable land by the Chilia village in habitants. The more alkalised ones are served for extensive grazing. Those of Stipoc were included in man-made fish ponds. Although Kastanozems have good physical conditions, their fertility level is moderate because of the relatively low organic matter, nitrogen and phosphorus content. Alkalinity has to be added to these parameters in the case of Gleyed-alkalised Kastanozems (sodicised). But over all, the lack of soil moisture is the main obstacle to high yield potential. Therefore irrigation is always necessary to produce arable crops with satisfactory yields. From the ecological point of view Kastanozems have a high risk of salinisation and of alkalization following a rise on the level of the groundwater table caused by constructing the man-made fish ponds in the eastern part of the Chilia field. The Kastanozems of Stipoc are already badly damaged by constructing of artificial fish ponds on them, which occasioned soil levelling, excavating and capping. 6.2.8 CHERNOZEMS
These soils occur in a very small area, at the southern end of the Chilia loessial plain. There, they are developed on flat, almost horizontal relief, about 2-3 m above MBSL and in large depressed areas (saucers) characteristic of this kind of plain built up on thick loess deposits. They are also found on loess remnants included in the Stipoc lacustrine spit. Due to the saline (approximately 30g/l salts) and shallow groundwater (1.5-1.8 m depth), the Chernozems of the Danube Delta belong to the gleyed-salinised subtype. The soil profile is of an A-AC-Cg type (Appendix II, Table II.7). It shows a mollic A horizon (31-39 cm thick), greyish brown to very dark greyish brown (10YR 3.5/2), loamy, and with a well-developed fine granular to subangular blocky structure. The AC horizon (14-16 cm thick) is also loamy, has a greyish brown to dark brown (10YR 4/2.5) colour with yellowish spots, and has a weakly developed subangular blocky structure. The Ckg horizon occurs at a depth of approximately 50 cm is structureless (loess-like structure) and has a pale olive-pale yellow colour (5Y 6.5/3.5) with grey and rusty fine spots; whitish, small
66
calcium carbonate concretions occur below a depth of 6.0 cm. The clay content decreases slightly with depth, 24-28% in the top horizon and 22-26% in the Cg horizon; higher values (30-31%) can be found at the base of the A horizon. In the A horizon the organic matter content is 3.6-4.4% and remains above 2% down to a depth of 50 cm: the total N is 0.240-0.290% and the available P varies between 89 and 156 ppm. The whole solum is slightly alkaline (pH = 7.8-8.4). Calcium carbonate occurs at the base of the A or in the A/C horizon. The salinity of the soil is moderate to severe: the salt content is relatively low 0.21-0.23 in the top horizon but increases rapidly up to more than 1.1%, immediately below a depth of 60 cm. So these soils can be considered as internal Solonchaks. 2+ 2+ The salts are of the chloride type with Mg and Ca as the dominant cations. The representative soil is profile no. 22 (Appendix III). The Chernozems of the Danube Delta are either associated with Gleysols or with Solonchaks, depending on the variation in drainage and groundwater salinity. Land-use The area occupied by Chernozems is mainly used as grassland; a small part has been included in man-made fish ponds. From the ecological point of view there is the risk of increasing soil salinity due the strongly saline groundwater which rises upwards in the solum as the effect of the vicinity of man-made fish ponds which worsened the natural drainage of the area. The discrepancy between the relatively low salinity of the solum and the high one of the groundwater can be explained by the relatively short length of time that the groundwater table is at its present depth. Before the fish ponds were made, the groundwater table was at a depth of 2.5-3 m. 6.2.9 HISTOSOLS
Histosols are the main component of the soil cover of the DDBR. According to RSSC, under this name have been classified all soils having a histic horizon of more than 50 cm thickness with its upper boundary within 25 cm of the soil surface. These soils are formed there as a result of very wet and reducing conditions prevailing in the lowlying areas (<0.5 m above MBSL) of the DDBR which retard the decomposition of the remnants of a very rich climax vegetation. This vegetation consists of mostly reed, sedge and reed mace, with minor participation of some woody species, i.e. Salix cineraea. Besides the excess of water and reducing environment, one of the main conditions for the occurrence of these soils is the reduced (or at least discontinuous) rate of the mineral sedimentation in the area where they develop. The formation of Histosols in the Danube Delta is rather complex. Some of them developed by accumulation of plant remnants in backswamps directly above a black mollic horizon rich in organic matter. Another part is represented by a more or less floating organic blanket (called plaur in the Romanian language) whose present-day development seems to take place independently of the mineral subsoil.
67
The thickness of the underlying water layer varies with the water level in the delta, but it usually does not exceed 0.6-1.0 m. There is a theory that states that these floating organic soils first developed in shallow water at the edges of lakes and when they have reached a certain thickness (about 80 cm), they rise up losing their attachment to the mineral ground. It is worth noting that the largest part of the floating Histosols occupies depressed areas (below MBSL), which may have been former lakes or lagoons, which are now filled with organic material. To a lesser extent Histosols are formed in lakes by the accumulation of residues of floating and subaqueous plants, to which organic material eroded from the lake edges is added. The general characteristic of the Histosols of the DDBR is the prevalence of medium and slightly decomposed, skeletal, hemic to fibric organic material. This characteristic is specific especially to floating Histosols which mainly consist of a mixture of semi-rooted stems and leaves, living and dead roots. More decomposed (sapric) organic matter occurs in smaller areas usually located on the fringe of the Histosol bodies with some periods of dryness or they form the bottom layers of (older) organic soils especially when they consist of thick deposits or are buried under mineral deposits. The later case is common to some floating Histosols, which present a coequal succession in the quality of organic deposits: hemic-fibric above the water layer, and sapric-terric below. These sapric materials (perhaps inherited from an older stage of development) may be 2 to 3 times thicker than the aforementioned hemic-fibric floating layers. The second important feature is the accumulation of sulphides (mainly pyrite), originating from the reduction of sulphates dissolved in water and from the decomposition of the reed vegetation (Dent, 1986 and see also Chapter 8). A third feature which characterises about half of the DDBR Histosols is their relatively high percentage (often more than half by weight) of mineral materials (mostly of silt and clay size), and/or the occurrence of mineral layers within the organic deposits. Both features reflect the coparticipation of the mineral sedimentation specific to the deltaic environment. Morphologically, Histosols have a H-Cr, or H-Ah-Cr profile type. If the histic horizon consists of hemic to fibric organic material, it has a yellowish-brown (10YR 5/4-8) or even a strong brown (7.5YR 5/6-8) colour. The top layer (5-10 cm thick) of floating Histosols, which remains above the water level, and hence with better conditions for decomposition, consists of a finely divided black (N1-2), anmoor-like, organic paste. The histic horizon of sapric or hemic to sapric Histosols has a very dark brown to black (10YR 2/1-2, N2) colour. When significant amounts of mineral materials are present the colour may be very dark grey (10YR 3/1 or 5Y3/1). The transition between the organic horizons and the mineral subsoil is made through a black (N2), soft horizon rich in humus (15-35 cm thick) which may be classified as a mollic horizon. The subsequent underlying layers are Cr horizons with greenish-grey to dark grey (5GY) colours. At the interface between the organic horizons and the
68
mineral subsoil (or of mineral layers, when these occur within the organic horizons), thin layers (5-10 cm thick) of black to dark reddish brown (5YR 2.5/1-2) colour, of weak, oolitic-ferrihumic material (Soil Taxonomy, 1975) are often found. Sometimes at the interface between organic and mineral layers, whether or not associated with ferrihumic materials, pockets of glauconite with greyish green (5G 4-5/2) colours may occur which change quickly to olive brown in a matter of seconds on exposure to air. The Histosols found in lakes are a special case, called Limnists (Everett, 1983). These soils consist of finely divided, brownish (10YR, 5Y 5-6/4-8) organic material (mostly faecal pellets) slightly plastic but not sticky. At the interface with the overlying water it forms a viscous water suspension. Whitish, thin, marly layers are usually present. However, some of these soils consist of sapric, black, without calcium carbonate, organic material originating from floating Histosols. The thickness of the peat deposits on which Histosols develop (see Chapter 5.8 ) varies widely: from 0.6-0.7 m up to 6(7) m. The specific density of the soil material depends on its mineral content, 3 which ranges from 0.8 g/cm in skeletal, hemic-fibric layers up to 1.9 3 g/cm in the sapric, mineral organic ones. In the same order of 3 3 magnitude volume density increases from 0.10 g/cm up to 0.35 g/cm , respectively. The total porosity ranges between 90% in the hemic-fibric materials up to 75% in the sapric mineral organic ones. The water content is very high up to more than 1000% in hemic-fibric floating Histosols and 300-500% in sapric soil materials. The organic matter content of these soils ranges from 20% in the case of organo-mineral materials up to 95 (99)% in the pure organic materials. Variations in the total nitrogen content closely follow that of the organic matter 0.9-2.8%. The C:N ratio shows high values (16-26) specific to poorly decomposed organic matter. The total amount of P2O5 is generally low (< 0.08%). Some characteristics of the organic matter of the Histosols of DDBR are given in the Tables 8 and 9. Table 8. Breakdown of organic carbon (C) of some samples of organic materials from the Danube Delta (using the *) Pyrophosphate and Natrium hydroxide method ) Total organic % from organic carbon (C) carbon% Soluble C Insoluble C Humic acids Fulvic acids 35.00 20.30 29.20
*)
Type of organic material fibric hemic, mineral organic sapric
19.0 15.2 21.6
81.0 84.8 78.4
13.6 5.9 10.9
5.4 9.3 10.7
Source: Handra, 1976, unpublished data
Table 9.
Depth (cm) of sampled horizons
Organic carbon total %
Some characteristics of the organic matter of a Hemic Histosol from the Isaccea-Tulcea sector of the Danube *) Flood Plain % from organic carbon (C) Soluble C Humic Fulvic Insoluble Ash acids acids C
Cal / g
69
0 - 50 50 - 100 120 -150 170 - 200 220 - 250 270 - 300 420 - 450
38.9 33.3 37.4 47.4 52.5 50.9 57.7

*)
17.5 19.8 18.3 18.0 17.8 16.1 19.4
9.8 12.9 13.3 12.2 10.8 12.2 14.9
7.6 6.9 5.0 5.8 7.0 3.9 4.5
82.5 80.2 81.7 82.0 82.2 83.9 80.4
55.5 65.6 61.3 48.1 43.5 47.9 48.9
1905 1347 1561 2369 2627 2350 2298
Source: Lupascu et al., 1985, unpublished data
Generally speaking the organic horizons lack calcium carbonate but when mineral interstratifications occur, they may have up to 10-11 (3.6-11)% CaCO3. The range of soluble salt content is very large; from less than 0.1% in some floating Histosols up to more than 20% in some drained, and strongly acid Histosols. The salts are mainly of the sulphate and sulphate chloride (with sodium as the main cation) type. After artificial drainage some Histosols become greatly enriched with calcium sulphate following the reaction of sulphuric acid resulting from pyrite oxidation with CaCO3 or exchangeable calcium (see Chapter 8). The soil pH (H2O) in the field is generally slightly acid to neutral (6.07.5) but where peat contains sulphidic (pyritic) material, in air dried samples as well as in the artificially drained (for fish ponds or agricultural use) Histosols, the pH becomes extremely acid: less than 4.5 (often down to 2.4). At the same time, the base saturation drops from 90-100% down to 42-23%, and large amounts of exchangeable + H (up to more than 90 meq/100 g soil) occur. In the organic layers, the reducing conditions are very severe: the rH values range between 3.5 and 8 , and the Eh between - 100 and -420 mev. The conditions of the underlying mineral layers are less reducing: rH = 6.6...8.7 and Eh= -180.....-220. It is interesting to note that during the field surveys a strong H2S and CH4 smell came from the pedological borings and if a fire source was put over the auger hole, a bluish blaze suddenly ignited. The cation exchange capacity (CEC) is high to very high. At pH 7 the poorly decomposed organic material has CEC values of more than 47-116 meq/100 g soil, and the well-decomposed matter may reach up to 150 (111-150) meq/100 g soil. In Appendix II, Table II.8, an artificial presentation of the main units of Histosols in the DDBR is given. In the DDBR Histosols form some main associations with other soils as follows: 1) With Gley Soils on the edge of the peat area, where secondary streams enter the backswamps and where mineral sedimentation is intermittent (Figure 25); 2) With Limnosols in depressionary-lacustrine areas (Figures 26, 27, 28); 3) With Psammosols in areas with narrow sand bars (beach ridges) of marine origin (Figure 21). Land-use In the natural state, Histosols function as a basic pedological support for wetland ecosystems. Their ecological value is given by their high water storage capacity and mechanical filtering capacity. Having a very high CEC, Histosols also have a high adsorption capacity for heavy
70
metals but the redox conditions strongly influence their mobility. Most of these metals are associated or adsorbed onto iron and manganese hydroxides, which are not stable under reducing conditions and converted to iron sulphides or iron carbonates, and when this occurs, the heavy metals associated with iron and manganese may be mobilised (Salomons, 1992). The presence of iron sulphide (mainly pyrite) is of a great ecological importance. When artificial drainage is applied (for agriculture or fish ponds), the pyrite oxidises and results in an (often severe) acidification of the soil and environment. From this point of view the Histosols of the DDBR represent a truely natural Chemical Time Bomb as defined by Stigliani (1992). For any other use, apart from their biofunction in natural ecosystems, Histosols are very fragile soils. If drained, besides the abovementioned acidification, in the Danube Delta under warm and dry climatic conditions, Histosols lose about 5 cm of the top a year due to mineralisation and wind erosion. If the groundwater is mineralised, the salinisation process also develops more rapidly (I. Munteanu, 1989). Experience has shown that Histosols in the DDBR are almost completely unsuitable for arable land-use. Besides the toxicity which develops following acidification, the relatively coarse Histosols offer unfavourable ploughing and rooting conditions, and have a low water availability. The bearing capacity is low, the tilth is poor, production of weeds is very high, and the macronutrient supply is extremely unbalanced especially due to excess amounts of nitrogen. Up to the present day, more than 10,000 ha of the Histosols in the DDBR have already been lost by burning to obtain arable land in the Pardina and other agricultural polders of the delta.
6.2.10
ANTHROSOLS and NOT SOILS
Anthrosols are the result of different kinds of human activities. They are mainly represented by heaps of earthy material originating from
71
digging out canals; made either for open drainage in agricultural polders, or for opening new waterways (e.g. Caraorman and Mila 35 canals) and improving water flows in the isolated parts of the delta. Anthrosols mostly consist of alluvial deposits, sometimes mixed with organic materials. Their texture varies widely from sandy to clayey, but all are calcareous. Not soils are represented by excavated areas made for fish farms (e.g. Stipoc, Peri[or, Rusca). From the ecological point of view Anthrosols represent a disturbed pedolandscape which need to be recovered and reintegrated into the former ecosystems.
72
73
74
Soil Map Legend
........................................................................................
7.1
Mapped area and scale of soil mapping
In addition to the Danube Delta proper, the mapped area also includes a large part of the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex, the Isaccea-Tulcea sector of the Danube Flood Plain (west of Tulcea), the Musura Bay (north of Sulina city) and the Sakhalin lagoon, at the mouth of the Sf. Gheorghe branch. Thus the soil map covers about 409,162 ha, that is 70% of the DDBR area. The largest unmapped area is the Razim Lake (Figure 29). Most of the DDBR has been mapped on a scale of 1:50,000, and major areas on a scale 1:25,000. A larger scale (1:10,000) has only been used in some agricultural polders and fish pond basins (Figures 29 and 3).
7.2
Field Work
Soil surveys were carried out over a period of about 18 years (19751992). Due to the difficult accessibility conditions of the Danube Delta, field work was only carried out in 3 months of the year, and usually in the second half of the summer, when the water level in the delta allows the soil scientist, both the possibility of entering the backswamps on foot (equipped with high fishing boots) and of using the secondary network of canals and streams by motor boats and rowing boats.
75
A special system of augers (mostly based on Dutch models) was used for augering and taking samples of soil material. Open profile pits were only made on exposed surfaces, either naturally (i.e. levees) or artificially drained (i.e. agricultural polders). The total amount of borings and pit profiles made was about 4,000, more than 1000 of which were taken for laboratory analysis. The depth of the pedological borings varied according to the characteristics of the soil profile; i.e. in peat and lacustrine areas many borings were 4-5m or even 6 or 9 m deep, in order to reach at least either the bottom limit of the peat deposits, or the layers consisting of unripened mineral soil material. Whereas, in sandy areas the borings were rarely deeper than 1.52.0 m. For both borings and pits, a standard depth of 2.0 m or down to the groundwater table, where it was shallower, was only used in agricultural polders. In the marsh lands, which are very high difficult to access, pedological borings were very sparingly used. Each bore was located only after making a careful analysis of the aerial photograph to identify as much as possible of the representative patch for tone, pattern and structure. On emerged/drained areas, the network of borings was distributed in a such a way as to cover the main features of the observed landscape as it was evidenced by landforms, vegetation/land-use pattern. On the lakes the network of borings was somewhat semi-randomized, especially on the big lakes like Furtuna, Ro[u, Gorgova, etc.; on the small ones, 1-2 borings were very often considered as being enough. As topographical support for the field work black and white aerial photographs on a scale 1:8,000 -1:45,000 were used. Aerial photography was undertaken by the Institute of Geodesy and Cartography of Bucharest, and had been generally made in the year prior to the survey and at low water level in the delta as much as possible. Soil delineations (polygons) were mostly drawn up in the field and made directly onto the aerial photographs (using coloured markers). Generally, but not always, the polygon limits follow these limits given by the differences in tone, structure and pattern of the aerial photograph to which the observed characteristics of soil profile appeared to be best correlated. So this is why each polygon is, in some sense, a pedophotolandscape cartographic unit. On the lakes, the polygons were drawn up on the basis of pedological boring grids, corresponding to an expert interpretation of the shape, size and position of each lake basin. In the agricultural polders, and on the riverine/marine levees soil mapping was carried out according to usual methods used in soil survey cartography.
7.3
SOIL MAP
The soil map which is on a scale 1:100,000 (Appendix I) represents a simplified version of the original soil map on a scale 1: 50,000 included in the Soil Database of the DDBR (see Chapter 4.2).
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For the sake of clarity, only the soil cover components are shown on the soil map, and in order to keep the map legible, the simplest soil symbols were chosen. So, each polygon on the map is labelled with a symbol which consists of a group of two Latin letters: a capital one which designates the soil type and a lower case letter, as a suffix, to designate the soil subtype. Both the capital letters and the suffixes were chosen which would refer as much as possible to the soil type/subtype names: e.g. A - for Alluvial Soils; L - for Limnosols; G for Gley Soils; k - for Calcareous; h - for Histic, etc. The top soil texture is indicated by an Arabic number, separated by a full stop from the soil symbol. Besides symbols, different colours are used to indicate relief on the map. Although a single soil symbol is used, each polygon rarely contains a single soil component. The polygon usually represents a soil association composed of several soil types/subtypes (as shown in the tables of Appendix II). The symbol and the colour represent the dominant soil or sometimes two codominant soils. The soil boundaries shown on the soil map only rarely represent distinct boundaries between different soil types except when sharp boundaries in landforms, land-use and head deposits occur.They usually mark transition zones (generally not wider than 200 m) between two soil associations, within which the frequency of the dominant or codominant soils varies.
7.4
Soil map legend
The soil map legend consists of 41 units, 38 of which are soil subtypes and 3 are non soils (sands, excavated areas) and Anthrosols. The legend units are grouped in clusters according to the soil type to which they belong: Alluvial Soils - 5 units; Limnosols - 9 units; Gley Soils - 8 units; Psammosols and Sands - 8 units; Solonchaks - 2 units; Kastanozems - 2 units; Chernozems - 1 unit; Histosols - 5 units; Anthrosols - 1 unit. The legend is arranged into three columns: The central one consists of small rectangles labelled with a soil symbol and filled in with a colour given to the respective soil on the map. The colours were chosen to suggest the type of pedolandscape they represent and are as follows: olive for Alluvial Soils; blue for Limnosols (Underwater Soils); green to greenish blue - for Gley Soils; yellow to brown - for Psammosols; light yellow - for Sands; dark red - for Solonchaks; dark brown - for Kastanozems; brown for Chernozems; greyish brown to brown and pinkish brown - for Histosols and pinkish - for Anthrosols. The left-hand column includes the soil name used in the FAO/UNESCO and USDA Soil Taxonomy classifications. The righthand column includes the Romanian soil names and the English translation. The topsoil texture is given for 7 classes using the Romanian limits for clay (< 0.002 mm) content. A special class - no texture (organic material), is given to all soils with organic (peaty) topsoil.
77
7.5
Soil map legend characterisation
Brief information on the soil legend units and on the properties considered of importance to the environment (Roeschmann, 1986) is given in Table 10. The explanations of the different items used in front of each column of this table are as follows: - Legend symbol - (column 1). The symbol of the soil given on the soil map; - Soil types - (column 2 and 3). Refers to the composition of the soil legend unit and the percentage share of each typological unit (soil type/subtype). The dominant soil provides the name of the legend unit; - Landforms/parent material - (column 4). Refers to the type of landforms and parent materials on which the dominant soil develops. These are the ones used in the Thematic map published in the Atlas of the Danube Delta (in press). - Land-use/occupation - (column 5). Shows the kind of land-use/land cover of the dominant soil: arable land, grassland, pasture, forest, fish ponds, reed harvesting, wildlife. - Soil/water regime - (column 6). Refers to the duration of the period in which the soil profile is wet: waterlogged, defined as a matrix suction of < 10 cm , or a matrix potential of > -1KPa. The following parameters were taken into account: the duration of floods, oscillations of groundwater table, the parent materials and the variation in soil texture, as well as the water storage capacity and permeability of the soil, and finally the capillary rise of the groundwater into the surface horizons (root zone). The following classes are used (adapted from the guidelines for the European Soil Database - 1995) : - submerged- lakes; - permanently wet- the soil profile is wet within a depth of 40 cm for more than 11 months /year; submerged > 3 months/year; - wet- the soil profile is wet within a depth of 80 cm for more than 6 months but not wet within a depth of 40 cm for more than 11 months/year; submerged < 3 months/year; - moist- the soil profile is wet within a depth of 80 cm for 3 to 6 months but not wet within a depth of 40 cm for more than 1 month/year; submerged less than 1 month/year; - dry- the soil profile is not wet within a depth of 80 cm for more than 3 months, not wet within a depth of 40 cm more than 1 month/year. - Mechanical filtering capacity - (column 7). This is a qualitative estimation of the ability of the dominant soil to retain solid matter (i.e. solid pollutants) from water percolating to prevent the groundwater from being contaminated by these pollutants. The main criteria used to estimate the filtering capacity are: texture, bulk density and layering (especially the presence of less permeable layers) of the head deposits down to about 2 m. A three level semiquantitative scale of filtering capacity is used: low, medium and high. - Bearing capacity - (column 8). This is the capacity of the soil to support physical loading without deformation. The bearing capacity is very important for moving machinery, cattle, and man. To estimate the bearing capacity, the main criteria are the ripening status (n value for the mineral soils, finer than loamy sand) and the degree of decomposition of organic matter and the presence of the water layers,
78
in the case of organic soils. Four classes of bearing capacity are distinguished: very low, low, medium, and high. - Susceptibility to salinisation - (column 9). This is the risk of increasing soil salinity in the case of a changing soil-water regime due to constructing embankments or following global climate changes. The main criteria used for assessing the risk of soil salinisation are: groundwater depth and groundwater mineralisation, the nature (origin) of the head deposits and the risk of sea water floods. Four levels of salinity risk are distinguished: absent, low, medium and high. - Susceptibility to acidification following artificial drainage (column 10). This kind of susceptibility is applied to Histosols, and to histic/thaptohistic subtypes of Gleysols, Psammosols and Limnosols, which contain pyrite and which do not have enough calcium carbonate (or adsorbed calcium) to neutralize the sulphuric acid which forms by oxidation of pyrite following artificial drainage. The criteria used to estimate the susceptibility to acidification are the thickness and the pH reaction of the organic layers (all organic layers having pH < 6.5 are potentially acid)5. Three classes of susceptibility to acidification are used: low, medium and high. - Susceptibility to erosion by wind - (column 11). Due to the climatic dryness, the frequency and intensity of winds, the risk of wind erosion is present: * for arable mineral soils at the surface, which remain bare and dry in wintertime; * for sandy areas with scarce vegetation cover without a shallow groundwater table and * for drained organic soils with a dry surface. The estimation is made on the basis of topsoil texture (for arable soils the size or lack of top soil structure is also taken into consideration), the type of peat (degree of decomposition), as well the capillary rise from the groundwater. When the topsoil is kept moist, then the soil may be almost completely protected against wind erosion. This susceptibility is estimated as being: low, medium or high. The soils most vulnerable to wind erosion are the fine to medium sandy ones, poor in organic matter and with a deep groundwater table which cannot influence the surface horizons. - Susceptibility to organic matter and nutrient depletion - as arable land - (column 12). In the dry climate of the Danube Delta, following drainage and cultivation, there is a strong intensification of organic matter mineralisation and macronutrient loss (see Chapter 8.5.1). Organic matter content tends to reach the zonal equilibrium that is less than 2.0% (i.e. similar to those of Kastanozems), for loamy soils and less than 1% for sandy ones. The highest rate of loss of organic matter is noticed in well-aerated sandy soils whilst in the clayey ones, which less well-aerated and also with a much higher water storage capacity, the initial organic matter reserves are preserved far better. Therefore, the clay content within the first 40 cm of the soil profile and the soil-water regime were the main criteria used to estimate this kind of susceptibility. Three classes were separated: low, medium and high.
The pH of these materials drop below 4 (down to 2.4) when hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2) is
added in laboratory conditions.
79
- Vulnerability to chemical contamination by heavy metals (column 13). The vulnerability of soils to specific chemical substances is defined as being the capacity of the soil system to be harmed in one or more of its ecological functions (Bridges, 1992). The main metals which can cause damage to the ecological functions of the soils are the cationic trace metals: Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn and anionic metals such as As and Se. For assessing the vulnerability to contamination by these metals, the following criteria were chosen: cation exchange capacity (CEC), pH, Redox potential (Eh), organic matter content and salinity; although important, no data were available on microbial activity. Three classes of vulnerability to chemical contaminants were distinguished: low, medium, high. - General ecological value - (column 14). This is a global appraisal of soil value within the present natural ecosystem. It is based both on the general supply of soils with organic matter and macronutrients and on the soil/water regime as well. The soil pH reaction, lime and salt content were also important factors which were taken into consideration. Three classes are distinguished: low, medium, and high. - Special remarks - (column 15). To point out some important risks of soil use especially as arable land.
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Table 10. Soil Map Legend Characterisation

Legend Soil types (only Romanian) symbol Soil name % Landforms Parent material (of the dominant soil) Land-use
Soil water regime Mechanical filtering capacity
Ecological properties of the dominant soils

Bearing capacity Susceptibility to salinisation Susceptibility to acidification following artificial drainage Susceptibility to wind erosion Susceptibility to oarganic matter & nutrient depletion (as arable land) Vulnerability to chemical contamination by heavy metals
General ecological value
Special remarks
1 Ak
2 - Calcareous Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Gleyed Alluvial Soils - Hypercalcareous Alluvial Soils - Hypercalcareous Gleyed Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Gleyed Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Gleyed Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Alluvial Gley Soils - Calcareous Mollic Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Gleyed Mollic Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Alluvial Gley Soils
3 80 20 60 20 10 10 80 10 10 90 10 90 10
4 riverine levees, and flat areas loamy sandy-loamy, alluvial deposits depressions (former lake bottoms) sandy loam-loamy, lacustrine deposits
5 pasture, forest, arable land drained, arable land
10
11
12
13
14
15 as arable land risk to puddling and compaction as arable land risk to puddling and sealing high phosphorous immobilisation as arable land avoid heavy machinery when wet as arable land risk to puddling as arable land avoid heavy machinery when wet
A L L U V I A L
dry high medium
S O I L S
high low not the case low medium high low medium
Ac
dry
medium
high
medium
not the case
medium
high
low
low
Ag
Am
low riverine levees , flat areas, depressions (former lake bottoms) loamy-clayey loamy, alluvial deposits low riverine levees, flat areas, clayey loamy, alluvial deposits low riverine levees, flat areas clayey loamy, alluvial deposits
pasture, forest, drained arable land drained arable land drained arable land
dry moist
high
high medium
high
not the case
low
medium
low
medium
dry
high
high
low
not the case not the case
low
medium
low
high
dry moist
high
high to medium
high
low
medium
low
high
81
Legend Soil types (only Romanian) symbol Soil name %
Landforms Parent material (of the dominant soil)
Land-use

Bearing capacity Susceptibility to salinisation Susceptibility to acidification following artificial drainage Susceptibility to wind erosion Susceptibility to organic matter & nutrient depletion (as arable land) Vulnerability to chemical contamination by heavy metals
Special remarks
1 Lr
2 - Calcareous Muddy Limnosols - CoprogenicLimnosols - Sali-Sodic (brackish) Limnosols - Calcareous Sandy Limnosols - Sali-Sodic (brackish) Limnosols - Hypercalcareous Limnosols - Coprogenic Limnosols - Histic Limnosols - Coprogenic Limnosols - Calcareous Muddy Limnosols - Histic Limnosols - Sali-Sodic (brackish) Limnosols - Calcareous Muddy Limnosols - Sali-Sodic (brackish) sandy Limnosols - Sali-Sodic (brackish) Limnosols
3 80 10 10
4 shallow bays (Musura Bay) with slightly brackish water sandy-loamy lagoon deposits shallow lakes with fresh water and bays with slightly brackish water fine sandy, lagoon deposits shallow lakes with fresh water highly calcareous, lacustrine deposits shallow lakes with fresh water clayey loamy, loamy lacustrine deposits shallow lagoons and bays with brackish water sandy loamy clayey loamy, lacustrine / lagoon deposits shallow lagoons with brackish water fine sandy lagoon deposits
10
11
12
13
14
15

open water submerged not the very case, but low low to medium if drained not the case, but melow if dium drained not the case, but low medium drained not the case, but medium if drained very low not the case, but very high if drained not the case, but high if drained not the case, but mediumhigh if drained not the case, but various if drained not the case, but very high if drained not the case, but very high if drained not the case not the case, but medium if drained not the case, but high if drained not the case, but medium if drained not the case, but medium if drained not the case, but medium if drained not the case, but high if drained high lowmedium poor environmedium mental background for development of underwater vegetation poor nutrilow tional background for underwater vegetation poor nutrilow tional backmedium ground for underwater vegetation optimal high nutritional background for underwater vegetation poor environlow mental background for underwater vegetation poor environlow mental background for underwater vegetation
Lu
90 10
open water
submerged
not the case
high
medium
Lc
75 20 5 80 15 5 80 20 90 10
open water
submerged
not the case
very high
low
Ln
open water
submerged
very low
not the case
meddium
low
Lb
open water
submerged
Ls
open water
submerged
not the very case, but low medium if drained not the case, but melow if dium drained
not the case
medium
low
not the case
high
medium
82
Land-use

Bearing capacity Susceptibility to salinisatio n Susceptibility to acidification following artificial drainage Susceptibility to wind erosion Susceptibility to organic matter & nutrient depletion (as arable land)
Vulnerability to ecologichemical cal contamina-tion value by heavy metals
Genera l
Special remarks
1 Lk
2 - Calcareous / Hypercalcareous Histic Limnosols - Coprogenic Limnosols - Histic Limnosols - Sandy Calcareous Hypercalcareous-Histic Limnosols - Calcareous Sandy Limnosols - Histic Limnosols partly potentially Acid Sulphate - Thionic Histosols - Terric Histosols
3 60 35 5 90 10 70 20 10
4 shallow lakes with fresh water clayey loamy loamy clayey lacustrine deposits shallow lakes with fresh water coarse and fine sandy marine deposits shallow lakes with fresh water clayey loamy loamy lacustrine deposits
5 open water
7 not the case, but medium to low if drained not the case, but low if drained not the case, but medium to high if drained
9 not the case, but medium if drained not the case, but medium if drained not the case, but medium if drained
10
11 not the case, but medium if drained not the case, but high if drained not the case, but high if drained not the case, but low if drained not the case, but low if drained not the case, but low if drained
12
13
14
15 poor nutritional background for underwater vegetation poor nutritional background for underwater vegetation poor nutritional background for underwater vegetation

submerged very low not the case high low low
Lh
open water
submerged submerged
low
not the case
high
low medium
low
Lt
open water
very low
partly, medium to high
high
low
low
GLEYSOLS / GLEYSOILS
Gb - Calcareous Marshy Mollic Gley Soils - Gleyic Solonchaks - Calcareous Alluvial Gley Soils - Thapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils - Calcareous-Gleyed Alluvial Soils - Calcareous Mollic Alluvial Gley Soils - Calcareous Gleyed-Mollic Alluvial Soils - Hypercalcareous Gleyed Alluvial Soils 90 10 80 10 10 80 15 5 flat and depressionary areas, former lake bottoms loamy clayey riverine deposits low riverine levees, flat areas loamy clayey- clayey, riverine deposits flat areas, depressions loamy loess grassland (meadows), fish ponds grasslands (meadows) forests, arable land drained arable land pasture wet high medium, low medium meddium low high medium not the case
Gk
medium low high
moist
high
medium
not the case
Gm
moist locally wet
high
medium local -ly low
medium
not the case
low
low
high
as arable land need carefully water management
83
Land-use

Special remarks
1 Ga
2 - Calcareous Marshy Alluvial Gley Soils - Calcareous Alluvial Gley Soils - Calcareous Mollic Alluvial Gley Soils - Marshy-Mollic Peaty Alluvial Gley Soils - Marshy Mollic Thapto Histic Alluvial Soils - Semisubmerged Alluvial Gley Soils - Semisubmerged Alluvial Mollic Gley Soils - Coprogenic Limnosols - Semisubmerged Mollic Alluvial Gley Soils - Semisubmerged Peaty Alluvial Gley Soils - Terric Histosols
3 70 20 10 80 20
4 low riverine levees, transitional zones loamy clayey-clayey, riverine deposits flat and transitional zones loamy riverine deposits
5 pasture, forest, wildlife
10
11 not the case, but low if drained not the case, but lowmedium if drained not the case, but low if drained not the case, but low medium if drained and cultivate d not the case, but medium if drained
12
13
14
15
GLEYSOLS / GLEYSOILS
wet high mediumlow low, but mediumhigh if drained not the case low low high -
Gp
wildlife pasture
wet
high
medium low
low, but low (those medium having high if buried peat drained layers) low, but medium high if drained low, but medium if drained not the case
medium
low
high
Gs
85 10 5 80 15 5
flat areas clayey loamy, loamy clayey riverine deposits
Gw
flat and depressionary areas loamy clayey-clayey riverine deposits
wildlife, pasture, fish ponds, harvesting reed wildlife, pasture, fish ponds, harvesting reed
permanent wet
high
low
low
low
high
perma -nent wet
high
low
low (those having histic top horizons / buried peat layers)
medium
low
high
Gh
- Semisubmerged Histic Alluvial Gley Soils - Semisubmerged HisticThapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils - Hemic-Terric Histosols - Semisubmerged Alluvial Mollic Gley Soils
60 20 10 10
flat and depressionary areas loamy-clayey loamy, riverine deposits
wildlife, pasture, harvesting reed
permanent wet
high
low
low,but medium high if drained
medium low
medium
lowmedium
high
84
Land-use

Special remarks
1 Pk - Calcareous - Calcareous Psammosols - Sands - Calcareous Psammosols - Calcareous - Calcareous Psammosols
2 Psammosols Gleyed Gleyed Psammosols Marshy
3 75 15 10 80 15 5
4 low dunes, highest parts of sandbars coarse and fine sandy deposits of marine origin low sandbars associations fine and coarse sandy deposits of marine origin
5 grasslands, forest, wildlife grasslands, forest, wildlife, arable land (locally) grasslands, forest, wildlife grasslands, wildlife, fish ponds grasslands, wildlife, fish ponds
10
11
12
13
14
15
PSAMMOSOLS AND SANDS

dry low high absent not the case not the case high high high low- very low drymoist low high medium high medium high high low
Pg
Pm
Pb
- Calcareous, Gleyed Mollic Psammosols - Calcareous Gleyed Psammosols - Calcareous Marshy Psammosols - Calcareous Marshy / Semisubmerged Psammosols - Calcareous Marshy Mollic Psammosols - Calcareous Marshy / Semisubmerged, Mollic Psammosols - Calcareous Marshy Semisubmerged Peaty (Histic) Psammosols - Marshy / Semisubmerged, Peaty (Histic) Psammosols - Potentially Sulphate Acid Hemic Histosols
80 15 5 90 10 80 20 70 30
intersandbars depressionary areas fine and coarse sandy deposits of marine origin large intersandbars depressionary areas fine and coarse sandy deposits of marine origin
moistdry
low
high
medium
not the case
low
high
high
lowmedium
wetperma -nently wet wet permanently wet permanently wet
low
medium high medium
medium high if drained low, high if drained
not the case
Pp
Ph
low sandbars and intersandbars depressionary areas fine and coarse sandy deposits of marine origin depressionary areas, grassland low sandbars wildlife fine and coarse sandy deposits of marine origin
low
low medium (locally) low-medium locally high
low
low
low high if drained
not the case, but high if drained not the case, but high if artificially drained not the case, but high if drained
high
high
medium
high
high
medium
high
high
medium
85
Land-use

Bearing capacity Susceptibility to salinisation Susceptibility to acidification following artificial drainage
General
Special remarks
SusceptiSusceptibility Vulnerability ecologica bility to wind to organic to chemical l erosion matter & contaminavalue nutrient tion by depletion (as heavy metals arable land)
1 Nk
2 - Calcareous Shifting Sands - Calcareous Psammosols - Gleyed Calcareous Psammosols - Shifting Shelly Sands
3 75 20 5
5 wildlife grasslands wildlife, fish ponds, grasslands grasslands, wildlife, fish ponds
10
11
12
13
14
15
PSAMMOSOLS AND SANDS

shifting and half fixed dunes coarse and fine sandy deposits of marine origin 100 dunes beaches fine sandy shelly marine deposits dry low medium high absent to low low not the case not the case high very high very high high very low -
Nz
dry
low
high
high
very low
SOLONCHAKS
Sg - Gleyic Solonchaks on sands - Gleyic Solonchaks on alluvial deposits - Histic Solonchaks 75 15 10 low sandbars and intersandbars depressions low-lying areas fine sandy marine deposits, loamy riverine / lagoon deposits low lying flat areas depressions loamy loess moistwet low-high medium high not the case, but high for Histic Solonchaks not the case, but high if the Sandy and Histic Solonchaks are drained absent highmedium highlow very low -
Sm
- Gleyi-Mollic Solonchaks - Gleyi-Mollic Solonetz
80 20
grasslands wildlife, fish ponds arable land arable land, grassland fish ponds arable land, grassland fish ponds
moist
high
medium
high
absent
lowmedium medium medium
low
very low
KASTANOZEMS
Kv Kg - Vermic Chestnut Soils - Gleyed Chestnut Soils - Solonchaks 100 flat plain loamy loess 90 flat plain 10 loamy loess dry moistdry high high high high medium high not the case not the case low low low low medium medium -
CHERNOZEMS
Cg - Gleyed Chernozems - Solonchaks 90 10 flat low plain, depressionary areas (saucers) loamy loess moist high medium high high not the case low medium low medium -
86
Land-use

Bearing capacity Susceptibility to salinisation Susceptibility to acidification following artificial drainage
General
Special remarks
SusceptiSusceptibility Vulnerability ecologica bility to wind to organic to chemical l erosion matter & contaminavalue nutrient tion by depletion (as heavy metals arable land)
1 Hn
2 - Floating Potentially Sulphate - Acid Hemic Histosols - Potentially Sulphate Acid Hemic Histosols - Histic Limnosols - Potentially Sulphate Acid Hemic Histosols - Hemic Terric Histosols
3 85 10 5 90 10
4 flat, low lying depressionary areas organic deposits
5 wildlife, reed harvesting wildlife, reed harvesting
6 permanently wet
10
11 not the case, but high if drained and cropped not the case, but high if drained and cropped not the case, but high if drained not the case, but high if drained medium
12
13
14
15
HISTOSOLS
low low not the case high high high high -
Ht
flat, low lying depressionary areas organic deposits
perma -nently wet
low
low
low
high
high
high
highmedium
Hd
Hs
- Hemic- Terric Histosols - Potentially Sulphate Acid Hemic-Terric Histosols - Semisubmerged Histic Alluvial Gley Soils - Potentially Sulphate Acid Terric -Sapric Histosols
60 30 10
flat, low lying areas organic deposits
wildlife, reed harvesting wildlife, fish ponds reed harvesting depleted fish ponds, unused polders various
perma -nently wet permanently wet wet
medium
lowmedium medium
medium
partially high high
high
high
highmedium
100 flat, low lying areas organic deposits
medium
medium high
high
high
medium
Hj
- Sulphate Acid Hemic Histosols - Terric Sapric Histosols
80 20
flat, low lying drained areas organic deposits
medium
medium
medium high
high
high
high
low
ANTHROSOLS
M - Calcareous Anthrosols - Not Soils 70 30 artifacts various mineral deposits dry to permanently wet medium high medium various not the case low medium not the case medium low -
87
Soil Salinity and Alkalinity; Pyrite Formation and Acidity
........................................................................................
8.1
Soil salinity
The climatic moisture deficit (350-400 mm/year) given by the high rate of evapotranspiration (700-800 mm) and the low (< 400 mm) amount of precipitation makes the Danube Delta an area with a high salinisation potential. The variation in intensity of the soil salinity in the DDBR is controlled by the frequency and intensity of floods, groundwater depth and the degree of mineralisation; the marine floods are important only in a narrow strip (1-3 km) along to seashore, and on the beach ridges in the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex. The effects induced by man, in making agricultural polders, fish ponds and new canals in the last decades, also play an important role by increasing or decreasing the speed of this process. The soil salinity map (printed in the serie `Thematic map of the Danube Delta, no.3, 1996) represents an artificial image of the present-day level of salinity in the top 100 cm of the soil surface. On the basis of EC values, four main units of soil salinity can be distinguished in the Danube Delta. The first unit (s0 ) - includes soils without apparent salinity (EC -1 values <4 dSm ). Besides the higher, well-drained riverine levee and higher parts of the Letea and Caraorman dunes, this class covers almost all the semisubmerged, and Underwater Soils of the delta except those of the lakes/lagoons with former or presentday brackish water. Taking into account their high water content in the field, many Limnosols and most of the organic soils (Histosols) -1 with EC values in the laboratory higher than 4 dSm , also are considered as being free of salts. On the other hand the higher salt content of these soils often arrived at because the laboratory analyses were carried out on air-dried samples, the salt content of which was increased compared to that really present in the field, following the oxidation of reduced minerals (mainly pyrite) and their reaction with calcium from soil. The second unit (s1 ) - includes the weakly saline soils (EC values -1 of 4 to 8 dSm ). It comprises almost all the gleyed subtypes of Alluvial soils and Psammosols (embanked or not), a large part of the Gley Soils, some Limnosols and Histosols, the Kastanozems and Chernozems. Geomorphologically this class occurs on low riverine levees, transitional zones between the levees and the back swamps and in almost 80% of the agricultural polders.
88
The third unit (s2 ) - consists of moderately saline soils (EC -1 values of 8 to 15 dSm ). It is the main characteristic of some gleyed/marshy Psammosols and of brackish Limnosols of the eastern part of the delta and the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex. It is also found in the Babina-Cernovca islands, in the Dunav~] Holbina fish ponds, in the eastern part of the Chilia field and on the Stipoc levee. The fourth unit (s3 ) - includes strongly saline soils (EC values > -1 15 dSm ). It corresponds to the Solonchaks, largely distributed in the eastern part of the delta and on the beach ridges of the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex. Besides the above-mentioned classes, three associations of different classes are also shown on the salinity map: s1/2, s1/3, and s2/3. Each of these associations is determined by the local variability of landforms, drainage and groundwater mineralisation, i.e. the association s1/2 is characteristic of depressed areas crossed by low beach ridges where the salinity is higher on the higher landforms, and lower on flat, low-lying relief; the associations s2/3 and s1/3 are specific to landforms consisting of low beach ridges and narrow elongated depressions, both having highly mineralised groundwater.
8.2
Type of soil salinity
The origin of the salts in the soils of the DDBR is rather complex. Some of these salts are brought down from the land by river water. Others are airborne salts brought by floods or winds from the Black Sea, but most of the salts originate from marine fossil groundwater, inherited from the old stages of the evolution of the Danube Delta. Eight types of soil salinity (Figure 30) can be distinguished in the Danube Delta and are as follows: 1) Sulphate and chloride sulphate (with SO4 > 30%, and SO4 + Cl = 20-30% sum total of anions). These types are characteristic of the western, riverine part of Delta, and are predominantly of terrestrial origin. Sodium sulphate is the main salt but because small amounts of calcium and magnesium bicarbonate are also present, the soil pH reaction is slightly alkaline to alkaline (pH = 7.5-8.5). 2) Sulphate-chloride and chloride (with Cl + SO4 = 20-30% and Cl > 30% sum total of anions). These types predominate in the northeastern part of the riverine delta as well as on the Letea and Caraorman dunes. The salts seem to be predominantly of marine origin, but enriched with calcium sulphate, brought by river water. Sulphates or chlorides are the main anions but bicarbonates also occur; sodium calcium and magnesium are present in variable proportions and exceed the bicarbonates present in small amounts. The soil reaction is neutral to slightly alkaline but, locally especially on sandy soils, may become strongly alkaline (pH > 9)
222-
89
when sodium carbonate is formed by the reduction of sulphates in an anaerobic environment. 3) Neutral chloride and chloride-sulphate (with Cl > 30% and respectively Cl + SO4 = 20-30% sum total of anions). This type is characteristic of the Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex and also of the marine part of the delta, close to the Black Sea. It is mostly of marine origin. Sodium chloride is by far the main salt; in addition, sodium sulphate is also present. Calcium and magnesium may be present in significant proportions, while bicarbonates are present in ver small amounts.
-
90
4) Acid sulphate and neutral sulphate-chloride/neutral chloride. These types of salinity occur in the area covered by Histosols rich in sulphides (pyrite) with saline groundwater (> 18-24 g/l) of marine origin. After drainage the pyrite oxidises and if the soil is poor in bases and calcium carbonate, the pH drops below 3. Simultaneously intense salinisation starts. In areas where calcium carbonate occurs in sufficient amounts to neutralise the acidity generated by pyrite oxidation, a neutral sulphate-chloride or neutral chloride-sulphate type of salt (with high amounts of gypsum) occurs. These types of salinisation are characteristic of the fish ponds (temporarily drained in the Dranov-Holbina area and in the organic soils of the Carasuhat- Dunav ~] agricultural polders). 5) Potentially acid sulphate. Areas with organic soils rich in sulphides (pyrite) have been included in this type of soil salinity which are now in the natural state (not drained) and therefore their pH values are neutral. If these soils were drained, they may become strongly acid and saline after pyrite oxidation. This type may occur associated with the three other types of salinity: neutral chloride-sulphate, neutral sulphate-chloride, or neutral sulphate chloride and chloride. The first two associations correspond with the main areas occupied by Floating Histosols, located in the central part of the delta, the third one extends largely in the southeastern part of the delta with thin Hemic Histosols, mostly underlain by a sandy mineral substratum.
8.3
Soil alkalinity
Soil alkalinity (sodicity) in the DDBR is not so extensive and less intense than the salinity. This is mainly due to the dry climate and the hydrological conditions. The source of sodicity is represented by the sodium salts present in salinised soils. Generally, alkalinity occurs under two conditions: at the bottom of brackish lakes or in soils having shallow, mineralised groundwater which are subjected to alternative processes of salinisation/desalinisation caused either by seasonal variations in climatic moisture or by flood cycles. An increase of soil salinity takes place during the dry season, and also in wintertime. In the wet season or during floods, the salts are dissolved and percolate to the deeper horizons. In this last part of the cycle a cation exchange reaction occurs between the dissolved sodium and the exchangeable divalent cations of the soil colloids. If sodium carbonate is present among the soluble 2+ 2+ salts, the replacement of Ca and Mg may be complete because slowly soluble CaCO3 and MgCO3 are formed: Ca Soil Mg + 2Na2CO3 Soil Na2 + CaCO3 +MgCO3 Na2
91
This reaction seems to take place only in the gleyed/marshy Psammosols, where Na2CO3 occurs by reduction of sulphates. + In such a soil, the exchangeable Na may reach up to 75-80% of the total exchangeable cations. However, because the soil is wet and sandy and the CEC is low (< 5 meq/(100g/soil)), no influence is noticed on physical soil properties. In the case of chloride and sulphate salinisation, alkalinity only occurs if the soil is very rich in sodium salts: Ca Soil Mg + 4NaCl Soil Na2 Na2 + CaCl2 +MgCl2
This reaction develops either in the Limnosols of brackish lakes or in the soils developed on loess deposits of the Chilia field and Stipoc, the last-mentioned deposits are also subjected to alternating salinisation/desalinisation processes. As has already been stated, alkalinization is almost absent. More than 80% of the soils are not alkalised (VNa < 5%). Soils with low alkalinity (VNa = 5-10%) occur mostly in the eastern and southeastern part of the Letea marine levee and on the Chilia field (Gleyed and marshy Psammosols, Gleyed Kastanozems and Solonchaks). The soils with moderate alkalinization (VNa = 1015%) are largely distributed on the Chilia field (Gleyed Kastanozems) at the bottom of the Musura and Sakhalin Bay, Zmeica and Ro[u lakes (brackish Limnosols) and on the Chituc, Istria, Lupilor, western part of S~r~turile, southern and eastern part of Letea and the western part of the Caraorman marine levees (marshy, mollic, and gleyed Psammosols) is strong alkalinization (VNa > 15%) by far less frequent. It occurs on the Chilia and Stipoc fields (Solonetz, some Gleyed Kastanozems and Gleyed Chernozems) and on the Letea and S~r~turile marine levees (some Mollic/Marshy Psammosols). It is also locally present (Marshy/Semisubmerged Psammosols) on the Chituc and Istria marine levees.
8.4
Pyrite formation and soil acidity
Pyrite formation The relative tectonic stability of the Danube Delta area during the Holocene, combined with an increasing isolation from the Black Sea and a relatively constant sea level, resulted in the development of extensive areas of (potentially acid sulphate) organic soils rich in pyrite (sulphide). The accumulation of pyrite in the Danube Delta environment is favoured by the severe reducing conditions in the depressed areas, high amounts of easily decomposed organic matter and the dissolved sulphate ions carried by river water. A source of sulphate also comes from sea water (especially in the area close to the seashore) and the fossil marine groundwater as well. Although the formation of pyrite
92
involves several complex reactions, the overall equation is considered to be as follows (Dent, 1986): Fe2 O3 + 4 SO4 + 8 CH2 O + 1/2 O2 2 FeS2 + 8 HCO3- + 4 H2O The iron is mostly in the form of Fe oxides, hydroxides, and silicates in the sediments carried by river water. The organic matter (CH2O) is supplied by the organic soils. The small amounts of oxygen required by this reaction come from flood water. The role of the anaerobic bacteria in reducing iron, breaking down the organic matter and reducing sulphates is essential (Dent, 1986, Konsten and Klepper, 1992). The rate of pyrite accumulation in the Danube Delta is not known yet. Soil acidity As has been stated above (Chapter 6), the only acidity in the Danube Delta is that which occurs after artificial drainage by oxidation of materials. The potential for the acidification of these materials varies strongly depending on the amount of pyrite present and the neutralising capacity of the soil, as given by the carbonate content6, exchangeable bases and silicates which are weathered easily (Dent, 1986). Samples originating from organic, potentially acid, sulphate soils (in the undisturbed state, at the field water content) when treated with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) showed a lowering of the pH reaction with 1.5-3 pH units, reaching very low values up to pH 2.4. This fall in pH was caused by the development of a very high titrable acidity of 70-403 meq (100 g soil). Lowering the pH below 4 and increasing the titrable acidity to values higher than 50 meq (100 g soil) were considered as criteria for soils having a high or excessive potential for acidification7. Similar low pH values (< 3.5) were obtained by exposing soil samples to the air for two months and keeping them in a moist state. The same effect was also noticed for all pyrite rich organic materials left to dry (air dry), but without being periodically moistened. In the field, potentially acid organic soils, artificially drained, had turned into sulphate acid in less than two years after drainage. The strongest acidity (pH 2.8) was found in the fish ponds where the alternative water regime - submersion in the summer and drainage in the winter - strongly induced the oxidation of pyrite and sulphuric acid formation. During the submerged periods of fish ponds, part of acidity has transferred to the groundwater which also shows low pH values (2.6-4.5). The lowest pH values occured 50 cm below the soil surface (Figure 31). The upper horizons are generally less acid perhaps due to a larger buffering capacity of the soil (higher carbonate and base content).
3+ 2-
6 7
Sulphur is necessary 3% by mass CaCO 3 for neutralising the acidity from the oxidation of 1% by mass of pyrite. Dr. Irina Vintila, unpublished data
93
In the Danube Delta the acidification of the pyrite-rich soils after drainage is accompanied by the formation of relatively high amounts of gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) and extensive reduction of the base saturation. If the soils have got enough carbonates and bases for neutralising acidity originating from the oxidation of pyrite, then intense gypsification occurs after drainage.
Th e acidification by the oxidation of pyrite is not accompanied by the formation of jarosite. One explanation could be that the materials which contain pyrite are only organic ones with a high water storage capacity, so even if they are strongly acidified (pH < 3.5), the strongly oxidising conditions (Eh > 400mV), which are necessary for jarosite formation, are not fulfilled. In the natural state, acidification seems to take place only in peat materials (horizons) overlying sandy deposits (e.g. Histic Psammosols), which occupy large areas in the eastern and southeastern part of the marine delta. In the case of these soils acidity occurs in the dry season, when the groundwater table drops below the upper level of the sandy deposits leaving organic, pyrite-rich horizons on dry ground (Figure 32). In such soils the upper horizons may become periodically strongly acid (pH values up to 2.2) in the second half of the summer and autumn. This ecopedological feature is mirrored by a poorly developed vegetation cover, dominated mostly by sedges and with weak reed development.
8.5
Main adverse processes in AREAs used for
Agriculture
In the Danube Delta an area of about 102,800 ha has been diked and reclaimed for different purposes. The fragility of most soils in the Danube Delta to use as agricultural, forestry and fish farming
94
land is derived from their genetically induced peculiarities: development in an excessively wet (anaerobic) environment, low ripening status, easily mineralising organic matter, dry climate and often very saline groundwater. On the marine levees (Letea, Caraorman and S~r~turile), the sandy texture of the soils and groundwater salinity are the main factors in this fragility. The main processes which trigger and affect the soils of the reclaimed areas to different degrees are described in the following sections.
8.5.1 Organic matter depletion The organic matter of the soils from the agricultural polders is subjected to a rapid mineralisation process because of the dry climate and due to its specific composition (high C:N ratio). The climatic equilibrium towards which the organic matter content is going to be stabilised is 1.5-2% for loamy soils and 0.5-0.8% for sandy ones. Thus, the organic matter content of soils may be reduced 5-10 times only after 5-10 years of cultivation (Figure 33a). Very extreme examples occur in the T`taru and Pardina polders where in large areas the sandy soils have almost completely lost their organic matter rich top horizon. This loss of organic matter is very severe when organic soils are drained. Field observations made on these soils lead to the conclusion that the peat soils can lose 5 cm of their thickness every year (see Chapter 6.2.9). 8.5.2 Salinisation Due to the climate moisture deficit (see Chapter 4.6) in the DDBR the risk of salinisation is present everywhere when the groundwater is shallow ( < 0.9-1.2 m for sandy soils and < 2-2.5 m for finer ones). In areas with a free inundation regime, floods prevent the process of salinisation and saline soils occur only in areas with saline groundwater or where sea water can enter during big storms (see Chapter 6.2.5). Under diked conditions the development of salinisation depends on the degree of artificial drainage and groundwater mineralisation. For example in the Pardina polder where the subsoil is sandy and the groundwater table has been lowered to > 3 m deep, the initial salts (inherited from a pre-embankment phase) are transported from the topsoil to the deeper horizon only under the effect of rainfall (Figure 33b). In areas with poor drainage, e.g. in Popina I, Rusca and in the near
95
future Sireasa, the salinity is unavoidable. If the groundwater is less saline, salinisation develops slowly, but when it is strongly saline, then this process may be explosive. In areas with potentially acid sulphate soils after embankment (either for fish ponds or agricultural use) the development of salinity is often accompanied by soil acidification (see Chapter 8.4).
8.5.3
Acidification of peat soils (see Chapter 6.2.9 and 8.4)
8.5.4 Aridification This process is characteristic of the agricultural polders Pardina and T`taru, where it occurs as a consequence of overdrainage and of a dry microclimate created inside these polders by lengthening the water cycle and the high ground temperatures. The increase in temperature occurs due to the reduced rate of real evapotranspiration. Pedological aridification is expressed by an excessive and persistent drying of the soil profile and destruction of the soil structure. 8.5.5 Wind erosion In the natural state the wind erosion is mainly present on the higher and bare parts of the marine levees where shifting dunes occur. At present wind erosion also extends to agricultural polders and on areas with drained peat soils. Until now no data are available to quantify this process. 8.5.6 Subsidence In agricultural polders true subsidence due the soil shrinking and water loss has been on a small scale; one estimate is that it was no more than 0.5-0.8 m. Higher values were observed in areas where peat had been burnt: e.g. Pardina 1-1.5 m and Sulina 1.5-2 m.
96
References
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G`[tescu, P., Driga. B., (1983) Caracteristici morfohidrografice ale Deltei Dunarii, Anghel Camelia Hidrobiologia, t.17, Bucuresti. G`[tescu, P., Driga. B. (1984) Long-term evolution of the Black Sea Coast in front of the Danube Delta between the Sulina and Sfantu Gheorghe arms. Rev. Roum. de Geol., Geophys., Geogr., Serie Geogr., t.28, Bucharest. G`[tescu, P., Driga. B. (1985) Delta Dun~rii. Harta turistica.Ed. Sport-Turism, Bucuresti. G`[tescu, P., Driga. B., (1986) Morphohydrographical changes of Romanian Black Sea Coast. Rev. Roum. de Geol., Geophys., Geogr., Serie Geogr., t.30, Bucharest. G`[tescu, P. Driga, B. (1989) Der Wasserumlauf im Donaudelta - kologische und wirtschaftliche Bedeutung, rev. Roum. Geol., Geophys. Geogr., Serie Geogr. t.XXXIII. Acad. Rom., Bucharest Gustiuc, L., Chiritza, C. (1958) Solurile din Delta Dunarii si evolutia lor. St. Hidrobiologice, 18. Bucuresti. Fractionara carbonului organic din unele soluri din Dalta Dunarii in `Studiul pedologic al unitatii Pardina (coord. I. Munteanu) - archives ICPA Bucuresti. Hanganu, J., M. Gridin, H.J. Drost, T. Chifu, N. Stefan, I. Sarbu (1994) Explanation to the vegetation map of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, RWS, Flevobericht 356, Lelystad, The Netherlands. Konsten, M.I.C., Klepper, O. (1992) Pyrite in wetlands: a natural chemical time bomb. Chemical Time Bombs, Veldhoven, The Netherlands. Kovda, V.A. (1946) Protzessy pochivoobrazovaniia v deltah i poimah rek kontinentalnyh oblastei SSSR, Pociv.In.ta Dokuceaeva 14. Kubiena. L.W., (1953) Bestimmungsbuch and Systematik der Bden Europas. Ferdinand Enke, Handra, M. (1976) Lepsi, I. (1942) Liteanu, E., Pricajan, A. (1961) Transgresiunile cuaternare ale Marii Negre pe teritoriul Baltac, G. Deltei Dunarii. St.Cercet.Geol., 6, 4, pp.743-762, Bucuresti. Liteanu, E., Pricajan, A. (1963) Alcatuirea geologica a Deltei Dunarii. Hidrobiologia, IV, pp.57-82, Bucuresti. Lupascu, Gh., Rusu, E. (1985) Studiul solourilor pentru 8000 ha din Delta Dun~rii (raport - archives ICPA, Bucuresti). Munteanu, I. (1982) Munteanu I. (1984) Studiu pedologic al incintei Sireasa - archives ICPA, Bucharest Aspecte genetice si de clasificare a solurilor submerse si foste submerse; St. Solului no.1. Munteanu I., Ionescu N., Colios Elena (1964) Stuttgart. Materiale pentru studiul Deltei Dunarii. Partea I-a. Bul.Muz. regional Basarabia, 10, pp.94-325, Chisnau.
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Solurile deltei fluvio-maritime a Dunarii. St. tehn.econ., seria C no 14 Com. Geol.Inst. Geol. Munteanu I., Conea Ana (1965) Harta pedologica la sc. 1:200.000 a foilor Tulcea si Sulina Inst. Geologic Bucuresti. Munteanu, I., Grigora[, C. (1975) Studiu pedologic preliminar al Deltei Dun ~rii - archives ICPA, Bucharest. Munteanu, I., Grigora[, C. (1977) Studiul pedologic al Incintei Murighiol - Dunavat - archives ICPA, Bucharest. Munteanu I., Grigora[, C., Curelariu Gh., Toti M., Piciu M. (1976) Studiu pedologic al incintei Pardina - archives ICPA, Bucharest Munteanu, I., Grigora[, C., Munteanu Maria (1983) Studiul pedologic \n C`mpul experimental Uzlina - archives ICPA, Bucharest. Munteanu I., Curelariu Gh., Munteanu Maria, Toti, M. (1989) Some problems concerning the genesis, classification and use of soils in the Danube Delta. Rev. Roum. Geol., Geophys., Geogr., Serie Geogr., t.XXXIII. Acad Rom, Bucharest. Munteanu I., Curelariu Gh., Grigora[, C. (1992) Studiul pedologic al sistemelor 4 si 5 din Incinta - Pardina - archives ICPA, Bucharest. Pallis Marietta (1916) The structure and History of Plav: The floating fen of the Delta of the Danube. Linnean Societys Journ. Bot.XLIII. Panin, N. (1974) Evolutia Deltei Dunarii in timpul Holocenului. Inst. Geol. Stud. Tehn. Econ., Seria H., Geol. Cuaternar 5 Bucuresti. Panin, N. (1976) Some aspects of fluvial and marine processes in the Danube Delta. An Inst. Geol Geophys., 50, pp. 149-165, Bucharest. Panin, N. (1983) Black sea coast line changes in the last 10.000 years. A new attempt at identifying the Danube mouths as described by ancients, Dacia, N.S., XXVII, 1-2. Panin, N. (1989) Danube Delta. Genesis, evolution and sedimentology. Rev. Roum. Geol. Geophys.Geogr., Ser.Geogr., 33, pp.25-36, Bucuresti. Panin, N., Panin Stefana, Herz, N., Noakes, I.E. (1983) Radiocarbon dating of Danube Delta deposits. Quaternary Research, 19, Washington. Patrut. I., Paraschiv, C., Danet, T., Baltes, N., Danet, N., Motas, I. (1983) The geological constitution of the Danube Delta. An Inst. Geol. Geofiz., 59. Pfannenstiel, M. (1950) Die Quataergeschichte des Donaudeltas. Bonner Geogr. Abhandlungen, Bonn. Popp, N., Teaci, D., (1964) Les sols et les formations submergees du Delta du Danube, leur characterisation genetique et les problemes de leur utilisation rationelle. Trans. VIIIth Congr. Int. Sc. Sol., Bucharest, 1964. Roeschmann, G. (1986) Karte der Bundesrepublik Deutschland - Legende and Erlaeuterungen, BGRHannover. Salomons, W. (1992) Non-linear responses of toxic chemicals in the environment: a challenge for sustainable management, Chemical Time Bombs, Veldhoven, The Netherlands S~ndulescu, M. (1984) Cenozoic Tectonic History of the Carpathians, Geotectonica Rom `nici, Ed. Tehnic~, Bucure[ti. Sorokin, I., (1982) The Black Sea. Ed.Nauka Acad. Sc. USSR, 216 p., Moskva. Spataru, A., (1984) Research Programme for the Coastal Protection Works. Hydraulics Research, XXX, pp. 159-214, Bucuresti. Stancik, A., Jovanovic, S. (1988) Hydrology of the river Danube. Priroda Publ. House, 271 p., Bratislava.
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Overview of the Chemical Time Bombs problem in Europe, Chemical Time Bombs, Veldhoven, The Netherlands Wong, H.K., Panin, N., Dinu, C., Georgescu, P., Rahn Cornelia (1994) Morphology and Post-Chaudian (Late Pleistocene) evolution of the Danube fan complex. Terra Nova, 6, pp. 502-511. Zenkovich, V. P. (1956) Zagadka Dunaiskoi Delti (Enigma Deltei Dunarii). Priroda, 45, 3, pp.86-90, Moskva. FAO - UNESCO (1990) Soil map of the world, Revised legend. USDA - SCS (1994) Keys to Soil Taxonomy Sixth Edition ISSS, ISRIC, FAO (1994) World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB) - Draft. EEC - IRC IRSA (1994) European Soil Data Base (instructions). ICPA (1978) Sistemul Roman de Clasificare a Solurilor. SNRSS (1995) Ghidul Excursiilor celei de a XIV-a Conferin]~ de {tin]~ a Solului, SNRSS Tulcea.
100
Glossary of Terms
acid sulphate Acid soils which develop following oxidation of pyrite (FeS2) common in artificially drained conditions; Designates soils developed on recent alluvia, and which retain layered (rock) structure at least in the bottom horizons; Refers to Underwater Soils (Limnosols) developed in brackish (saline) lakes/lagoons; Refers to soils which are calcareous, containing at least >1% CaCO3, from 20 to 50 cm beneath the soil surface; Used to designate Underwater Soils (Limnosols) of which the top horizon consists mostly of coprogenous earth (sedimentary peat); Soils with a thick (>50 cm) organic matter rich, surface mineral horizon; Underwater soils (Limnosols) which consist of thick (>1.0 m) recent, and very soft recent mud; Organic soils consisting of raw or weakly decomposed organic materials (commonly stems, roots and leaves of reeds and associated plants); Applies to organic soils not attached to the mineral ground, which float on a water layer; Applies to organic soils which consists mostly (>3/4) of semi-decomposed organic materials; Applies to soils having >40% CaCO3 (lacustrine lime) at least in the first 20 cm of the soil surface; Surface horizon, of underwater soils (Limnosols). This consists of very soft (n value >1.4) mineral material olive grey, dark greyish horizon colours which changes to olive-olive brown on exposure to air. The minimum organic matter content is 1%. The horizon is at least 20 cm thick; Soil developed on the bottom of freshwater or brackish water lakes/lagoons. It may have a limnic or histic top horizon and is characterised by strongly reduced colours which change on exposure to air; Used to designate soil materials which contain between 25-40% CaCO3; Applies to soil horizons/materials in which reducing and oxidizing conditions alternate. They are evidenced by the presence of reddish brown, or bright yellowish brown mottles (WRB); Applies to soils rich in pyrite which become strongly acid after drainage;
alluvial
brackish
calcareous
coprogenic
cumulic deep muddy
fibric
floating
hemic
hypercalcareous
limnic A horizon
Limnosol
marly oxymorphic properties
potentially acid sulphate
101
psamic
Term used with Limnosols which have a sandy texture throughout below 20 cm of the surface; Colours induced by an anaerobic water saturated environment:white to black and greenish to bluish; Applies to soil horizons/materials that are permanently wet as evidenced by a characteristic gleyic colour pattern (N1-N8, 2.5Y, 5Y, 5G, 5B) in more than 95% of the soil matrix (WRB); Used to designate strongly decomposed organic materials; Designate Underwater Soils (Limnosols) having a limnic horizon with a 520 cm thick top layer which consists of black-bluish, black mud, which has a strong smell of rotten eggs; Used to designate soils submerged (covered by water) at least 3 months/year, but are not permanently flooded; Applies to sandy deposits which consist of shell debris >40% by volume; Organic soils with mineral interbeddings; Mineral soils with organic interbeddings.
reduced gleyic colours
reductomorphic properties
sapric sapropelic
semisubmerged
shelly terric thapto-histic
102
Appendix I.
Printed Soil Map 1 : 100,000 of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve
The map is added to the report in the fold of the front cover page.
103
Appendix II.
Main properties of the different soil types
In this Appendix the results of the soil analyses are shown. For each soil type, a short description of the soil morphology and the laboratory analyses for the different soil profiles is given in the tables on the pages 90 - 105. The physical and chemical data are given for a specific depth, depending on the soil morphology. In the first row the average mean values of all the sampled profiles are given and underneath this row the values of the standard deviation parameter are listed. About 7,000 soil samples were analysed in the RISSA laboratory in Bucharest. The types of analyses made and the methods used are listed on the next two pages.
104
Laboratory Analyses Parameters Particle size. Soil material processing for dispersion was carried out by the Kachinski method. But with the difference that the samples with > 5 percent organic matter are treated with hydrogen peroxide. Particles larger than 0,02 mm are separated by sieving, and those 0,02 mm or less by the pipette method. The results are reported in percentages of the mineral (silicate) material remained after treatment. By metal cylinders of 100 cm at the field moisture content. By computation TP = (13
Bulk density. Total porosity.
BD )*100 D
where: TP = total porosity BD = Bulk density D = Density Aeration porosity. By computation AP =TP - FC * BD where: AP = aeration porosity TP = total porosity BD = bulk density FC = field capacity Resistance to penetration. (RP) : In laboratory using the dynamic penetrometer, at a soil moisture content of 50% of total water capacity. Wilting point (WP). By computation; by multiplying the hygroscopic coefficient measured by the Mitscherich method by 1.5 (modified, without vide, but with check sample) By oven drying at 105 C By centrifugation By estimation, based on the texture and bulk density according to the RISSA Methodology, 1987, Vol.1, page. 101 By computation, using the formula WT = TP/BD By computation AW = FC - WP
0
Soil moisture . Moisture equivalent (ME). Field capacity.
Total water capacity (WT). Available water (AW).
Saturated hydraulic conductivity. By percolation, under constant gradient, in laboratory undisturbed samples pH = potentiometric, using a combined glass and calomel electrode, in water suspension soil/water ratio 1/2.5, for organic soil materials this ratio is 1/5
Total organic carbon : Walkley-Black method as modified by Gogoa[e Total Nitrogen : Kjeldhall method with desaggregation by H2SO4 at 350 C,
0
105
catalysts potassium sulphate and copper sulphate Total Phosphorus : desaggregation by sulphuric and perchloric acid, titrated with molybdenum blue, colorimetrically, according to Nikolov Egnr-Riehm-Domingo method extraction by Egner-Riehm-Domingo method, measurement by phlamephotometry
Available Phosphorus : Available Potassium :
Calcium Carbonate : Scheibler method Total exchangeable acidity (exchangeable H ) : by percolation with potassium acetate at pH 8.3 Total cation exchangeable capacity (CEC) 2+ 2+ + + was obtained by summation of cations: Ca + Mg + K + Na + + total exchangeable acidity :(H ) :TNH4 by saturation of soil with NH4 Soluble salts : water extract 1:5, for organic soil materials this ratio is 1:10. ECe = in saturation extract at 25 C
0 +
106
Appendix II - Table
II.1. ALLUVIAL SOILS - MAIN PROPERTIES

General soil morphology Depth (cm) PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL DATA average mean values (x) / standard deviation population parameter (xn)
Clay < 0.002 mm % Organic matter (C*1.72) % N % C/N Total P % pH (H2O) Solub. salts CaCO3 water ext 1:2.5 % 1:5 % Cl 2SO4
-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 1 a) Calcareous Alluvial Soils and Calcareous Alluvia b) Calcaric Fluvisols c) Typic Xerofluvents, Calcareous (18 profiles)
Na 2+ Ca + 2+ Mg
BD 3 g /cm
AWC %
K mm/h
Ochric / Ap horizon which directly overlies stratified alluvial deposits; when no ploughed fresh alluvia show stratification from the surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50-100 100-150
20.6 8 16.9 9.1 17 8.6 19 13.7 43.5 14.1 38.8 18.0 27.8 10.2 18.8 3.7 21.0 11.4 18.7 12.2 18.3 11.7 18.4 10.9
3.0 2.6 1.03 0.5 1.1 0.3 1.3 0.6 11.7 3.8 7.7 5.0 6.0 4.8 2.2 1.5 1.3 0.7 1.0 0.6 1.2 0.9
0.094 0.097 0.043 0.021 0.644 0.199 0.488 0.234 0.109 0.059 0.098 0.06 -
14.8 7.3 13.0 2.6 12.6 1.5 13.4 2.9 -
0.044 0.015 0.040 0.006 0.190 0.029 0.145 0.021 0.045 0.014 0.042 0.012 -
7.99 0.30 8.17 0.18 8.25 0.18 8.30 0.17 7.44 0.13 7.66 0.28 7.62 0.22 8.16 0.37 8.24 0.28 8.33 0.33 8.27 0.34
0.19 0.09 0.21 0.17 0.18 0.11 0.20 0.10 0.62 0.22 0.41 0.15 0.34 0.17 0.17 0.08 0.19 0.10 0.24 0.18 0.26 0.18 0.31 0.19
7.9 3.5 9.5 2.6 9.1 2.6 9.2 3.6 48.2 19.7 35.7 13.4 24.6 10.8 14.4 1.4 9.3 2.4 10.0 2.4 10.1 2.7 10.6 2.3
0.6 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.3 0.11 0.03 0.12 0.05 0.25 0.14 0.47 0.25 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.6 1.2 2.4
0.09 0.07 0.09 0.05 0.2 0.09 0.2 0.1 0.06 0.03 0.06 0.016 0.07 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.4 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.7 1.0
0.97 0.10 1.15 0.19 1.30 0.07 1.28 0.07 0.97 0.14 1.21 0.14 1.33 0.02 1.30 0.08
25.5 8.1 24.8 4.3 24.7 3.6 28.7 2.8 27.3 9.2 21.3 2.8 22.7 2.3 20.4 11.9
26.2 10.5 31.9 11.9 15.5 9.7 12.6 4.2 32.7 8.5 26 12.9 7.8 3.6 7.5 2.4
a) Hypercalcareous and Gleyed - Hypercalcareous Alluvial Soils b) Hypercalcaric and GleyiHypercalcaric Fluvisols c) Typic and Endooxyaquic Xerofluvents, carbonatic (5 profiles)
Top horizon (20 - 50 cm thick) which consists of whittish lacustrine lime (>35% CaCO3). They are former calcaric Limnosols When imperfectly drained (gleyed subtype) they show reduced gleyic colours in less than 50% of
0 - 20 20 - 50 50-100 100-150
a) Calcareous gleyed, Alluvial Soils and Calcareous gleyed Alluvia b) Gleyi-Calcaric Fluvisols c) Endooxyaquic / Endoaquic Xerofluvents, calcareous (45 profiles)
the soil matrix within 125 cm of the soil surface. Ochric / Ap horizon 0 - 20 reduced gleyic colours in less than 50 % of the soil matrix within 125 cm of the surface; no ploughed show stratification from the surface 100-150 50 - 100 20 - 50
105
Appendix II -
Table II.1. ALLUVIAL SOILS - MAIN PROPERTIES

Clay < 0.002 mm % Organic matter (C*1.72) % N % C/N Total P % pH (H2O) CaCO3 % Solub. 1:2.5 salts water ext 1:5 % Cl 2SO4
-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 4 a) Calcareous-Mollic Alluvial Soils b) Calcaro-Mollic Fluvisols c) Mollic Xerofluvents c) Fluventic Haploxerolls (pp) (10 profiles)
Na 2+ Ca + 2+ Mg
BD 3 g /cm
AWC %
K mm/h
Mollic A horizon of 25-30 cm thick; in agricultural polders often show relic gleyzation within 125 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100-150
38.4 10.4 29.9 9.9 17.5 7.6 15.3 7.5 39.9 14.5 35.0 12.0 25.5 12.3 19.4 8.3
11.8 5.2 4.2 0.3 8.3 4.7 3.4 2.3 3.3 3.6 -
0.457 0.225 0.388 0.195 0.269 0.203 -
12.4 1.0 12.9 0.9 -
0.059 0.016 0.054 0.018 -
7.95 0.26 8.00 0.03 8.20 0.16 8.37 0.17 7.93 0.34 8.04 0.31 8.15 0.34 8.25 0.23
0.11 0.05 0.14 0.05 0.18 0.04 0.13 0.04 0.13 0.02 0.15 0.03 0.14 0.04
7.2 7.8 8.8 5.1 6.2 2.9 4.8 2.6 4.5 4.1 8.3 3.8 7.7 3.9 11.0 2.8
0.5 0.2 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.4
0.1 0.09 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1
0.99 0.19 1.29 0.13 1.31 0.12 1.26 0.13 1.01 0.02 1.36 0.07 1.25 0.05 1.24 0.06
24.1 11.2 21.3 8.0 25.3 2.7 25.6 4.3 29.9 11.6 27.3 5.4 25.0 3.1 26.8 4.5
49 32 39 33 21 17 10 6 54 32 24 5 45 17 32 14
a) Calcareous-Gleyed Mollic Alluvial Soils b) Gleyi-Molli-Calcaric Fluvisols c) Endoaquollic Xerofluvents (pp) c) Fluvaquentic Haploxerolls (pp) (16 profiles)
Mollic A horizon (25-30 cm thick) and reduced gleyic colours in less than 50 % of the soil matrix within 125 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100-150
106
Appendix II -
Table II.2. LIMNOSOLS (Underwater Soils) - MAIN PROPERTIES

General profile morphology Depth (cm) PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL DATA average mean values (x) / standard deviation population parameter (xn)
Clay < 0.002 mm % Organic matter (C*1.72) % N % C/N Total P % pH (H2O) 1:2.5 Soluble salts water ext 1:5 % CaCO3 % Cl 2SO4
-
No Soil classification Romanian only (sampled profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Calcareous Muddy Limnosols (14 profiles)
Thick (2 - 6 m) very soft, loamy, of slightly brackish water deposits;greenish grey or grey (5GY 5-6/1, 5Y 5-6/1) colour, usually fine layered. The limnic top horizon (10 -30 cm thick) is often sapropelic of black (N2) to bluish grey (5B 4/1) colour which changes quickly in olive brown by exposure to the air.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100-150 0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100-150
27.0 9.2 23.0 9.0 21.7 9.9 22.6 9.4 8.1 5.9 7.0 3.8 5.2 2.7 28.4 19.0 23.4 13.8 21.7 13.8 19.9 12.7
2.4 0.8 1.8 0.6 1.5 0.6 1.5 0.6 0.7 0.3 0.7 0.1 0.6 0.1 8.5 3.4 8.1 3.1 4.9 4.2 2.3 2.5
0.131 0.058 0.089 0.032 0.081 0.028 0.098 0.031 0.039 0.024 0.433 0.169 0.419 0.188 0.301 0.207 0.049 0.037
13.1 1.8 13.1 1.8 12.7 2.1 11.4 0.5 11.2 2.8 13.3 1.8 13.6 1.9 14.2 2.9 -
0.061 0.022 0.061 0.021 0.059 0.023 0.064 0.021 0.043 0.013 0.041 0.013 0.037 0.012 -
8.01 0.11 8.10 0.09 8.20 0.14 8.24 0.08 8.17 0.05 8.28 0.07 8.36 0.06 7.79 0.19 7.84 0.20 8.08 0.41 8.34 0.41
0.37 0.14 0.35 0.14 0.32 0.15 0.37 0.17 0.20 0.10 0.17 0.04 0.14 0.03 0.45 0.18 0.41 0.18 0.31 0.24 0.23 0.12
9.4 1.1 8.8 1.6 8.7 1.7 9.8 1.9 11.8 5.5 13.6 5.6 10.8 0.2 46.2 9.8 43.2 11.0 24.7 14.5 13.9 10.3
0.75 0.54 0.80 0.60 1.32 0.99 3.65 2.88 0.71 0.49 1.04 0.57 1.30 0.50 0.35 0.24 0.32 0.20 1.00 0.81 1.61 1.17
0.96 0.70 1.18 0.74 1.85 1.14 3.50 1.80 0.61 0.69 1.00 0.67 1.07 0.44 0.28 0.29 0.28 0.24 0.82 0.78 1.41 1.16
Calcareous sandy (psamic) Limnosols (5 profiles)
Loamy - sandy loamy, soft thin (10-20 cm) limnic top horizon, dark grey - dark greenish grey (5y - 5Bg 4/1), which overlies sandy greenish, grey (5Gy 5-6/1) often fine layered Cr horizons.
Hypercalcareous Limnosols (25 profiles)
Limnic top horizon (30-100 cm thick) of light grey (5Y 7/1-2) to white 5Y 8/1) colour which consists of calcareous mud with various amounts of decayed plant remnants. The underlying Cr horizons consist of densely packed greenish grey (5GY - 5G 5-6/1) sandy loamy materials.
107
Appendix II - Table
II.2. LIMNOSOLS (Underwater Soils) - MAIN PROPERTIES

-
No Soil classification Romanian only (sampled profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Coprogenic Limnosols (55 profiles)
Limnic top horizon of (20 - 100 cm thick) of dark greyish brown, olive brown, olive (2.5Y - 5Y 3-4/2-4) or light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4-6) colour and which consists of a muddy mixture with thin layers of faecal pellets) with loamy to clayey loamy material, and high amounts of CaCO3; the underlying Cr horizons consist of greenish grey (5GY-5G 5-6/1), sandy loamy to clayey, densely packed material; often in the subsoil (below 100 cm depth) buried peat layers may be found. Limnic top horizons (20 to 50 cm thick) of grey - dark grey (5Y 5 4/1) colour which consist of muddy, loamy - densely packed (sometimes sticky) material; the underlying Cr horizons are bluish grey greenish grey (5GY 5/1-5B 4/1) loamy loamy sandy deposits,often layers of shell debris occur.
0 - 20
42.4 14.9
7.5 4.9 7.1 5.5 7.8 7.0 9.4 13.8 3.8 3.2 3.3 2.8 1.6 0.8 1.2 0.7 1.6 1.0 0.6 0.3 -
0.390 0.243 0.314 0.241 0.406 0.330 0.692 0.484 0.144 0.105 0.134 0.114 0.102 0.027 0.054 0.053 0.018 0.006 -
12.2 1.6 12.0 2.1 14.7 5.4 15.9 3.6 15.6 3.1 15.9 2.8 14.9 3.4 12.7 1.0 11.5 0.2 -
0.060 0.024 0.045 0.023 0.042 0.020 0.053 0.030 0.046 0.021 0.056 0.027 0.034 0.004 -
7.67 0.32 7.71 0.37 7.75 0.51 7.75 0.70 8.20 0.29 8.40 0.41 8.50 0.36 8.41 0.21 8.27 0.18 8.57 0.43 8.73 0.43
0.37 0.16 0.32 0.14 0.32 0.22 0.25 0.13 0.84 0.49 0.80 0.39 0.94 0.52 1.11 0.81 0.66 0.25 0.48 0.09 0.45 0.08
12.6 6.4 12.4 7.0 12.1 8.3 13.3 1.01 16.0 8.0 14.7 7.8 12.6 5.1 11.8 3.2 13.6 2.7 12.1 1.6 13.8 2.3
0.38 1.0 0.26 0.33 0.42 0.56 0.74 1.70 1.68 1.33 1.99 1.90 2.55 1.82 3.57 1.28 2.31 1.81 1.82 0.47 2.08 0.77
0.13 0.21 0.22 0.34 0.35 0.59 0.39 0.74 1.76 1.48 2.03 1.79 1.98 0.96 3.57 1.28 1.94 0.81 1.91 0.56 2.11 0.75
20 - 50
36.6 14.5
50 - 100
33.9 14.0
100-150 0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150 0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100
29.3 14.0 28.2 9.3 23.0 11.9 21.3 13.6 22.0 15.0 7.1 5.6 5.6 2.6 3.2 1.0
Sali-sodic (brackish) Limnosols (23 profiles)
Sali-sodic (brackish) Sandy (psamic) Limnosols (11 profiles)
Very soft thin (10-20 cm thickness), loamy, sandy loamy, bluish grey (5B 4/1) limnic horizons overlying Cr horizon which consists of greenish grey (5G4 4-5/1) sandy deposits.
108
Appendix II -
Table II.2. LIMNOSOLS (Underwater Soils) - MAIN PROPERTIES

General profile morphology Depth (cm) 0 - 20
Clay< 0.002 mm % Organic matter (C*1.72) %
No Soil classification Romanian only (sampled profiles) 7
PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL DATA average mean values (x) / standard deviation population parameter (xn)
N % C/N Total P % pH (H2O) 1:2.5 Soluble salts water ext 1:5 % CaCO3 %
Cl 2SO4
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Calcareous / Hyper-Calcareous Very soft Histic horizon (30-50 cm Histic Limnosols thickness) of greyish brown - light (42 profiles) olive brown (2.5Y4-5/2-4) or olive greyolive (5Y 4-5/2-4) colour and which consists of fine divided, half-decomposed plant remains and faecal pellets; the underlying Cr horizons consist generally, of greenish grey- bluish grey (5GY 4-5/1, 5B 4/1), densely packed loamy deposits.
39.0 12.4
24.9 7.1 23.4 8.8 12.9 11.1 6.1 9.0 61.8 3.6 49.4 10.2 12.6 6.5 35.5 10.8 30.9 10.5 9.0 7.1
1.136 0.331 1.091 0.354 0.770 0.527 0.434 0.340 2.245 0.027 2.082 0.563 0.31 0.15 1.506 0.397 1.257 0.579 0.481 0.265
14.9 3.1 14.9 1.7 15.1 2.0 15.6 1.2 15.0 1.8 15.1 3.2 16.4 2.5
0.068 0.024 0.066 0.020 0.068 0.028 0.046 0.018 0.097 0.026 0.066 0.004 0.035 0.005 0.084 0.039 0.076 0.025 0.074 0.023
7.52 0.27 7.46 0.31 7.67 0.37 8.03 0.33 6.27 0.33 6.02 0.09 7.03 0.33 6.85 0.55 6.78 0.83 7.33 0.70
0.59 0.23 0.55 0.28 0.32 0.22 0.23 0.14 0.54 0.15 0.52 0.19 0.10 0.014 0.61 0.26 0.54 0.30 0.34 0.23
19.0 11.8 15.5 10.8 11.0 6.7 9.6 3.8 0 0 0 0 33.7 10.4 0 0 6.8*) 3.4 9.0**) 4.5
0.16 0.15 0.23 0.22 0.32 0.26

*)
0.15 0.12 0.18 0.16 0.231) 0.20 0.202) 0.21 0.04 0.04 0.04 0 0.03 0.03 0.11 0.13 0.163) 0.18 0.203) 0.22
20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150 0 - 20
35.7 12.5 23.7 12.7 19.1 11.6 33.4 6. 6
0.24
**)
0.24 0.16 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.141) 0.12 0.181) 0.20 0.272) 0.19
Sandy (psamic) Calcareous/ Hypercalcareous Histic Limnosols (5 profiles)
Histic horizon (30-50 cm thickness) of greyish brown, light olive brown (2.5Y 4-5/2-4) colour and which consists of fine divided half-decomposed plant remnants and faecal pellets, and which overlies strongly calcareous coarse, sandy greenish grey- bluish grey (5GY 45/1, 5B4/1) Cr horizons.
20 - 50 50 - 100 0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100
24.6 5.4 2.0 1.6 34.5 14.0 31.0 13.6 24.5 13.5
Histic, partly potentially Acid Sulphate Limnosols (35 profiles)
Histic horizon 4531 (10-70) cm thickness of dark brown to black (10YR 3/3 - 2/1 ) colour which consists of reworked and resedimented peat originating by erosion of older Histosols from the edges of surrounding areas.
*) **)
5 samples (Cl > SO4) 6 samples (Cl > SO4)

2)
1)
3 samples Na
+
Na >1 2+ 2+ Ca + Mg >1 2+ 2+ Ca + Mg
3)
1) 2)
Chloride dominant : 1 sample 3 samples
*) **)
CaCO3 present : : 13 samples
7 samples
4 samples
Natrium dominant: 1 sample
109
100-150
23.0 11.8
2.5 1.5
0.198 0.128
0.051 0.007
7.8 0.55
0.27 0.20
11.1**) 4.2
0.242) 0.23
0.173) 0.17
Appendix II -
Table II.3. GLEY SOILS - MAIN PROPERTIES

Clay < 0.002 mm % Organic matter (C*1.72) % N % C/N Total P % pH (H2O) 1:2.5 Soluble salts CaCO3 % water ext 1:5 % Cl 2SO4
-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 1 a) Calcareous-Marshy Mollic Gley Soils b) Marshy-Calcaro-Calcic Mollic Gleysols c) Typic Haplaquolls, calcareous (7 profiles) 2 a) Calcareous-Alluvial Gley Soils b) Gleyi-Eutric Fluvisols c) Endoaquic Xerofluvents (18 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Gley Soils developed on loess having a mollic A horizon of 30-35 cm thick and gleyic properties within 50 cm of the soil surface; they have a calcic horizon and are calcareous from the surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
27.3 3.5 27.2 0.8 24.3 0.2 22.4 0.2 30.5 16.7 27.2 14.4 21.8 11.7 22.8 11.8 36.2 9.8 39.5 11.6 34.0 14.4 27.5 13.3
7.1 2.3 2.6 1.1 0.7 0.2 0.6 0.2 4.0 2.5 3.6 2.1 4.0 2.2 2.0 0.02 5.8 2.3 5.9 2.7 28.3 4.0 23.4 15.9
0.403 0.162 0.118 0.059 0.028 0.266 0.177 0.167 0.113 0.173 0.320 0.082 0.341 0.158 0.874 0.064 0.899 0.554
12.7 0.1 11.2 14.6 12.7 1.7 11.4 2.2 11.9 16.1 1.0 14.6 2.0 19.2 0.9 21.1 2.3
0.101 0.057 0.122 0.073 0.066 0.036 0.060 0.027 0.057 0.027 0.054 0.020 0.058 0.031 0.066 0.016
8.10 0.50 8.30 0.21 8.70 0.10 8.70 0.0 8.03 0.20 8.18 0.17 8.31 0.13 8.35 0.09 7.83 0.11 7.68 0.57 6.87 0.66 6.86 0.92
0.15 0.02 0.10 0.02 0.08 0.02 0.09 0.02 0.19 0.10 0.18 0.09 0.16 0.10 0.14 0.07 0.25 0.09 0.31 0.18 0.80 0.58 0.80 0.57
4.9 3.4 7.9 5.7 16.2 1.2 17.6 3.2 7.7 2.8 8.6 1.7 8.4 3.1 10.5 1.6 6.3 1.2 4.4 2.6 2.0 2.9 -
0.4 0.2 0.9 0.5 1.4 0.8 1.2 0.4 1.03 1.0 2.0 2.4 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.2 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0
0.2 0.09 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.07 0.3 0.1 0.61 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.1 0.0
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits, having a ochric A horizon and gleyic properties between 50 and 125 cm from the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
a) Thapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils b) Gleyi-Eutric Fluvisols c) Endoaquic Thapto-Histic Xerofluvents (12 profiles)
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits, having a ochric A horizon, gleyic properties and buried layers of organic materials betwwen 50 and 125 cm from the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
110
Appendix II -

-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 4 a) Calcareous-Mollic Alluvial Gley Soils b) Fluvi - Mollic Gleysols c) Aeric Fluvaquentic Humaquepts (31 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits, having a mollic A horizon of 25-45 cm thick and gleyic properties within 50 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
35.4 12.3 27.0 15.7 17.7 13.4 12.9 8.1 38.3 14.3 38.1 13.9 34.2 13.3 30.1 11.7 37.8 16.2 29.2 13.7 23.5 15.0 21.4 13.8
8.2 4.6 7.5 5.7 2.9 3.8 1.0 0.5 6.0 3.9 4.5 3.8 3.4 2.6 4.0 3.8 17.1 9.9 6.7 6.9 3.0 3.0 5.2 5.8
0.393 0.188 0.349 0.238 0.282 0.158 0.217 0.129 0.118 0.067 0.774 0.426 0.381 0.349 0.213 0.025 -
14.5 2.0 14.1 2.7 13.9 2.0 12.9 2.9 13.4 2.4 16.7 4.4 14.6 2.2 13.9 2.1 -
0.053 0.019 0.046 0.016 0.061 0.022 0.060 0.028 0.062 0.024 0.066 0.023 0.061 0.017 0.064 0.001 -
7.79 0.36 7.87 0.51 8.08 0.57 8.31 0.30 7.46 0.16 8.06 0.36 8.00 0.43 7.90 0.70 7.23 0.69 7.82 0.59 8.00 0.44 7.93 0.62
0.31 0.22 0.26 0.15 0.23 0.11 0.21 0.10 0.24 0.14 0.20 0.11 0.20 0.12 0.18 0.10 0.44 0.36 0.38 0.26 0.29 0.18 0.35 0.27
6.3 3.5 8.1 3.8 8.4 3.8 9.1 2.7 6.2 3.2 6.5 2.7 7.1 3.8 7.3 4.0 5.4 5.1 7.3 5.5 9.7 2.1 9.8 3.1
1.5 1.6 1.5 1.6 2.2 2.1 1.8 1.5 0.8 0.9 0.7 0.7 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.4 1.9
1.0 1.1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.5 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8
a) Calcareous-Marshy Alluvial Gley Soils (half ripened ) b) Marshy-Fluvi-Eutric Gleysols c) Typic Fluvaquents (pp) c) Calcareous Typic Hydraquents (pp) (62 profiles)
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits, having an ochric A horizon and gleyic properties within 50 cm of the soil surface. The n value is > 0.7 below 50 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
a) Marshy-Mollic (Peaty) Alluvial Gley Soils b) Marshy-Fluvi-Mollic Gleysols c) Fluvaquentic and Fluvaquentic Thapto-Histic Humaquepts (21 profiles)
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits having a mollic A horizon (25-40 cm thick) and/or a thin (<10 cm thick) organic top horizon; gleyic properties within 50 cm of the soil surface; part of them have buried organic layers between 50 and 100 cm depth.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
111
Appendix II -

-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 7 a) Semisubmerged Alluvial Gley Soils (unripened halfripened) b) Semisubmerged Fluvi-Eutric Gleysols c) Typic Hydraquents (25 profiles) 8 a) Semisubmerged Mollic (peaty) Alluvial Gley Soils b) Semisubmerged Fluvi-Mollic Gleysols c) Hydraquentic Humaquepts (14 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits having an ochric A horizon, and gleyic properties within 50 cm of the soil surface, n value > 0.7 throughout.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
37.6 13.3 40.1 18.0 31.5 13.4 24.5 14.2 47.8 16.7 42.5 9.8 26.0 10.2 15.5 9.4 50.1 9.7 48.5 12.9 46.9 12.8 37.5 13.5
7.3 3.5 6.5 4.3 4.6 3.3 2.5 1.4 17.3 3.0 9.7 4.5 2.9 1.4 1.9 1.9 12.5 6.5 14.8 6.0 16.0 15.8 20.0 19.1
0.375 0.164 0.339 0.184 0.248 0.191 0.160 0.026 0.568 0.344 0.543 0.227 0.137 0.037 0.619 0.283 0.696 0.251 1.120 0.802 -
14.3 2.8 14.0 2.2 13.8 1.2 14.3 2.0 14.8 1.8 9.5 1.3 14.2 1.6 15.0 1.3 14.5 1.2 -
0.053 0.025 0.046 0.016 0.039 0.001 0.031 0.067 0.020 0.063 0.014 0.039 0.068 0.020 0.059 0.014 0.056 0.011 -
7.63 0.6 7.81 0.71 7.90 0.60 8.14 0.34 6.88 0.60 7.23 0.53 7.72 0.67 8.23 0.37 7.34 0.57 6.94 0.71 6.89 1.05 7.30 0.98
0.30 0.22 0.23 0.10 0.24 0.14 0.22 0.15 0.33 0.11 0.27 0.08 0.24 0.10 0.16 0.04 0.33 0.20 0.36 0.23 0.30 0.16 0.26 0.19
5.0 5.4 3.8 5.3 6.2 6.5 10.9 5.0 1.7 2.5 2.8 3.2 5.8 3.9 9.7 2.3 3.4 4.1 1.7 2.7 2.4 4.0 7.4 6.2
0.5 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.5 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.26 0.19 0.20 0.12 0.19 0.14 0.26 0.18
0.3 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.14 0.08 0.19 0.14 0.16 0.12 0.30 0.35 0.12 0.08 0.12 0.05 0.15 0.13 0.20 0.23
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits having a mollic A horizon (25-35 cm thick) and/or a thin (<20 cm thick) organic top horizon and gleyic properties within 50 cm of the soil surface; the n value is > 0.7 below the organic horizon.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150 0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
a) Semisubmerged Mollic (peaty) Thapto-Histic Alluvial Gley Soils b) Semisubmerged Fluvi-Mollic Gleysols c) Hydraquentic Thapto-Histic Humaquepts (26 profiles)
The same as above, but with buried organic layers between 50 and 100 cm depth.
112
Appendix II -

-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 10 a) Semisubmerged Histic Alluvial Gley Soils, (unripened - halfripened) b) Semisubmerged Fluvi-Mollic Gleysols c) Hydraquentic Histic Humaquepts (50 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Gley Soils developed on alluvial deposits having a Histic H horizon of 38.111.2 cm thick, reduced gleyic colour and n values > 0.7 immediately below the organic horizon throughout.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
41.8 15.3 33.9 15.0 30.8 14.8 24.4 13.5
35.2 11.9 20.6 12.2 6.6 5.1 4.7 4.7
1.284 0.422 0.779 0.450 0.296 0.243 -
17.4 2.7 16.5 2.2 14.7 4.2 -
0.083 0.040 0.070 0.037 0.057 0.035 -
6.56 0.85 6.74 0.93 7.48 0.71 7.91 0.72
0.90 0.55 0.81 0.50 0.48 0.42 0.35 0.32
0.0 2.3 3.4 5.0 5.0 9.3 6.1
0.54 0.82 0.64 0.75 1.00 1.55 0.98 1.03
0.38 0.48 0.68 1.17 0.71 0.89 0.78 0.93
113
Appendix II -
Table II.4. PSAMMOSOLS AND SANDS - MAIN PROPERTIES

-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 1 a) Calcareous Psammosols b) Calcaric Arenosols c) Typic Xeropsamments (16 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Ochric A (<20 cm thick) and C horizon.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
2.8 0.5 2.0 1.0 1.7 0.9 0.4 0.2 2.3 1.0 1.5 0.5 1.2 0.5 1.4 0.8 3.5 1.7 2.3 1.0 1.2 0.5 1.0 0.1
0.9 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.09 0.03 1.1 0.6 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.04 1.8 1.0 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.2 -
0.058 0.008 0.039 0.010 0.066 0.034 0.027 0.016 0.092 0.063 0.08 0.06 -
8.9 2.0 11.4 1.3 11.1 5.1 9.6 1.2 13.8 5.1 11.8 1.9 -
0.027 0.013 0.031 0.016 0.010 0.030 0.024 0.013 0.006 -
8.54 0.45 8.86 0.29 9.16 0.31 8.79 0.50 8.91 0.54 8.97 0.21 9.08 0.24 8.75 0.46 9.11 0.21 8.39 0.71 -
0.08 0.03 0.07 0.02 0.08 0.01 0.06 0.01 0.24 0.22 0.12 0.07 0.15 0.12 0.43 0.39 0.18 0.10 0.15 0.09 0.22 0.19 -
4.7 2.4 6.4 3.0 10.0 4.2 3.5 8.6 6.9 11.1 7.2 11.0 4.7 18.9 8.2 8.6 5.4 10.8 4.3 11.3 3.4 13.6 2.0
0.6 0.4 1.0 0.5 1.2 0.2 0.9 2.7 1.9 2.0 2.1 3.0 2.4 2.6 0.7 1.2 0.4 1.5 1.1 2.7 1.8 6.1 -
1.0 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.02 0.3 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.3 1.7 1.5 1.6 0.09 0.8 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.9 0.8 2.7 -
a) Calcareous Gleyed Psammosols b) Gleyi-Calcaric Arenosols c) Endoaquic Xeropsamments (30 profiles)
Ochric A horizon (<20 cm thick) and Cg horizon (oxymorphic properties) within 125 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
a) Calcareous, Gleyed Mollic Psammosols b) Gleyi-Mollic-Calcaric Arenosols c) Aquollic Xeropsamments (12 profiles)
Mollic A horizon (20-25 cm thick) and Cg horizon (oxymorphic properties) within 125 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
114
Appendix II -

-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 4 a) Calcareous Marshy/ Semisubmerged Psammosols b) Marshy- Semisubmerged Calcaric Arenosols c) Typic Psammaquents (21 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Ochric A horizon (<20 cm thick) and Cr horizon (reductomorphic properties) within 50 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
7.6 7.2 2.6 1.4 2.1 1.1 2.0 0.3 9.5 10.3 4.8 3.9 2.9 2.3 1.6 0.6 19.6
*)
2.1 1.6 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.01 7.1 4.3 3.0 2.9 0.9 0.7 36.5 16.3 23.5 18.6 4.0 5.8 0.5 -
0.109 0.103 0.047 0.045 0.304 0.189 0.147 0.089 0.067 0.024 1.191 0.303 0.676 0.450 0.330 0.239 -
14.9 0.4 13.4 0.4 15.8 6.4 15.1 6.1 14.6 2.8 23.6 5.4 21.2 3.9 16.1 3.2 -
0.032 0.016 0.034 0.009 0.039 0.015 0.048 0.016 0.055 0.016 0.058 0.019 -
8.66 0.38 8.91 0.34 8.96 0.34 9.02 0.27 7.97 0.46 8.37 0.34 8.61 0.31 8.86 0.28 6.99 1.00 7.26 1.39 8.28 0.54 8.70 0.19
0.25 0.15 0.25 0.17 0.37 0.27 0.66 0.41 0.40 0.30 0.24 0.16 0.18 0.11 0.15 0.07 0.72 0.32 0.33 0.14 0.20 0.16 0.18 0.08
17.5 9.2 17.0 7.4 18.5 9.8 15.3 2.2 11.6 8.6 13.8 7.6 15.8 7.3 14.0 1.8 0.0
2.3 1.9 2.4 1.0 6.1 4.0 6.4 1.0 1.4 1.7 1.7 1.9 2.0 2.5 1.7 0.6 0.9 1.2
1.4 1.3 1.8 0.8 3.5 2.0 3.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.2 1.0 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.7 1.1 0.8
a) Calcareous, Marshy Semisubmerged, Mollic / Peaty Psammosols b) Marshy-Semisubmerged Mollic Arenosols (pp) c) Mollic Psammaquents (pp) c) Typic Humaquepts (pp) (35 profiles)
Mollic A horizon (20-25 cm thick) and/or thin (<20 cm thick) organic surface horizon; Cr horizon (reductomorphic properties) within 50 cm of the soil surface.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
a) Marshy- Semisubmerged Peaty Psammosols b) Marshy -Semisubmerged Areni-Mollic Gleysols c) Histic Humaquepts (24 profiles)
Histic horizon ( 35 cm thick) often potentially acid; Cr horizon (reductomorphic properties), immediately below the histic horizon.
0 - 20
. 353 112 .
7.7 4.5 2.7 3.4 2.6 3.5 1.9
20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
13.5 7.2 15.2 6.8 12.8 2.1
0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7 1.5 0.9
*)
Thickness of peaty horizon
115
Appendix II -

-
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 7 Sands (15 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Moving and half stabilized sandy deposits without soil profile development.
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 150
1.6 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.3 0.6 1.4 0.9 3.5 1.8
0.33 0.20 0.18 0.13 0.07 0.05 -
0.028 0.020 0.018 0.021 0.7 -
12.2 6.0 12.2 1.8 -
0.020 0.014 0.008 0.002 -
8.72 0.24 8.76 0.23 9.02 0.14 9.16 0.16 8.20 9.00
0.09 0.08 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.03 0.07 0.09
9.1 3.9 10.3 4.4 10.7 2.9 11.1 1.8 44.4 44.4
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.4 0.8 0.2 0.9 1.2
0.8 1.2 0.7 1.0 0.9 1.8 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.4
Shelly sands (3 profiles)
Half stabilized sandy deposits with >35 cm percent by volume shell debris.
0 - 20 20 - 50
116
Appendix II - Table
II.5. SOLONCHAKS - MAIN PROPERTIES

General profile morphology Horizon Depth cm PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL DATA average mean values (x) / standard deviation population parameter (xn)
Clay < 0.002 mm % Organic matter (C*1.72) % N % pH (H2O 1:2.5) Soluble salts (water ext 1:5) % CaCO3 % VNa % Cl 2SO4
-
No Classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 1 a) Gleyic Solonchaks (on sands) b) (Areni)-Gleyic Solonchaks c) (Arenic)-Typic Aquisalids (27 profiles)
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
SO4Ca soluble%
Weak (2.5 cm thickness) or no ochric horizon; the underlying horizon is Cg, or Cr, with reductomorphic properties, within 125 cm of the soil surface. Due to iron sulphides at 70-90 cm depth a dark, strongly reduced (N1 - 5B4/1) horizon may occur. Ochric horizon(15-20 cm thickness); the underlying horizon is Cg or Cr, with reductomorphic properties, within 125 cm of the soil surface.
Az Cgz Crz
0-20 20 - 50 50 - 100
3.5 1.5 2.4 0.9 1.8 0.4
1.0 0.7 0.3 0.15 10.2 5.7 5.7 3.9 0.8 2.6 1.4 39.3 7.1 8.8 5.3 5.6 4.2
0.06 0.03 0.04 0.02 0.37 0.04 0.16 6.1 1.50 0.34 0.30 0.13 -
8.60 0.33 8.79 0.18 8.74 0.23 7.65 0.24 7.84 0.49 8.19 0.19 8.05 0.17 8.32 0.25 8.27 0.25 7.01 0.73 6.95 0.91 7.10 1.10
2.00 1.24 0.85 0.50 0.89 0.38 4.00 1.53 2.58 1.52 1.31 0.60 1.41 0.24 0.93 0.32 1.41 0.44 5.56 5.30 4.26 3.26 3.71 2.97
12.9 6.2 13.4 5.5 12.3 1.3 8.1 1.3 5.3 3.7 12.4 1.6 4.7 2.3 3.7 0.8 15.0 3.8 3.6 2.3 4.6 3.4
2.7 2.6 3.5 6.4 5.1 -
13.0 6.6 11.5 10.4 17.1 13.5 4.6 0.2 3.3 0.9 3.0 0.9 14.6 21.5 2.0 1.5 26.5 26.3 1.9 1.7 1.4 0.9 1.7 0.4
5.6 2.5 4.4 1.5 4.5 1.6 2.3 0.6 2.8 0.8 2.8 0.9 0.47 0.27 0.68 0.34 0.26 0.02 1.3 1.0 1.1 0.6 1.6 0.5
not det.
a) Gleyic Solonchaks (on alluvial deposits) b) Fluvi-Gleyic Solonchaks c) Typic Aquisalids (5 profiles)
Az Cgz Crz
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 100 40.0*) 3.5 33.0*) 1.2 27.0*) 4.7
32.6 8.6 23.8 5.3 14.6 1.2 30.2 2.6 32.0 3.1 25.7 2.5 45.8 16.4 34.4 10.6 23.7 6.2
not det. not det not det not det
a) Gleyi-Mollic Solonchaks b) Gleyi-Mollic Solonchaks (pp) b) Calci-Gleyi-Mollic Solonchaks (pp) c) Typic Aquisalids (6 profiles)
Mollic A horizon (30-50 cm thickness); loamy, very dark grey to black or very dark greyish brown (10YR 2.5/1 or 3/1.5); weak granular structure; the underlying horizons are Ckg, Ckr, Cg or Cr, with reductomorphic properties within 125 cm of the soil surface. Histic horizon (20 - 50 cm thickness), dark greyish brown - very dark greyish brown (10YR 3.5/2) consisting of hemicsapric material; the underlying horizon are Cr horizons of greenish - grey - dark greenish grey (5GY-5G 4-5/1) colour.
Ahz ACz Crz
a) Histic Solonchaks b) (Histic) Solonchaks c) Typic Aquisalids (5 profiles)
Hz Crz1 Crz2
32.2*) 10.1 42.0*) 9.4 28.0*) 2.3
1.06 0.42 0.90 0.33 0.68 0.45
*)
Thickness = mean values/standard deviation parameter
117
Appendix II -
Table II.6. GLEYED - ALKALIZED KASTANOZEMS - MAIN PROPERTIES

General soil morphology Horizon
Thickness cm Clay < 0.002 mm %
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 1 a) Gleyed Alkalized Kastanozems - phreatic & sodic phase c) Endoxyaquic Haploxerolls - sodic phase (11 profiles)
PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL DATA average mean values (x) / standard deviation population parameter (xn)
Organic matter (C* 1.72) % N % C/N P ppm pH (H2O) 1:2.5 Soluble salts water ext 1:5 % CaCO3 % Cl 2SO4
-
Na 2+ Ca +M 2+ g
VNa %
BD 3 g/cm
K mm/h
Mollic A horizon <35 cm thick, dark brown - greyish brown (10YR2.5-3.5/3)
Ah Ac Ckg1 Ckg2
29.5 4.8 18.9 2.9 27.7 6.7 75.9 6.4

x)
29.1 1.4 27.6 1.3 24.1 2.2 26.0 1.9
2.5 0.2 1.4 0.3 -
0.176 0.014 0.099 0.069 -
10.8 0.5 8.7 1.6 -
34 16 25 8 -
8.45 0.18 8.93 0.39 9.12 0.18 9.22 0.55
0.10 0.03 0.16 0.11 0.22 0.08 0.26 0.06
2.4 1.9 11.1 3.1 14.0 5.4 15.0 4.3
1.4 1.0 3.6 3.6 3.0 3.6 3.9 3.7
0.5 0.3 1.7 1.5 2.5 2.0 4.4 1.3
3.0 0.8 8.6 3.7 18.7 5.6 14.1 5.0
1.251) 0.07 1.251) 0.07 1.492) 0.03 1.49

2)
36.91) 9.1 36.91) 9.1 6.52) 0.1 6.52) 0.1
b) Calcaro-Calcic-Kastanozems loamy, weak granular-vermic structure; Ac horizon <20 cm thick, brown (10YR 4/3), loamy, weak, subangular blocky structure; Ckg horizon occur between 42-55 cm depth, olive (5Y 5/4-6) rusty and greyish fine spots, loamy, structureless, fine CaCO3 concretions
0.03
x) Depth of occurrence 1) 0 -50 cm depth 2) 50 - 100 cm depth
118
Appendix II -
Table II.7. HISTOSOLS (Organic soils) - MAIN PROPERTIES

General soil morphology Horizon Thickness (cm) PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL DATA average mean values (x) / standard deviation population parameter (xn)
Clay < 0.002 mm %
1)
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 1 a) Floating, Potentially Sulphate Acid Hemic-Fibric Histosols b) Thionic Histosols c) Hydric Sulfihemists (46 profiles)
Organic matter (C*1.72) %
N %
C/N
P total %
pH 2) (H2O) 1:2.5
Soluble (salts water ext 3) 1:5) %
CaCO3 %
Cl 2SO4
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Floating organic blanket of 0.7 - 2.10 m thick-ness consisting of skeletal and hemic fibric, yellowish - brown (10YR 5/4-8) or strong brown (7.5YR 5/ 6-8) organic material originating mostly from reed and associated species. The first 5-10 cm of the top soil consists of a fine divided, black, anmoorlike organic paste. In the upper part of the mineral subsoil often a black (N1-2) mollic horizon (20-30 cm thickness) is to be found. Peat of 0.6 -7.4 m thickness which consists of dark brown- dark yellowish brown (10YR 3-4/3-6) or brown (7.5YR 4/2-4) half decomposed organic material; originating from reed sedge and reed mace sometimes with woody remnants (of Salix Cineroea). Often deeper layer has mineral stratifications and consists of black-very dark brown strongly decomposed (sapric) materials. The upper part of the mineral substratum may have a black, humose, mollic horizon (15-35 cm thick). In the contact zone with the overlying organic deposits, thin layers of ferihumic material may occur.
128.8**) 34.9
22.2 7.5 26.4 14.4 16.9 10.2 22.1 12.3 23.1 14.0 15.2 12.9
60.5 11.3 15.0 4.5 2.7 1.6 59.1 13.8 8.3 6.1 1.3 0.7
1.941 0.202 0.667 0.163 1.711 0.426 0.329 0.197 0.067 0.035
19.2 3.1 16.7 1.7 25.8 7.4 16.0 2.2 13.3 2.4
0.076 0.02 0.078 0.016 0.071 0.023 0.049 0.010 0.036 0.010
5.59 0.62 5.81 0.43 7.84 0.35 5.74 0.69 7.86 0.29 8.34 0.30
0.67 0.41 0.27 0.15 0.16 0.07 0.81 0.36 0.36 0.23 0.22 0.09
0.0
0.12 0.06
0.09 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.18 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.63 0.52 1.14 0.87
Ah
24.5 5.6
0.0
0.12 0.10
Cr1
43.5 19.7
11.8 7.6 0.0
0.42 0.21 0.26 0.23
a) Potentially Sulphate-Acid Hemic Histosols b) Thionic Histosols c) Typic Sulfihemists (102 profiles)
129.5 86.6
Ah
26.8 10.2
15.4 13.1 13.5 10.9
0.73 0.84 1.08 0.74
Cr1
45.6 19.6
1) 2) 3)
reported to the mineral fraction only organic materials 1 : 5 organic materials 1 : 10 **) floating layer
119
Appendix II -
Table II.7. HISTOSOLS (Organic soils) - MAIN PROPERTIES

General soil morphology Horizon Thickness (cm) PHYSICAL & CHEMICAL DATA average mean values (x) / standard deviation population parameter (xn)
Clay < 0.002 mm %
1)
No Soil classification a) Romanian b) FAO - UNESCO c) USDA - Soil Taxonomy (sampled profiles) 3 a) Hemic-Terric Histosols, partly potentially Sulphate acid b) Terric Histosols (pp) b) Terric Thionic Histosols (pp) c) Terric Medihemists (pp) c) Terric Sulfihemists (pp) (61 profiles) 4 a) Potentially Sulphate Acid, Sapric and Terric-Sapric Histosols b)Thionic Histosols (pp) b) Terric -Thionic Histosols (pp) c)Typic Sulfisaprists (pp) c)Terric Sulfisaprists (pp) (6 profiles) 5 a) Sulphate Acid Hemic Histosols b)Thionic Histosols c) Typic Sulfohemists (11 profiles)
Organic matter (C*1.72) %
N %
C/N
P total %
pH 2) (H2O) 1:2.5
Soluble (salts water ext 3) 1:5) %
CaCO3 %
Cl 2SO4
Na 2+ 2+ Ca +Mg
Peat of 70-90 cm thickness which consists of dark brown, brown, dark greyish brown (10YR 3-4/2-3) half-decomposed organic materials, with soft layers of 10-30 cm thick of grey-greenish-grey (5Y4-6/1) or dark grey (N3-4) mineral materials. Histic horizon 80-180 cm thick, which consists of strong decomposed, black and very dark grey (N2-3) organic material.
H Ah Cr1
140.1 85.3 29.1 16.7 52.0 17.7
47.91) 16.6 45.1 12.5 29.4 16.9 44.5 16.7 34.6 12.9 16.0 6.3 42.8 15.6 51.0 13.2 12.2 4.6
31.5 7.4 9.9 2.8 2.3 1.0 47.7 15.2 14.6 4.7 2.2 1.1 37.3 9.4 10.5 5.9 1.7 1.5
1.086 0.388 0.442 0.116 1.346 0.298 0.631 0.133 1.291 0.363 0.349 0.119 -
18.0 4.6 14.3 2.2 15.9 3.8 14.9 1.2 19.0 1.9 18.9 6.1 -
0.064 0.025 0.047 0.027 0.076 0.032 0.059 0.020 0.053 0.027 -
6.62 0.86 6.71 1.03 8.03 0.39 6.88 0.56 7.12 0.35 7.78 0.02 5.21 0.58 6.37 0.96 7.98 0.26
0.75 0.44 0.84 1.06 0.24 0.16 0.92 0.45 0.44 0.21 0.25 0.10 1.74 1.24 1.25 0.70 0.57 0.36
4.7*) 2.9 7.2**) 3.0 9.7 4.6 2.0 2.6 1.5 1.0 8.3 0.5 0.0 0.0 12.0 2.4
0.18 0.15 0.32 0.22 0.75 0.85 0.51 0.51 0.54 0.60 0.76 0.62 0.12 0.09 0.06 0.02 0.18 0.14
0.19 0.20 0.26 0.26 0.47 0.67 0.34 0.32 0.49 0.57 0.55 0.46 0.12 0.01 0.1 0.1 0.09 0.10
H Ah Cr1
139.7 42.8 45.0 17.0 37.5 16.0
The same as above but artificially drained and wherein the pH drops below 3.5 in some layers within the first 125 cm of the soil surface.
H Ah Cr
101.5 35.8 29.0 9.9 47.2 14.8
1) 2) 3)
reported to the mineral fraction only organic materials 1 : 5 organic materials 1 : 10 1) reported to the mineral fraction only *) 8% of the analysed samples **) 22% of the analysed samples
120
Appendix III.
Ak - Aluvosol carbonatic (slab salinizat) / Calcaric Fluvisol / Typic Xerofluvent

3C2 44 - 70 cm; Olive (5 Y 5/3), dark brown - brown (7.5 YR 4/4) fine mottles; sandy loam; fine layered; (rock structure); friable; few fine salt veins; many grass roots; clear undulated boundary; 3C3 70 - 102 cm; Olive (5 Y 5/3), many brown - dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) mottles; loam with sandy loam layers; fine layered (rock structure); friable few fine salts veins; few grass roots; smooth, gradual boundary; 3C4 102 -139 cm; Pale olive - olive (5 Y 5.5/3), reddish brown (5 YR 4/4) and light grey (5 Y 6/1) fine mottles; loam; fine layered (rock structure); friable fine salts Dark grey brown (10 YR 4/2), with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) fine mottles; loam; structureless; friable; wormcasts; many fine grass roots; clear, undulated boundary; 3Cg1 139 -179 cm; veins; few grass roots; smooth, gradual boundary; Olive brown - light olive brown (2.5 Y 4.5/4), brown - dark brown and grey (5 Y 5/1) mottles; loam with fine sandy layers; fine layered (rock structure); friable; few roots; smooth; clear boundary; 3Cg2 179-210 cm; Olive brown - light olive brown (2.5 Y 4.5/4), brown -dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) and grey (5 Y 5/1) mottles; sandy loam; fine layered (rock structure) slightly hard.
Profile no. 10 / 006147 (Source: Excursion Guide of the XIVth Conference of RNSSS) Location : T`taru island, 1 km West Chilia Village Relief : slightly undulated; 0.5 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine/ marshy deposit Land use: arable Drainage: Artificially drained; groundwater table depth 3.0 m Profile description Ap 0 - 18 cm;
18 - 32 cm;
Brown - dark brown (10 YR 4/3); yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) fine mottles; loam; structureless (massive); friable; wormcasts; many grass roots; clear, undulated boundary;
2C1
32 - 44 cm;
Pale olive - olive (5 Y 5.5/3); dark brown - brown (7.5 YR 4/4) fine mottles; loamy sand; fine layered (rock structure); very friable; many grass roots; clear, undulated boundary;
Table 1. Analytical data of Calcaric Fluvisol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 59.7 63.6 81.4 58.2 49.4 52.9 38.5 52.7 49.1 0.02 0.002 mm 15.6 14.4 7.3 22.0 27.0 23.4 34.4 25.6 31.1 < 0.002 mm 24.7 22.0 11.3 19.8 23.7 23.6 27.1 21.7 19.8 BD g/cm3 K mm/h Org.mat (c x1.72) % 2.9 2.4 0.5 0.6 0.9 0.6 1.1 0.9 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.1 8.1 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.3 T meq. 100 g soil 18.3 17.3 10.5 12.9 17.4 13.0 16.6 14.8 14.7 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.13 0.08 0.10 0.33 0.29 0.23 0.26 0.14 0.15
Ap Ao 2C1 3C2 3C3 3C4 3Cg1 3Cg2
0 - 15 18 - 28 32 - 42 50 - 65 75 - 90 105 - 120 125 - 135 145 - 160 185 - 200
1.12 1.23 1.31 1.21 1.30 1.37 1.30 1.31 1.26
13.0 6.9 14.2 11.2 1.5 1.8 0.5 1.4 0.2
0.169 0.140 0.045 -
11.6 11.6 7.5 -
10.0 10.7 3.8 12.8 2.6 15.6 14.5 14.3 8.5
121
Appendix III.
Ac - Aluvosol calcaric / Hyper - Calcaric Aluvosol / Typic Xerofluvent
Profile no. 22 Location : Pardina polder Relief : flat; horizontal; former lake bottom; at MBSL ( 0.0 m) Parent material : lacustrine deposit Land use : arable Drainage: artificially drained; depth of groundwater table 3 m
Profile description Ap A C 0 - 25 cm; 20 - 40 cm; 40 - 110 cm; Light olive grey (5 Y 6/2); loam; structureless - monogranular and weak subangular blocky; slightly hard; fine roots; clear boundary; Light olive grey (5 Y 6/3); loam; structureless - massive; moderate hard; fine roots; diffuse boundary; Olive (5 Y 5/3); sandy loam; fine layered (rock structure) very slightly hard, few fine roots.
Table 2. Analytical data of Hyper - Calcaric Aluvosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.7 0.4 0.7 0.2 - 0.02 mm 36.7 45.9 57.2 0.02 0.002 mm 13.0 16.1 35.9 < 0.002 mm 23.6 29.6 21.2 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 5.6 3.7 0.9 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 7.3 7.4 7.8 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.36 0.41 0.10 CaSO4 2H2O 0.68 0.14 0.07
Ap A C
0 - 25 25 - 40 40 - 75
0.978 0.750 -
87.4 50.4 16.6
122
Appendix III.
Profile no. 17
Ag - Aluvosol gleizat, carbonatic, (salinizat) / Gleyi - Calcaric Fluvisol / Endooxyaquic Xerofluvent

C Cg1 10 - 56 cm; 56 - 95 cm; Pale olive (5 Y 6/3); yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) fine mottles sandy loam; fine layered (rock structure); friable; many fine roots; diffuse boundary; Light olive grey (5 Y 6/2) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) and dark grey (5Y 5/1) mottles; sandy loam - loam; fine layered (rock structure); friable; few grass roots; diffuse boundary; 2Cg2 95 - 125 cm; Olive grey (5 Y 5/2) with dark grey (5 Y 5/1) and yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; loamy sand; fine layered (rock structure); friable; clear boundary;
Location : 2 km East of Plaurul village Relief : riverine levee, 2.0 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine deposits Land use: grassland Drainage: imperfect; groundwater table: 1.5 m depth
Profile description A 0 - 10 cm; Olive (5 Y 4/3); sandy loam; weak medium subangular blocky structure; friable; many fine roots; clear boundary;
3Cr
125 - 210 cm;
Dark grey - dark greenish grey (5 Y - 5 GY 4/1); clay loam; fine layered (rock structure); very sticky (half ripened).
Table 3. Analytical data of Gleyi - Calcaric Fluvisol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 62.7 71.2 63.1 60.5 55.4 77.3 19.1 13.8 0.02 0.002 mm 17.6 15.6 17.6 21.0 23.4 14.2 41.7 40.7 < 0.002 mm 19.6 13.1 19.2 18.4 21.0 8.3 39.1 45.5 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 1.5 0.7 0.8 1.1 0.8 N % 0.040 0.037 15.4 12.6 CN CaCO3 % 8.9 10.5 11.3 9.7 11.9 10.2 10.2 8.5 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 8.00 7.80 7.82 7.80 7.85 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.14 0.30 0.55 0.91 0.77 0.28 0.46 0.62
A C Cg1 2Cg2 3Cr
0 - 10 15 - 30 41 - 56 58 - 73 80 - 95 110 - 125 185 - 200 200 - 210
123
Appendix III.
Am - Aluvosol molic carbonatic, slab salinizat / Calcaro - Mollic Fluvisol / Mollic (Oxyaquic) Xerofluvent
2C3 55 - 70 cm; Olive grey (5 Y 5/2.5), with dark brown - brown (7.5 YR. 4/4) mottles; sandy loam; fine layered (rock structure); very friable; few roots; abrupt smooth boundary; 2C4 70 - 100 cm; 2C5 100 - 125 cm; 3C6 125 - 151 cm; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2); loam; weak fine granular structure; very friable; many fine grass roots; abrupt, smooth boundary; 3Cg 151 - 170 cm; Olive grey (5Y 5/2.5) many large brown (7,5 YR 5/4) mottles on the root channels; loam; fine layered (rock structure); friable; few wormcasts and wormholes; few grass roots; clear, undulated boundary; 3Cr 170 - 200 cm; Olive grey (5 Y 5/2.5), few and small dark brown - brown mottles (7.5 YR 4/4); loamy sand; fine layered (rock structure); friable; smooth; clear boundary; Olive - olive grey (5 Y 5/2.5), yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6); sandy loam; fine layered (rock structure); very friable; smooth; clear boundary; Olive grey (5 Y 4.5/2) yellowish brown (10 YR 4.5/4) mottles; loam with sandy layers; wet; very friable; clear boundary; Olive grey (5 Y 4/2) with dark grey (N4) and dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) mottles; loam with sandy lens; layered ( rock structure) wet; very friable; undulated clear boundary; Dark grey (N4); loam; layered (rock structure); slightly hard; wet.
Profile no. 8 / 006145 (Source: Excursion Guide of the XIVth Conference of RNSSS) Location : Pardina Polder, 0.7 km South - west from Chilia Veche Relief : flat, slightly depressed; 1 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine/ marshy deposit Land use: arable Drainage: Artificially drained; groundwater table depth 3.5 m Profile description Ap C1 0 - 24 cm; 24 - 41 cm;
2C2
41 - 55 cm;
Olive grey (5 Y 4.5/2); many yellowish brown (10 YR. 5/6) mottles; loamy sand; fine layered (rock structure), very friable; few grass roots; clear boundary;
Table 4. Analytical data of Calcaro - Mollic - Fluvisol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 43.7 57.6 82.3 75.0 76.3 67.2 48.7 31.9 34.4 0.02 0.002 mm 25.5 20.1 8.1 12.3 12.3 17.5 30.4 38.0 39.6 < 0.002 mm 30.8 22.3 9.6 12.7 11.4 15.3 20.9 30.1 26.0 BD g/cm3 K mm/h Org.mat (c x1.72) % 12.3 1.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 1.2 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 7.4 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.3 8.2 T meq. 100 g soil 45.9 15.6 8.8 10.8 11.8 11.6 17.5 18.5 18.6 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5 %) 0.30 0.29 0.18 0.17 0.11 0.05 0.07 0.10 0.08
Ap C1 2C2 2C3 2C4 2C5 3C6 3Cg 3Cr
0 - 15 25 - 38 45 - 55 58 - 68 75 - 90 105 - 120 130 - 145 155 - 170 175 - 190
0.83 1.14 1.21 1.28 1.31 1.32 1.26 1.22 1.20
49 43 27 116 16 21 14 26.7 87
0.576 0.120 0.058 -
14.4 11.3 -
2.5 14.6 15.2 13.2 16.0 13.5 13.5 12.9 12.9
124
Appendix III.
Profile no. 71
A - Aluvosol molic gleizat, carbonatic / Gleyi-Molli-Calcaric Fluvisol / Endoaquollic Xerofluvent

AC 2Cg1 30 - 39 cm; 39 - 110 cm; Dark grey - (5 Y 4/1); clay loam; weak medium subangular blocky structure; friable - firm; many grass and fine woody roots; clear boundary; Pale olive (5 Y 6/3) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) and grey (5 Y 5/1) mottles; sandy loam; fine layered (rock structure) friable; few woody and few grass roots; difuse boundary; 3Cg2 110 - 175 cm; Olive grey (5 Y 5/2) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) and grey (5 Y 6/1) mottles; loamy sand with sandy layers; fine layered (rock structure) very friable; clear boundary; 3Cr 175 - 200 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) loamy sand; fine layered (rock structure) very friable.
Location : Papadia plantation Relief : Flat, horizontal, slightly depressionary, 0.8 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine deposits Land use: Poplar plantation Drainage: artificially drained; groundwater table 1.5 m depth
Profile description Ah 0 - 30 cm; Very dark grey (10 YR 3/1); loamy clay; moderate, medium angular blocky structure; firm; many fine woody and grass roots; gradual boundary;
Table 5. Analytical data of Gleyi-Molli-Calcaric Fluvisol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.2 4.6 18.6 9.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 11.1 32.5 62.2 66.6 61.5 82.6 73.8 72.9 0.02 0.002 mm 29.1 27.8 18.8 17.8 19.8 6.1 4.1 8.6 < 0.002 mm 59.7 39.6 18.7 15.3 18.5 6.7 3.5 8.4 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 9.2 3.4 1.0 1.0 N % 0.490 12.7 CN CaCO3 % 1.0 3.6 11.7 4.9 11.3 4.9 8.4 8.5 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 7.50 7.80 8.00 7.90 8.10 8.10 8.12 8.00 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.13 0.08 0.14 0.14 0.10 0.09 0.13 0.07 0.08
Ah Ac 2Cg1
0 - 30 30 - 39 39 - 58 58 - 89 89 - 110
3Cg2
110 - 125 135 - 142 142 - 175
Cr
175 - 200
125
Appendix III.
Lr - Limnosol vasos carbonatic / Calcareous muddy Limnosol
Profile no. 640 Location : Musura Bay Relief : bay bottom; water is 1.2 m deep Parent material : lagoonary deposits
Profile description Al1 0 - 25 cm; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1) and dark bluish grey (5 B 4/1) in the first 10 - 15 cm, becomes light olive grey (5 Y 6/2) by exposure to the air; silty loam; viscous; non sticky; few shells; clear boundary; Al2 Cr1 Cr2 25 - 65 cm; 65 - 120 cm; 120 - 400 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) which changes to light grey (5 Y 6/1) by exposure to the air; loamy; unripened; non sticky; few shells; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 G 5/1) which becomes light olive grey (5 Y 6/2) by exposure to the air; silty loam; unripened; few shells; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 G 4/1); which becomes pale olive (5 Y 6/3) by exposure to the air; silty clay loam; unripened; few shells.
Table 6. Analytical data of Calcareous muddy Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 24.8 48.7 37.5 25.5 32.9 23.2 0.02 0.002 mm 41.8 30.2 35.6 41.4 32.6 39.4 < 0.002 mm 33.4 21.1 26.9 33.1 34.5 37.4 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 2.3 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.8 1.4 N % 0.100 0.088 0.097 12.1 10.5 10.4 CN CaCO3 % 9.1 7.6 5.2 10.8 12.6 10.8 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 8.10 8.20 8.30 8.25 8.25 8.30 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.42 0.38 0.46 0.59 0.98 0.81
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO421.0 1.8 5.1 10.1 4.8 5.0
Na2++Mg2+ 1.6 2.5 4.6 6.4 5.8 6.2
Al1 Al2 Cr1 Cr2
0 - 25 25 - 65 65 - 120 120 - 190 200 - 300 300 - 400
126
Appendix III.
Profile no. 650
Lu - Limnosol nisipos carbonatic / Calcareous Sandy Limnosol
Location : Musura Bay Relief : bay bottom; water is 0.8 m deep Parent material : lagoonary sandy deposits
Profile description Al Cr 0 - 20 cm; 20 - 110 cm; Greenish grey - grey (5 GY - 5 Y 5/1); fine sand; loose; Greenish grey (5 GY 6/1); fine layered sandy - loamy sandy deposits; densely packed.
Table 7. Analytical data of Calcareous Sandy Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 1.5 1.6 0.2 - 0.02 mm 89.9 81.2 0.02 0.002 mm 4.2 9.1 < 0.002 mm 4.4 8.1 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 0.7 0.6 N % 0.074 0.037 11.5 6.1 CN CaCO3 % 10.6 10.6 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 8.20 8.30 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.20 0.18
Al Cr
0 - 20 20 - 110
127
Appendix III.
Profile no. 380
Lc - Limnosol calcaric / Hypercalcareous Limnosol
Location : Lake Potcoava Relief : lake bottom; water is 2.1 m deep Parent material : lacustrine deposit
Profile description Al1 Al2 Al3 Cr 0 - 50 cm; 50 - 100 cm; 100 - 130 cm; 130 - 215 cm; Olive grey (5 Y 5/2); very calcareous loamy sand; loose; non sticky, many fine divided plant residues; few shells; clear boundary; Grey - olive grey (5 Y 5/1.5); very calcareous loamy sand; loose; non sticky; many fine divided, half decomposed, plant residues; few shells; clear boundary; Grey (5 Y 6/1); very calcareous sandy loam; non sticky; few fine divided half decomposed plant residues; few shells; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); silty loam; slightly sticky; half ripened.
Table 8. Analytical data of Hypercalcareous Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.3 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2 - 0.02 mm 73.2 75.3 63.9 38.9 0.02 0.002 mm 16.0 12.8 22.2 34.5 < 0.002 mm 10.5 11.3 13.4 26.3 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 16.3 13.2 7.3 2.5 N % 0.830 0.630 13.3 14.2 CN CaCO3 % 60.0 60.0 60.0 18.9 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 7.80 8.00 8.10 8.50 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.72 1.08 0.76 0.50
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO420.8 1.1 1.2 3.7
Na2+ + Mg2+ 0.9 1.2 1.3 4.2
Al1 Al2 Al3 Cr
0 - 50 50 - 100 100 - 130 130 - 215
128
Appendix III.
Ln - Limnosol coprogenic / Coprogenic Limnosol

Al2 30 - 120 cm; Olive grey (5Y 4/2) which changes to grey (5 Y 5/2) by exposure to the air; loamy clay; slightly sticky; unripened; very hard after drying when loss 2/3 by volume; few shells; clear boundary; Al3 120 - 160 cm; Dark olive grey (5 Y 3/2) which becomes dark grey (5 Y 4.5/1) by exposure to the air; clay loam; slightly plastic; half ripened; non sticky, after drying remain friable and loss 1/4 by volume; many broken shells; clear boundary;
Profile no. 201 Location : Gorgova lake Relief : lake bottom; water is 1.4 m deep Parent material : lacustrine deposit
Profile description Al1 0 - 30 cm; Black - dark bluish grey (5 Y 2.5/1 - 5 B 4/1) which turns to olive grey (5 Y 5.5/2) by exposure to the air ; clay; gel - like; semiviscous; very hard after drying when loss 1/2 by volume; aquatic plant remnants; few broken shells; clear boundary;
Cr
160 - 200 cm;
Grey - greenish grey (5 Y -5 GY 5/1) and light grey (5 Y 6/1) by exposure to the air; clay loam; sticky; half ripened; after drying becomes very hard and loss < 1/ 5 by volume.
Table 9. Analytical data of Coprogenic Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 13.1 11.9 26.5 19.6 20.3 0.02 0.002 mm 26.1 35.9 30.6 43.5 45.3 < 0.002 mm 60.8 52.1 42.9 36.9 34.4 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 8.6 14.7 19.6 3.0 2.1 N % 0.442 0.970 0.813 13.0 10.2 CN CaCO3 % 16.6 21.9 29.5 12.4 13.3 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 7.60 7.55 7.60 8.00 8.25 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.14 0.17 0.34 0.13 0.10 CaSO4 % 0.29 0.35 0.02 0.09 0.05
Al1 Al2 Al3 Cr
0 - 20 30 - 90 120 - 150 160 - 180 180 - 200
129
Appendix III.
Lb - Limnosol salinizat (salmastru) carbonatic / Salic (brackish) Limnosol

shells; clear boundary; Al2 Cr1 30 - 100 cm; 100 - 200 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) which changes quickly to light grey (5 Y 7/2) by exposure to the air; silty clay; sticky; unripened; few shells; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1) which changes to light olive grey (5 Y 6/2) by exposure to the air; silty clay loam; moderate sticky; half ripened; few shells; clear boundary;
Profile no. 644 Location : Musura Bay Relief : bay bottom; water is 2.1 m deep Parent material : lagoonary deposit
Profile description Al1 0 - 30 cm; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1 - N2), which turns quickly to light olive grey (5 Y 6/2) by exposure to the air; silty clay loam; viscous; slightly sticky; few
Cr2
200 - 310 cm;
Dark greenish grey (5 BG 4/1) which changes to light olive grey (5 Y 6/2) by exposure to the air ; silty clay; loam; moderate sticky, half ripened; few shells.
Table 10. Analytical data of Salic (brackish) Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 14.3 12.8 22.1 17.9 0.02 0.002 mm 43.6 41.8 35.2 37.6 < 0.002 mm 42.1 45.4 42.7 44.5 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 3.4 2.4 1.9 2.4 N % 0.190 0.113 0.119 0.152 12.2 14.2 10.6 10.6 CN CaCO3 % 11.1 10.1 6.5 8.4 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 8.15 8.25 8.20 8.20 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 1.30 1.20 1.21 1.24
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO421.5 1.5 4.5 4.2
Na2++Mg2+ 1.5 2.0 6.0 5.6
Al1 Al2 Cr1 Cr2
0 - 30 30 - 100 100 - 120 210 - 310
130
Appendix III.
Profile no. 521
Ls - Limnosol salinizat - alcalizat (salmastru), nisipos / Sali - sodic (brackish) Sandy Limnosol
Location : 3 km southward of Sf. Gheorghe Relief : lake bottom; water is 0.7 m deep Parent material : lagoonary sandy deposit
Profile description Al1 Al2 Cr 0 - 7 cm; 7 - 25 cm; 25 - 60 cm; Dark greenish grey (5 G 4/1) loam; viscous; non sticky; many broken shells; clear boundary; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1); sand with fine half decomposed organic material; many broken shells; loose; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); fine sand; many fine broken shells; loose.
Table 11. Analytical data of Sali - (brackish) Sandy Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 1.8 7.4 3.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 56.4 81.5 90.7 0.02 0.002 mm 17.7 6.1 2.9 < 0.002 mm 24.1 5.0 3.4 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 14.5 15.0 0.7 N % 0.481 0.396 20.3 25.6 CN CaCO3 % 28.9 12.1 11.9 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 7.90 8.00 8.50 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 1.65 1.54 0.38
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO421.1 2.3 4.6
Na2++Mg2+ 1.1 2.4 2.7
Al1 Al2 Cr
0-7 7 - 25 25 - 60
131
Appendix III.
Lk - Limnosol turbos carbonatic / Calcareous Histic Limnosol / (Limnist)

H3 H4 H + Cr 70 - 90 cm; 90 - 150 cm; 150 - 200 cm; 200 - 230 cm; 230 - 270 cm; 270 - 310 cm; Dark grey - dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2.5); strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material; loose; clear boundary; Dark brown (10 YR 3/3) strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material with calcareous layers in the bottom part; loose; clear boundary; Dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2) strongly decomposed organic material with loamy clayey layers; soft; clear boundary; Al1 Dark olive grey (5 Y 3/2); clay loam; sticky; half ripened, lime rich, layers; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) , loamy clay with dark brown (10 YR 3/3); (sapric) organic layers; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); clay; sticky; half ripened; organic layers in the bottom part. Dark brown (10 YR 3/3); half decomposed (hemic) organic material ; loose; many shells; clear boundary; Al2
Profile no. 176 Location : Uzlina lake Relief : lake bottom; water is of 2.0 m deep Parent material : lacustrine organic deposits Profile description H1 H2 0 - 40 cm; 40 - 70 cm;
Dark brown - very dark brown (10 YR 3.5/2.5); strongly decomposed (sapric) H + Cr organic material; loose; clear boundary;
Table 12. Analytical data of Calcareous Histic Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.5 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 11.0 27.6 9.0 6.4 3.0 10.6 2.0 18.6 66.6 9.2 0.02 0.002 mm 39.1 38.9 26.2 28.9 24.6 36.6 35.0 28.7 14.5 36.9 < 0.002 mm 49.4 33.2 64.5 64.4 72.2 52.1 62.8 52.6 18.6 53.8 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 30.7 38.8 38.1 41.2 28.9 35.3 26.0 17.6 10.4 21.5 7.4 N % 1.740 2.012 2.012CaCO3 % 17.4 13.8 19.5 12.1 21.1 19.1 23.1 21.1 5.3 8.7 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 7.30 7.12 7.30 7.30 7.36 7.32 7.40 7.50 7.38 7.40 7.50 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.20 0.15 0.34 0.12 0.16 0.17 0.14 0.14 0.08 0.05 0.06 CaSO4 % 0.59 0.75 0.69 0.37 0.59 0.35 0.40 0.17 0.48 0.48 0.14
H1 H2 H3 H4 H + Cr Al1 Al2 H + Cr
0 - 40 40 - 70 70 - 90 90 - 120 120 - 150 150 - 180 180 - 200 200 - 230 230 - 250 270 - 280 290 - 310
132
Appendix III.
Lh - Limnosol turbos, calcaric, pe nisipuri lutoase / Loamy - Sandy Hypercalcareous Histic Limnosol
Profile no. 291 Location : Mati]a Lake Relief : lake bottom; water is 1.9 m deep Parent material : lacustrine deposit
Profile description H 0 - 35 cm; Light olive brown (2.5 Y 5/6) which changes quickly to light grey (2.5 Y 7/2) by exposure to the air; mud consisting of finely divided coprogenic material and finely divided lime; clear boundary; Cr1 Cr2 35 - 55 cm; 55 - 200 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) which changes to pale olive (5 Y 6/3) by exposure to the air; sandy loam; half ripened; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 6/1) which changes to pale olive - light grey (5 Y 6/2.5) by exposure to the air; fine horizontal layers of sandy loam and loamy sand; densely packed.
Table 13. Analytical data of Loamy - Sandy Hypercalcareous Histic Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 25.9 48.4 71.2 79.2 58.4 0.02 0.002 mm 30.6 32.1 18.2 11.7 28.9 < 0.002 mm 43.2 19.4 10.5 9.0 12.6 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 27.2 3.1 1.0 0.5 N % 1.246 0.163 14.8 18.7 CN CaCO3 % 31.9 12.8 15.7 9.4 16.4 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 7.60 7.90 8.20 8.30 8.00 7.85 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.60 0.14 0.14 0.16 0.20 0.12
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO420.2 1.5 1.9 1.2 0.9 1.8
Na2++Mg2+ 0.1 0.6 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.5
H Cr1 Cr2
0 - 35 35 - 55 55 - 75 85-135 135 - 160 160 - 200
133
Appendix III.
Lt - Limnosol turbos pe nisip / Sandy - Histic Limnosol
Profile no. 185 Location : Cuibida lake Relief : lake bottom; water is of 2.5 m deep Parent material : lacustrine deposits
Profile description H1 H2 Ah1 Ah2 Cr 0 - 20 cm; 20 - 50 cm; 50 - 60 cm; 60 - 70 cm; 70 - 120 cm; Black (N2); strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material; loose; clear boundary; Very dark brown - black (10 YR 2.5/1); strongly half decomposed (sapric hemic) organic material mixed with silt and fine sand; loose; clear boundary; Black (N2); humose loamy sand; loose; diffuse boundary; Black (N2); humose, coarse sand; loose; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1 - 5 G 5/1) coarse sand; loose.
Table 14. Analytical data of Sandy Histic Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.3 68.5 87.1 88.7 0.2 - 0.02 mm 34.7 18.9 11.8 8.6 0.02 0.002 mm 29.4 5.0 0.8 1.1 < 0.002 mm 35.6 7.6 1.1 0.6 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 58.6 50.4 18.0 12.0 0.2 N % 2.214 2.099 0.913 0.313 16.0 12.2 CN CaCO3 % 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6.1 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 6.70 6.08 5.88 6.40 7.40 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.27 0.34 0.18 0.03 CaSO4 % 0.75 0.62 0.29 0.37 -
H1 H2 Ah1 Ah2 Cr
0 - 20 20 - 50 50 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 120
134
Appendix III.
Lt - Limnosol turbos / Histic Limnosol
Profile no. 266 Location : Mati]a lake Relief : lake bottom; water is of 2.0 m deep Parent material : lacustrine deposits
Profile description H 0 - 70 cm; Olive brown (2.5 Y4/4) fine divided (coprogenic) half decomposed (hemic) organic material, the first 10 - 15 cm consists of a viscous organic suspension; clear boundary; Al Cr1 Cr2 70 - 100 cm; 100 - 120 cm; 120 - 225 cm; Olive grey - grey (5 Y 5/1); loam; sticky; unripened; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); loam; few hard CaCO3 concretions; sticky; half ripened; diffuse boundary; Greenish grey (5 G 5/1); loam with few shell debris and CaCO3 concretions; sticky, halfripened; densely packed.
Table 14a. Analytical data of Histic Limnosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 22.9 19.5 48.1 50.6 0.02 0.002 mm 43.1 47.7 28.9 27.5 < 0.002 mm 33.7 32.7 22.9 21.8 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 46.1 10.9 3.9 1.5 N % 1.889 0.392 0.159 16.5 18.8 16.9 CN CaCO3 % 0.0 0.0 12.3 14.2 8.7 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 5.45 6.20 7.50 7.90 8.30 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.50 0.20 0.19 0.16 0.14 CaSO4 % 0.88 0.34 0.20 0.07 0.07
H Al Cr1 Cr2
0 - 60 70 - 100 100 - 120 120 - 150 150 - 200
135
Appendix III.
Gb - Gleisol molic ml~[tinos, (alcalizat) / Marshy - Calcaro - Calcic - Mollic Gleysol / Typic Haplaquolls
Profile no. 65 Location : Stipoc levee Relief : flat horizontal, 0.6 m above MBSL Parent material : loess Vegetation: sedges Drainage: poor - groundwater table: 0.9 m; inundation possible Profile description Ahr Cr Ckg1 Ckg2 0 - 30 cm; 30 - 70 cm; 70 - 130 cm; 130 - 150 cm; Very dark grey (5 Y 3/1) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) fine mottles; loam; medium, weak, subangular blocky structure; friable; many grass roots; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1), with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; loam; structureless (massive); sticky; half ripened; few grass roots; clear boundary; Olive (5 Y 5/3) with grey (5 Y 5/1) and yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; loam; structureless (massive); sticky; abundant, hard, small lime concretions; clear boundary; Olive grey (5 Y 4/2); loam; structureless (massive); sticky; many hard and soft lime concretions.
Table 15. Analytical data of Marshy - Calcaro - Calcic - Mollic Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 44.3 46.2 46.3 50.9 0.02 0.002 mm 29.2 27.3 30.3 28.4 < 0.002 mm 26.0 26.4 23.3 20.6 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 5.3 0.9 0.8 0.8 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.30 8.70 8.80 8.70 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.11
Ahr Cr Ckg1 Ckg2
0 - 30 42 - 70 70 - 130 130 - 150
0.267 0.068 -
9.6 12.2 21.0 20.8
136
Appendix III.
Profile no. 140
Gk - Gleisol aluvial carbonatic / Gleyi - Eutric Fluvisol / Endoaquic Xerofluvent

friable; many grass and few woody roots; clear boundary; Cg1 15 - 40 cm; Olive (5 Y 5/3) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) and grey (5 Y 5/1) mottles; clay loam; fine layered (rock structure); slightly hard; many grass roots; clear boundary; Cg2 Cr1 40 - 105 cm; 105 - 120 cm; 120 - 200 cm; Olive grey (5 Y 5/2) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) and grey (5 Y 5/1) mottles; loam; fine layered (rock structure); friable; few roots clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1) with few dark brown (7.5 YR 4/4) mottles; loam; fine layered (rock structure) sticky; half ripened; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 G 4/1); clay loam; fine layered (rock structure); sticky; half ripened.
Location : Uzlina area Relief : riverine levee; 0.6 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine deposits Vegetation: willow forest Drainage: poor - imperfect, groundwater table: 100 cm depth
Profile description A 0 -15 cm; Dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2); clay loam; weak medium granular structure;
Cr2
Table 16. Analytical data of Gleyi - Eutric - Fluvisol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 37.0 35.4 43.3 37.3 32.7 31.5 27.8 23.2 23.4 0.02 0.002 mm 28.4 30.5 28.4 33.4 37.6 38.5 35.4 37.9 39.3 < 0.002 mm 34.6 33.9 28.3 29.3 29.7 30.0 36.8 38.9 37.3 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 4.7 3.3 2.0 1.6 1.6 1.3 2.2 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.12 8.12 8.24 8.28 8.32 8.30 8.18 8.20 8.18 T meq. 100 g soil 35.3 24.7 20.2 24.7 VNa % 3.3 5.1 4.6 3.0 Soluble salts (water.extr 1: 5) % 0.14 0.20 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.15 0.14 0.13
A Cg1 Cg2
0 - 15 15 - 40 40 - 60 60 - 80 85 - 105
0.272 0.206 0.103 -
11.6 10.9 10.6 -
11.9 11.6 11.4 9.6 8.5 8.5 9.4 12.8 10.6
Cr1 Cr2
105 - 120 140 - 160 160 - 180 180 - 200
137
Appendix III.
Profile no. 76
Gm - Gleisol Aluvial molic, carbonatic / Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol / Aeric Fluvaquentic Humaquept
Location : {ontea area Relief : secondary riverine levee; flat, horizontal, 0.8 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine marshy - deposits Land use: grassland Drainage: poor; groundwater table: 0.70 m depth, inundation possible, rarely submerged
Profile description Ah1 Ah2 ACg Cr 0 - 15 cm; 15 - 47 cm; 47 - 67 cm; 67 - 140 cm; Very dark grey (5 Y 3/1) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) fine mottles; loamy clay; weak, medium, subangular blocky structure; sticky; many grass roots; clear boundary; Black (5 Y 2.5/1) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) fine mottles; clay loam; weak, subangular blocky structure ; sticky; many grass roots; clear boundary; Olive grey (5 Y 4/2) with yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) and dark grey (5 Y 4/1) mottles; clay loam; massive; sticky; half ripened; few grass roots; diffuse boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) with few dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4) mottles; loam; fine layered (rock structure) sticky; half ripened; few roots; diffuse boundary.
Table 17. Analytical data of Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.1 0.4 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 - 0.02 mm 15.5 19.9 30.0 51.2 55.5 0.02 0.002 mm 30.3 37.7 31.5 27.1 23.7 < 0.002 mm 54.1 42.0 38.4 21.5 20.6 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 6.8 11.2 5.5 1.3 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 7.80 7.10 7.40 7.85 8.00 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.10 0.38 0.56 0.34 0.23
Ah1 Ah2 ACg Cr
0 - 15 15 - 47 47 - 67 67 - 115 115 - 140
0.350 0.550 -
13.2 13.8 -
2.4 3.7 10.6 6.6 -
138
Appendix III.
Profile no. 138
Ga - Gleisol aluvial ml~[tinos, carbonatic / Marshy - Fluvi - Eutric Gleysol / Typic Fluvaquent
Location : {ontea - Fortuna area Relief : secondary, low lying riverine levee; 0.6 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine deposits Vegetation: Agrostis alba association Drainage: poor, groundwater table < 0.5 m depth; for short periods submerged
Profile description Ar ACr Cr 0 - 25 cm; 10 - 56 cm; 56 - 95 cm; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1) with brown (7.5 YR 5/2) fine mottles; clay loam; weak, medium, subangular blocky structure; sticky; many grass roots; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) with yellow brown (10 YR 5/6) fine mottles; fine layered (rock structure); sticky; half ripened; many grass roots; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 6/1 - 5 Y 5/1); clay loam; fine layered (rock structure); sticky; half ripened; few grass roots.
Table 18. Analytical data of Marshy - Fluvi - Eutric - Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 24.5 26.7 21.0 29.4 0.02 0.002 mm 35.4 34.7 37.5 53.3 < 0.002 mm 40.0 38.5 41.4 35.2 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 4.1 3.1 3.0 N % 0.223 0.173 12.4 11.9 CN CaCO3 % 8.9 7.1 10.8 6.7 pH (H2O 1:2.5) 7.80 8.10 8.20 8.30 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.21 0.16 0.13 0.12
Ar ACr Cr
0 - 25 45 - 60 100 - 120 135 - 150
139
Appendix III.
Gp - Gleisol aluvial molic turbificat, ml~[tinos / Marshy - Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol / Fluvaquentic Histic Humaquept
ACr 38 - 65 cm; Dark grey (5 Y 5/1); yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) fine mottles; weak medium subangular blocky structure; sticky; half ripened; few living rhizomes; diffuse boundary; 2Cr1 65 - 88 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) very few yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) fine mottles; loamy sand; fine layered (rock structure); slightly sticky; very few living rhizomes; clear boundary; 3Cr2 88 - 107 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 6/1); loam; fine layered (rock structure); sticky half ripened; clear boundary; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2); sapric - hemic organic material; soft; many living rhizomes; clear boundary; Very dark grey (5 Y 3/1), yellowish brown (10 YR 5/4) fine mottles; clay loam; weak, medium subangular blocky structure; very sticky; many living rhizomes; clear boundary; 4Cr3 107 - 130 cm; 5Cr4 130 - 175 cm; Greenish grey (5 G 6/1); fine sand; fine layered (rock structure); very friable; non sticky; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 G 5/1); loamy sand; fine layered (rock structure); moderate sticky; unripened.
Profile no. 16 Location : {ontea area Relief : flat; horizontal; 0.6 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine - marshy deposits Vegetation: reed marsh Drainage: poor ; groundwater table < 0.5 m depth; for short periods submerged Profile description H Ah 0 - 15 cm; 15 - 38 cm;
Table 19. Analytical data of Marshy - Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 40.5 25.0 74.3 46.8 90.3 65.3 68.5 0.02 0.002 mm 16.0 34.2 14.0 31.8 5.3 19.3 17.7 < 0.002 mm 43.2 40.7 11.6 21.3 4.3 15.3 13.7 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 35.1 14.1 4.2 0.6 0.9 1.0 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 5.45 6.12 7.45 7.83 8.05 8.21 8.30 8.25 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.28 0.34 0.27 0.09 0.08 0.06 0.05 0.07 CaSO4 2H2O 0.35 0.54 0.36 0.23 0.18 0.07 0.08 -
H1 Ah ACr 2Cr1 3Cr2 4Cr3 5Cr4
0 - 15 20 - 35 45 - 60 70 - 85 92 - 105 110 - 125 135 - 150 160 - 175
1.483 0.725 0.195 -
16.0 13.1 14.5 -
0.0 3.4 4.2 9.5 13.4 12.6 14.1 14.7
140
Appendix III.
Profile no. 36
Gs - Gleisol aluvial semisubmers, moderat decarbonatat / Semisubmerged - Fluvi - Eutric Gleysol / Typic Hydraquent
rhizomes; clear boundary; Ar2 Cr1 Cr2 Cr3 19 - 47 cm; 47 - 75 cm; 75 - 90 cm; 90 - 160 cm; 160 - 190 cm; Very dark grey ( 5 Y 3/1); silty clay loam; sticky; unripened; many living rhizomes, clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); loam; moderate sticky; unripened; few living rhizomes; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 G 5/1); sandy loam; slightly sticky; half ripened; few living rhizomes; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); loam; moderate sticky; half ripened; clear boundary; 2Cr4 Greenish grey (5 G 5/1); loamy sand; slightly sticky.
Location : {ontea area Relief : flat, horizontal, 0.2 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine marshy - deposits Vegetation: reed mace Drainage: very poor ; groundwater table < 0.2 m; periodically submerged
Profile description Ar1 0 - 19 cm; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1); clay; very sticky; unripened; dense network of living
Table 20. Analytical data of Semisubmerged - Fluvi - Eutric - Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 - 0.02 mm 6.3 24.4 46.9 68.4 45.1 83.3 0.02 0.002 mm 25.3 39.8 25.2 15.3 29.4 8.3 < 0.002 mm 68.2 35.6 27.8 16.2 25.4 8.2 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 12.9 6.3 1.9 1.1 1.4 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 6.80 7.20 7.90 8.10 8.10 7.90 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.11 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.10 0.14
Ar1 2Ar2 2Cr1 2Cr2 2Cr3 3Cr4
0 - 19 19 - 47 47 - 75 75 - 90 90 - 160 160 - 190
0.593 0.318 -
14.7 13.4 -
0.0 0.0 7.1 11.8 12.8 12.8
141
Appendix III.
Profile no. 164
Gw - Gleisol aluvial molic turbificat semisubmers / Semisubmerged - Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol / Hydraquentic Humaquept
Location : North Lake Isac Relief : flat; horizontal; 0.5 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine - marshy deposit Vegetation: reed and reed mace Drainage: very poor ; groundwater table < 0.2 m depth; periodically submerged ( > 3 months / year) Profile description Ahr Cr1 2Cr2 0 - 30 cm; 30 - 60 cm; 60 - 150 cm; Very dark grey (5 Y 3/1); silty loam; sticky; unripened; dense network of living rhizomes; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1); silty clay loam; sticky; unripened; few living rhizomes; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 5/1 - 5 G 5/1); fine layers of loam and fine sand; unripened; moderate sticky; clear boundary; 2Cr3 150 - 200 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY - 5 G 6/1); fine layers of loamy sand and fine sand; slightly sticky; half ripened.
Table 21. Analytical data of Semisubmerged Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 32.9 30.5 71.1 75.7 82.3 0.02 0.002 mm 36.1 31.5 11.2 11.2 7.9 < 0.002 mm 31.0 38.0 17.7 13.1 9.8 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 20.9 5.2 1.0 0.7 0.8 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 6.12 7.50 8.08 8.60 8.74 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.36 0.27 0.23 0.15 0.16
Ahr Cr1 2Cr2 2Cr3
0 - 30 30 - 60 60 - 100 120 - 150 150 - 200
0.882 0.240 0.082 -
16.0 14.6 8.5 -
0.0 0.0 7.4 8.5 7.7
142
Appendix III.
Gw - Gleisol aluvial molic semisubmers / Thapto-histic (cu intercala]ii organice) / Semisubmerged-Fluvi-Mollic Gleysol / Hydraquentic-Thapto-Histic Humaquept
Crh4 Crh5 Crh6 Cr1 Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1); clay loam; half ripened; sticky; many broken shells; dense network of living rhizomes; clear boundary; Cr2 Cr3 H 250 - 320 cm; 320 - 390 cm; 390 - 410 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); loamy clay; half ripened; very sticky; many living rhizomes; broken shells; clear boundary; Olive grey (5Y 5/2); marly loamy clay; muddy; slightly sticky; few living rhizomes; broken shells; clear boundary; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1); marly silty loamy clay mixed with sapric - organic material; half ripened; slightly sticky; few living rhizomes; many broken shells; clear boundary; 150 - 170 cm; 170 - 190 cm; 190 - 230 cm; 230 - 250 cm; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2); loamy clay mineral organic material; slightly sticky; half ripened; few rhizomes; broken shells; clear boundary; Greyish brown (2.5 Y 5/2); loam; mineral organic material; slightly sticky; half ripened; clear boundary; Light grey (5 Y 7/1); marly clay loam, with thin layers of peat (sapric material) non sticky; half ripened; clear boundary; Light grey - light greenish grey (5 Y - 5 GY 7/1); clay loam, with thin organic layers; sticky; half ripened; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); clay loam with thin organic layers; sticky; half ripened; broken shells; clear boundary; Greyish brown (2.5 Y 5/2); clayey lacustrine lime; slightly sticky ; abrupt boundary; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2); sapric organic material.
Profile no. 200 Location : South Lake Gorgova Relief : low-lying riverine levee; 0.5 m above MBSL Parent material : riverine - marshy deposit Vegetation: reed + reed mace Drainage:poor; groundwater table < 0.2 m depth, periodically submerged (>3 months / year) Profile description Ahr1 Crh1 Crh2 Crh3 0 - 20 cm; 20 - 55 cm; 55 - 120 cm; 120 - 150 cm;
Table 21a. Analytical data of Semisubmerged Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 32.4 32.2 26.9 18.7 10.7 44.0 20.1 18.8 18.0 19.7 27.1 27.5 0.02 0.002 mm 27.8 20.9 28.2 36.3 42.9 24.5 36.8 43.2 40.5 34.7 17.1 30.5 < 0.002 mm 39.8 46.9 44.9 44.8 46.0 31.5 43.1 38.0 41.5 45.6 55.8 42.0 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 16.7 20.3 15.7 16.2 19.9 15.3 18.3 3.8 2.0 4.7 9.8 51.3 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 7.60 7.55 7.70 7.60 7.60 7.80 7.50 7.95 8.25 8.00 7.80 6.80 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.48 0.45 0.48 0.32 0.51 0.24 0.41 0.20 0.14 0.12 0.25 1.11
Ahr Crh1 Crh2 Crh3 Crh4 Crh5 Crh6 Cr1 Cr2 Cr3 H
0 - 20 20 - 50 60 - 120 120 - 150 150 - 170 170 - 190 190 - 210 230 - 250 250 - 280 300 - 320 340 - 360 390 - 410
0.843 1.044 0.810 0.756 0.933 0.813 0.521 0.190 -
13.4 13.1 13.1 -
17.9 9.7 17.9 17.1 17.1 2.3 21.5 12.6 13.5 17.3 50.2 6.1
143
Appendix III.
Gh - Gleisol aluvial turbos, semisubmers / Semisubmerged - Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol / Hydraquentic Histic Humaquept
Profile description H Ahr Cr1 Cr2 Cr3 0 - 45 cm; 45 - 60 cm; 60 - 75 cm; 75 - 100 cm; 100 - 155 cm; Very dark brown - black (10 YR 2/1.5) hemic organic material; many living rhizomes; clear boundary; Very dark grey (5 Y 3/1); loam; moderate sticky; unripened; few living rhizomes; clear boundary; Dark grey - dark greenish grey (5 Y - 5 GY 4/1) loam with micaceous fine sand; moderate sticky; half ripened; few living rhizomes; clear boundary; Grey - greenish grey (5 Y - 5 GY 5/1); loam with micaceous fine sand; sticky; unripened; few hard lime concretions; few living rhizomes; clear boundary; Dark grey - dark greenish grey (5 Y - 5 GY 4/1); loam with micaceous fine sand; few hard lime concretions.
Profile no. 287 Location : Matita - Merhei area Relief : flat, horizontal, 0.0 m at MBSL Parent material : riverine marshy deposits Vegetation: reed Drainage: poor ; groundwater table 0.0 m; submerged > 3 months / year
Table 22. Analytical data of Semisubmerged - Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 50.5 39.4 42.8 41.9 53.4 0.02 0.002 mm 26.0 28.3 30.1 32.3 25.4 < 0.002 mm 32.3 32.2 27.0 25.7 21.1 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 53.3 9.1 1.9 1.4 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 5.80 6.22 8.00 8.30 8.50 8.60 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.88 0.18 0.16 0.11 0.10 0.10
H Ahr Cr1 Cr2 Cr3
0 - 45 45 - 60 60 - 75 75 - 100 100 - 115 130 - 150
1.842 0.417 -
19.6 14.8 -
0.0 0.0 2.5 18.4 19.9 15.9
144
Appendix III.
Gh - Gleisol aluvial turbos, semisubmers thapto - histic (cu intercala]ii organice) / Semisubmerged-Fluvi-Mollic Gleysol / Hydraquentic Histic Humaquept
Profile no. 245 Location : Dranov area Relief : flat, horizontal, 0.2 m above MSBL Parent material : riverine marshy - deposits Vegetation: reed mace and sedges Drainage: poor ; groundwater table < 0.2 m; periodically submerged H2 Cr2 110 - 170 cm; 170 - 200 cm; Cr1 40 - 100 cm; H1 0 - 40 cm; Very dark grey (5 Y 4/1) clay loam mixed with rotted and living rhizomes and stems; sticky; unripened, clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) silty clay loam; very sticky; unripened - half ripened; many living rhizomes; clear boundary; Very dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2) organic (sapric) material mixed with loamy clay; moderate sticky; half ripened; few living rhizomes; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); sandy loam; slightly sticky; half ripened.
Profile description
Table 22a. Analytical data of Semisubmerged - Fluvi - Mollic Gleysol

H1 Cr1 H2 Cr2
0 - 40 70 - 100 110 - 170 170 - 200
0.956 0.174 0.958 -
22.6 14.3 21.7 -
0.8 10.3 1.8 12.1
145
Appendix III.
Pk - Psamosol carbonatic (pe nisipuri fine) / Calcaric Arenosol (on fine sands) / Typic Xeropsamment
Profile no. 442 Location : 2 km south of C. A. Rosetti village Relief : marine sandbar (beach ridge); 3 m above MBSL Parent material: fine sand, marine deposits Land use: grassland with Euphorbia sp., Cynodon sp. Drainage: good ; groundwater table 2 m
Profile description A AC C 0 - 20 cm; 20 - 33 cm; 33 - 110 cm; Greyish brown (10 YR 5/2); fine sand structureless (monogranular); loose; many fine grass roots especially in the first 5 cm; clear, undulated boundary; Light brownish grey (10 YR 6/2); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; few grass roots; diffuse boundary; Brown - pale brown (10 YR 5.5/3); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; many broken shells; very few grass roots.
Table 23. Analytical data of Calcaric Arenosol (on fine sands)

A AC C
0 - 15 20 - 33 60 - 70 95 - 105
0.056 -
9.5 -
5.0 8.9 13.5 12.1
146
Appendix III.
Pg - Psamosol gleizat carbonatic (alcalizat) / Gleyi-Calcaric Arenosol (sodic phase) / Endoaquic Xeropsamments (sodic phase)
Profile no. 554 Location : 6 km north of Sf. Gheorghe village Relief : marine levee; 1.0m above MBSL Parent material: marine, fine to medium sand Vegetation: Grassland with Cynodon sp., Puccinellia sp., Artemisia sp. Drainage: imperfect; groundwater table 0.8 m depth
Profile description A C Cg 0 - 9 cm; 9 - 48 cm; 48 - 85 cm; Dark grey brown (10 YR 5/2); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; dense network of grass roots; clear undulated boundary; Light grey brown (10 YR 6/2); fine sand; structureless, (monogranular); very loose; few grass roots; diffuse boundary; Pale brown - brown (10 YR 5.5/3), few grey (5 Y 5/1) and yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; very few fine roots; clear boundary; Cr 85 - 130 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1) few yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose.
Table 24. Analytical data of Gleyi - Calcaric Arenosol (sodic phase)

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 23.5 23.5 27.0 23.2 0.2 - 0.02 mm 72.1 72.5 69.8 74.6 0.02 0.002 mm 1.6 2.5 2.1 1.5 < 0.002 mm 2.8 1.5 1.1 0.7 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 1.02 0.6 0.07 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.30 9.42 8.73 8.97 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.26 0.10 0.09 0.09
A C Cg Cr
0-9 12 - 20 50 - 75 90 - 120
0.050 0.030 -
13.7 14.0 -
8.7 9.6 11.5 13.0
147
Appendix III.
Pm - Psamosol molic gleizat, carbonatic, alcalizat / Gleyi - Mollic Calcaric Arenosol (sodic phase) / Aquollic Xeropsamment (sodic phase)
Profile no. 431 Location : south of Letea village Relief : marine levee; 0.8m above MBSL Parent material: marine fine sand Land use: grassland with Festuca sp., Puccinellia sp. Drainage: imperfect; groundwater table at 0.7 m depth Cg1 55 - 70 cm; AC 27 - 55 cm; Ah 0 - 27 cm; Very dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2); fine sand; weak, fine granular structure; loose; many fine roots; clear boundary; Dark greyish brown (10 YR 4/2); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; frequent fine roots; diffuse boundary; Light olive grey (5 Y 6/2) with light yellowish brown (10 YR 6/4) mottles; fine sand; few shell debris; structureless (monogranular); very loose; moist; few fine roots; diffuse boundary; Cr 70 - 90 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 6/1) with light yellowish brown (10 YR 5/8) mottles; fine sand; few shell debris; structureless (monogranular); very loose; wet.
Profile description
Table 25. Analytical data of Gleyi - Mollic Calcaric Arenosol ( sodic phase)
Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 24.5 24.6 24.8 28.1 21.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 68.0 70.0 70.0 67.3 75.4 0.02 0.002 mm 3.9 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.5 < 0.002 mm 3.6 3.4 3.3 2.7 2.0 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.3 N % CN CaCO3 % pH H 2O (1 : 2.5) 8.95 9.20 9.48 9.11 9.00 T meq. 100 g soil 10.5 9.5 VNa % 7.5 1.0 Soluble salts (water.extr 1: 5 %) 0.13 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.10
A AC Cg1 Cr
0 - 15 15 - 25 30 - 40 60 - 70 70 - 80
0.093 0.063 -
9.1 10.1 -
6.8 6.8 8.3 11.4 13.5
148
Appendix III.
Pb - Psamosol ml~[tinos, carbonatic / Marshy Calcaric Arenosol / Typic Psammaquent

Ar 0 - 30 cm; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1) with fine strong brown (7.5 YR 5/6) mottles; fine sand; few shell debris; massive; (monogranular) very friable; dense network of fine grass roots and rhizomes; clear boundary; ACr 30 - 45 cm; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1) with fine yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; fine sand; structureless (monogranular); few shell debris; loose; few grass roots and rhizomes; diffuse boundary; Cr1 45 - 120 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); loose; diffuse boundary; Greenish grey (5 G 5/1); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); loose.
Profile no. 373 Location : Ro[u - Ivancea area Relief : low marine levee Parent material: marine fine sand Vegetation: marsh with sedge and reed Drainage: poor; groundwater table depth < 0.2 m; periodically submerged
Profile description
Cr2 120 - 180 cm;
Table 26. Analytical data of Marshy Calcaric Arenosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 19.9 16.5 22.4 29.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 74.7 78.4 74.5 68.3 0.02 0.002 mm 2.4 2.1 1.0 0.8 < 0.002 mm 3.0 3.0 2.1 1.9 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 1.7 0.5 0.3 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.10 8.20 8.50 8.60 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.12 0.16 0.19 0.19
Ar ACr Cr1 Cr2
0 - 30 30 - 45 45 - 120 120 - 180
0.050 0.015 -
22.5 21.2 -
5.2 13.8 10.3 13.4
149
Appendix III.
Pp - Psamosol molic (turbificat) - ml~[tinos (alcalizat) carbonatic / Marshy Mollic Arenosol / Typic Humaquept
Profile no. 598 Location : 1,5 km NNE of Letea village Relief : marine levee; depressionary area; 0.8 m above MBSL Parent material: marine coarse sand Vegetation: Forest with Quercus robur, Q. pedunculiflora, Fraxinus Pallisae, F. augustifolia, Crataegus monogyna, Periploca graeca Drainage: poor - groundwater table depth < 0.5 m, periodically flooded
Profile description Ah1 Ah2 C 0 - 30 cm; 30 - 48 cm; 48 - 80 cm; Black - very dark grey (5 Y 2.5/1); coarse sand; structureless (monogranular); loose; many broken shells; many fine roots; diffuse undulated boundary; Very dark grey (5 Y 3/1); coarse sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; many broken shells; many fine rots; clear boundary; Light grey (5 Y 7/2); broken shells with coarse sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; very few roots; water table at 0.5 m depth.
Table 27. Analytical data of Marshy - Mollic Arenosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 88.3 88.1 90.7 0.2 - 0.02 mm 7.6 8.5 6.4 0.02 0.002 mm 1.9 2.1 1.1 < 0.002 mm 2.2 1.3 1.8 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 8.5 6.2 1.1 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.30 8.75 9.20 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.17 0.19 0.14
Ah1 Ah2 C
0 - 30 30 - 48 55 - 75
0.351 0.235 0.046
16.5 17.9 15.9
13.9 21.0 36.6
150
Appendix III.
Ph - Psamosol turbos, semisubmers (pe nisipuri fine carbonatice) / Marshy - Semisubmerged Areni - Mollic Gleysol (on calcareous fine sands) / Histic Humaquept (on calcareous fine sands)
Profile no. 397 Location : 2 km west of Puiu Lake, Relief : marine levee; ca. 0.5 m above MBSL Parent material: fine sandy marine deposits Vegetation: sedges, reed Drainage: poor; groundwater table 0.0 m, flooded every year (submerged >3 months/year) Ah Cg Cr 30 - 52 cm; 52 - 85 cm; 85 - 110 cm; H 0 - 30 cm; Very dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2); half to strong decomposed (hemic sapric) organic material; many living rhizomes and roots; clear boundary; Very dark grey - black (10 YR 2.5/1) fine sand; structureless (monogranular); loose; few broken shells; few living rhizomes and roots; diffuse boundary; Grey - greenish grey (5 Y - 5 GY 5/1); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); loose; few broken shells; very few rhizomes and roots; diffuse boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY - 5 G 5/1); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); loose; many broken shells. Profile description
Table 28. Analytical data of Marshy-Semisubmerged Areni-Mollic Gleysol (on calcareous fine sand)
Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 10.7 15.2 17.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 77.8 75.6 76.3 0.02 0.002 mm 4.1 5.2 3.8 < 0.002 mm 7.4 4.0 2.8 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 54.9 4.1 1.3 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 6.60 8.00 8.60 8.80 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.57 0.20 0.10 0.11
H Ah Cg Cr
0 - 30 30 - 52 52 - 85 85 - 140
1.407 0.157 -
20.5 17.7 -
0.0 6.6 12.5 9.6
151
Appendix III.
Psamosol turbos semisubmers (pe nisipuri grosiere necarbonatice) / Marshy - Semisubmerged Areni - Mollic Gleysol
(on noncalcareous coarse sands) / Histic Humaquept (on noncalcareous coarse sands)
Profile no. 303 Location : 2 km south - west of Letea village Relief : intermarine sandbar depression, at MBSL ( 0.0 m) Parent material: coarse marine sands Vegetation: reed marsh Drainage: poor ; submerged; water is 0.5 m deep
Profile description H Ah Cr 0 - 35 cm; 35 - 60 cm; 60 - 88 cm; Very dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2) half decomposed (hemic) organic material; many living rhizomes and living roots; clear boundary; Black (5 Y 2.5/1); strongly decomposed organic material mixed with coarse sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose; few living roots; clear boundary; Dark grey (5 GY 5/1); coarse sand; structureless (monogranular); very loose.
Table 28a. Analytical data of Marshy-Semisubmerged Areni-Mollic Gleysol (on noncalcareous coarse sand)
Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 45.9 85.2 81.9 88.4 0.2 - 0.02 mm 45.8 12.0 15.9 10.1 0.02 0.002 mm 4.9 1.4 1.4 0.8 < 0.002 mm 3.4 1.4 0.8 0.7 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 52.9 20.0 10.8 1.5 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 5.85 6.00 6.80 6.60 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.78 0.38 0.12 0.07 0.08
H Ah Cr
0 - 35 35 - 45 45 - 60 60 - 70 70 - 88
2.143 0.797 -
18.5 16.9 -
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
152
Appendix III.
Profile no. 492
Nk - Nisip carbonatic, fin, marin / Half shifting, calcareous marine fine sand
Location : 8 km north of Sf. Gheorghe village Relief : dune, ca. 4.0 m above MBSL Parent material : sandy deposits Vegetation: Bushes of Hyppophae Rhamnoides, Tamarix ramossisima Drainage: excessive; groundwater table 4.0 m depth
Profile description C1 C2 0 - 25 cm; 25 - 120 cm; Pale yellow (2.5 Y 7/3); fine sand; monogranular; very loose; few shell debris; Pale yellow (2.5 Y 7/4) fine sand; monogranular; very loose.
Table 29. Analytical data of Half shifting (calcareous) marine fine sand
Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 25.8 28.5 29.7 32.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 72.3 69.7 68.7 66.3 0.02 0.002 mm 0.9 0.7 0.8 0.9 < 0.002 mm 1.0 1.1 0.8 0.7 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 0.1 0.08 0.06 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.79x) 9.03 x) 9.00 x) 9.15 x) Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.05
C1 C2
0 - 25 25 - 60 60 - 80 80 - 100
0.010 0.009 -
6.9 11.9 -
8.8 14.9 14.1 12.8
x) High pH values seem to be owed to analysis method: too high dilution, so a hydrolysis phenomenon may occur.
153
Appendix III.
Nk - Nisip carbonatic, grosier, marin / Half shifting calcareous coarse marine sand
Profile no. 439 Location : 3 km north of Letea village Relief : Dune land ; 8 m above MBSL Vegetation: bare land, locally sparse cover of Elymus sp., Kochia sp. Drainage: excessive; groundwater table 4 m depth
Profile description C1 C2 0 - 6 cm; 6 - 120 cm; Yellow (2.5 Y 7/6); coarse sand; monogranular; very loose; Pale yellow (2.5 Y 7/4) coarse sand; monogranular; very loose.
Table 29a. Analytical data of Half shifting, calcareous, coarse marine sand
Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 85.7 86.1 82.4 0.2 - 0.02 mm 13.0 12.9 16.5 0.02 0.002 mm 0.5 0.6 0.7 < 0.002 mm 0.8 0.4 0.4 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 0.3 0.1 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.70x) 8.60
x)
Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.06 0.06 0.06
C1 C2
0-6 30 - 40 70 - 80
0.036 -
5.7 -
4.8 5.4 4.4
9.00 x)
x) See the foot - note - profile no. 492, Appendix II xx
154
Appendix III.
Profile no. 525
Nz - Nisip cochilifer, marin / Shifting marine shelly sand
Location : Peri[or area Relief : dune land; 2 m above MBSL Parent material : sandy deposits Vegetation: sparse cover of Artemisia sp. Drainage: good; groundwater table 1.5 m depth
Profile description C1 C2 0 - 50 cm; 50 - 80 cm; Pale yellow (5 Y 8/4); shell debris mixed with fine sand; monogranular; very loose; Pale yellow (5 Y 7/3) shell debris mixed with fine sand, monogranular; very loose.
Table 30. Analytical data of Shifting marine shelly sand

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 18.3 15.7 0.2 - 0.02 mm 75.4 81.0 0.02 0.002 mm 2.8 1.5 < 0.002 mm 3.5 1.8 CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.20 9.00 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5) % 0.07 0.09
C1 C2
0-8 70 - 80
45.4 44.4
155
Appendix III.
Sg1 - Solonceac gleic (pe depozite nisipoase fine de origine marina) / Areni-Gleyic Solonchak / Typic Aquisalid (on marine, fine sandy deposits)
Profile no. 445 I Location : 4.5 km southeast of Letea Village Relief : sandbar (beachridge), 0.5 m above MBSL Parent material : calcareous marine fine sand Land use : grassland with halophyllous vegetation (Salicornia sp., Suaeda sp., Puccinellia sp.) Drainage : imperfect, groundwater table at 0.8 m depth
Az1 Az2 Cgz
0 - 10 cm; 10 - 25 cm; 25 - 50 cm;
Dark grey (5 Y 4/1); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); soft; fine grass roots; few shell debris; gradual boundary; Olive grey (5 Y 5/2); fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very soft; few shell debris; diffuse boundary; Olive (5 Y 5/3); yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) and grey (5 Y 5/1) fine mottels; fine sand; structureless (monogranular); very soft; many shell debris; very few grass roots; diffuse boundary;
Crz Profile description
50 - 80 cm;
Grey-greeenish grey (5 GY 5/1 - 5 Y 5/1) light olive brown (2.5 Y 5/6) fine mottles; fine sand; very soft; many shell debris; very wet.
Table 31. Analytical data of Areni - Gleyic Solonchak

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 6.2 3.5 3.4 2.9 0.2 - 0.02 mm 88.9 90.6 92.0 93.4 0.02 0.002 mm 1.3 3.4 2.3 1.8 < 0.002 mm 3.6 2.5 2.3 1.9 Org.mat. (c x1.72) % 1.0 1.0 0.3 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.10 8.45 8.80 8.90 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5 %) 2.92 1.85 1.57 1.21
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO426.6 9.2 8.0 19.3
Na2+ + Mg2+ 5.6 6.5 4.6 5.1
Az1 Az2 Cgz Crz
0 - 10 15 - 30 35 - 50 60 - 78
0.078 0.061 -
8.9 11.1 -
3.5 5..5 13.8 13.8
156
Appendix III.
Sg2 - Solonceac turbos - sulfatic acid / Histic - Gleyic Solonchak (Aeric - Histic Solonchak) / Sulfaqueptic Aquisalid
Hz2 Ahz1 15 - 30 cm; 30 - 50 cm; Black (10 YR 2/1) strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material; very loose; few grass roots; clear boundary; Dark grey - very dark grey (10 YR 3.5/1) ; loam and strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material; structureless (massive); moderately sticky; unripened; Ahz2 50 - 100 cm; Black (10 YR 2/1); loam and half-decomposed (hemic) organic material; fine layered (rock structure); moderate sticky; unripened; strong smell of rotten eggs; abrupt boundary;
Profile no. 54 Holbina II Location : Holbina area Relief : flat, horizontal, -0.2 m below MBSL Parent material : riverine - lagoonary loamy deposits Land use : abondoned fish pond; halophyllous plant associations (Salicornia sp., Suaeda sp.) Drainage : poor, strongly saline (23.1 g/l), groundwater at 0.5 m depth
Profile description Hz1 0 - 15 cm; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2) half-decomposed (hemic) organic material; very loose; fine grass roots and some rhyzomes; clear boundary;
2Crz1 2Crz2
100 - 125 cm; 125 - 150 cm;
Dark grey - very dark grey ( 5 Y 3.5/1); sandy loam; fine layered (rock structure); slightly sticky; unripened; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY - 5 G 4/1) sandy and loamy fine layers; slightly micaceous; few shell debris.
Table 31a. Analytical data of Histic - Gleyic Solonchak

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 9.0 12.3 38.0 35.9 73.3 82.0 0.02 0.002 mm 43.9 48.6 29.5 31.5 10.7 8.6 < 0.002 mm 47.0 39.0 32.4 32.1 15.9 9.3 Org.mat. (c x1.72) % 35.8 42.0 18.5 13.4 11.5 3.0 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 7.60 6.20 6.28 4.20 5.60 7.52 8.22 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5 %) 20.87 16.39 9.85 12.22 7.91 1.82 0.81
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO421.36 2.52 1.75 1.44 1.40 3.96 2.09
Na2+ + Mg2+ 1.58 2.25 1.84 1.81 1.61 1.53 1.62
Hz1 Hz2 Ahz1 Ahz2 2Crz1 2Crz2
0 -15 15 - 30 35 - 50 55 - 70 70 - 90 100 - 125 125 - 150
1.100 1.700 0.650 0.310 0.350 -
17.2 16.7 19.3 -
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.1 8.2
157
Appendix III.
Sm1 - Solonceac molic - gleic / Gleyi - Mollic Solonchak / Typic Aquisalid

debris; slightly moist; gradual boundary; AC 37 - 69 cm ; Dark greyish brown, (10 YR 4/2.5) ; clay loam; moderate, medium, granular structure; friable; porous; vesicles; whitish salt spots; slightly moist; gradual boundary; 2Ckgz 69 - 92 cm; Ckg 92 - 120 cm; Very dark grey (10 YR 3/1); silty loam; weak, fine platy -granular structure; friable; porous; few roots; few shell debris; gradual boundary; Light yellowish brown (2.5Y6/4) mottles of dark greyish brown (2.5 Y 4/2); loam; massive; fine porous; friable; thin lime veins; wet; gradual boundary; 3Cg1 120 - 175 cm; Colours as above; clay loam; few lime veins; Light yellowish brown - olive yellow (2.5 Y 6/4 - 6); loam; massive; slightly; porous; sticky; wet. Very dark grey (10 YR 3/1); silty clay loam; weak, fine platy-granular structure; friable; porous; few roots; few shell debris; gradual boundary Black - very dark grey (10 YR 2.5/1); clay loam; weak - moderate, medium granular structure; porous; friable; moist thin salt veins; shell Cg2 175 - 200 cm;
Profile no. 30 (Piciu & Trandafir, unpublished data) Location : 2 km south-east of Chilia Village Relief : Loessic plain, depressionary area (saucer) - 2 m above MBSL Parent material : loamy, eolian loess Land use : grassland with wet, hallophyllous associations (Salicornia sp.,Typha sp., Juncus sp., Cynodon sp.) Drainage : imperfect; mineralized (18.8 g / l) groundwater at 1.6 m depth Profile description Ahz1 Ahz2 0 - 14 cm ; 14 - 37 cm ;
Table 32. Analytical data of Gleyi - Mollic Solonchak

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.5 1.7 1.8 0.2 - 0.02 mm 32.8 35.7 36.2 42.0 44.3 38.8 40.2 0.02 0.002 mm 34.4 30.4 27.3 28.7 29.5 27.4 27.2 < 0.002 mm 32.8 33.9 36.5 28.9 25.7 32.1 30.8 BD g/cm3 T.P. % Org.mat. (c x1.72) % 5.5 1.8 N % CN P ppm CaCO % 0.338 11.0 0.091 13.5 120 144 4.4 3.8 2.9 11.2 14.7 6.3 6.9
3
pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 7.90 8.30 8.35 8.30 8.50 8.50 8.50
T meq. 100 g soil 23.6 17.7 15.8 14.7 19.6
VNa %
Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5 %) 1.5 0.9 0.6 1.4 0.6 0.6 0.5
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO421.4 0.6 0.5 0.2 1.5 11 1.8
Na2+ + Mg2+ 0.9 0.8 1.0 0.3 1.2 1.5 1.9
Ahz1 Ahz2 AC 2Ckgz Ckg 2Cg1 Cg2
0 -14 15 - 30 45 - 60 70 - 90 95 - 110 155 - 175 175 - 200
1.15 1.43 1.42 1.48 -
56.9 46.6 47.2 44.9 -
3.8 8.1 11.6 14.8 13.1
158
Appendix III.
Sm2 - Solonet gleic / Gleyic Solonetz / Typic Natraquoll
Profile no. 4 / 5555 (Conea et al., 1964 ) Location : 2 km ESE of Chilia village Relief : Loessic plain, ~ 3 m above MBSL Parent material : loamy, eolian loess Land use: grassland Drainage: imperfect, groundwater table depth: 0.93 m Btn2 Cgn Cgkn 9 - 31 cm; 31 - 48 cm; 48 - 93 cm; Btn1 2 - 9 cm; E 0 - 2 cm; Light brownish grey (10 YR 6/2); silty loam; moderate, fine, platy structure; friable; many fine roots; abrupt boundary; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2); silty loam; strong, medium columnar structure; very hard; vertical cracks; very few fine roots; clear boundary; Brown (10 YR 4/3); clay loam; moderate, medium angular blocky structure; hard; fine cracks; clear boundary; Light olive brown (2.5 Y 5/4) with brown (10 YR 4/3) and greyish mottles; loam; massive; slightly porous; friable; moist; gradual boundary; Pale yellow (5 Y 8/4), loam; massive; slightly porous; very friable, wet.
Profile description
Table 32a. Analytical data of Gleyic Solonetz

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 44.6 44.5 36.6 41.5 0.02 0.002 mm 32.5 32.5 26.7 29.5 < 0.002 mm 22.8 22.9 36.7 29.0 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 3.3 2.4 1.9 1.2 0.6 CaCO3 % 0.0 0.0 0.1 5.9 20.6 pH H2O 1 : 2.5 8.4 8.5 8.2 8.4 8.7 T me 100 g soil 17.9 17.0 25.6 15.4 VNa % 12.4 19.9 23.0 14.8 Soluble salts (water.extr.1 :5 ) % 0.22 0.19 0.48 0.60 0.51
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO423.1 2.9 2.4 3.5 3.0
Na2++Mg2+ 5.1 8.9 13.1 7.7 6.3
E Btn1 Btn2 Cgn Cgkn
0-2 2-9 15 - 30 35 - 48 60 - 80
159
Appendix III.
Kv - Sol b~lan vermic - freatic umed / Vermi-Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozem / Vermic Calcixeroll

weak fine and medium granular structure; vesicles; slightly hard; few pseudomicelia; few roots; krotovinas; diffuse boundary; Ck1 52 - 74 cm; Brown (10 YR 4/3) greyish; massive; porous, many wormcasts and krotovinas; friable; slightly hard; porous; few thin lime veins; moist; diffuse boundary; Ckn2 74 - 103 cm; Dark yellowish brown (2.5 Y 6.5/4) with greyish spots (2.5 Y 5/2); loam; massive; porous slightly hard; few soft lime concretions and fine lime veins; moist; diffuse boundary;
Profile no. 1 / 5555 (Conea et al., 1964) Location : 1 km southward of Chilia village Relief : Loessic plain, ~ 4.5 m above MBSL Parent material : loamy, eolian loess Land use: arable land Drainage: good - moderate; groundwater table depth: 1.7 - 2.0 m
Profile description Ap A 0 - 20 cm; 19 - 35 cm; Dark brown - very dark brown, loam, (10 YR 3.5/3.5), structureless, vesicles; very fine roots, strong effeverscence; abrupt boundary; Dark - brown (10 YR 3/3); loam, almost entirely wormcasts, but moderate, fine and medium granular structure; vesicles; friable; slightly hard; common roots; few pseudomicelia; krotovinas; gradual boundary; AC 35 - 52 cm; Brown to dark brown (10 YR 3 - 4/3) loam; almost entirely wormcasts but
Ckn3 Cgn1
103 - 129 cm; 129 - 175 cm;
Pale olive (5 Y 6/3)); loam; massive; porous; friable; few soft lime concretions; moist; Pale olive (5 Y 6/3-4) with greyish spots (5 Y 5/2), massive, porous friable; few thin lime veins; moist.
Table 33. Analytical data of Vermi - Calcaro - Calcic Kastanozem

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 40.6 40.8 39.7 40.2 45.2 44.9 0.02 0.002 mm 29.1 29.0 30.4 30.3 28.4 26.6 < 0.002 mm 30.3 30.2 29.9 29.5 26.4 28.5 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 3.1 2.3 1.4 0.9 0.5 0.3 N % CN CaCO3 % 0.192 0.140 0.085 10.9 11.1 11.0 3.7 9.1 13.6 15.1 19.1 18.5 14.5 12.5 pH (H2O 1 : 2.5) 8.2 8.1 8.3 8.9 9.4 9.6 9.5 9.3 T meq. 100 g soil 24.0 20.5 20.0 16.3 14.1 15.2 VNa % 2.4 4.0 4.9 22.2 36.2 41.1 Soluble salts (water.extr 1:5 ) % 0.05 0.07 0.17 0.21 0.32 0.27 0.30
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO421.2 2.8 0.9 1.4 0.7 0.5 0.8
Na2+ + Mg2+ 0.4 0.9 3.6 7.3 13.0 18.4 49.7
Ap Ah AC C1 Ckn2 Ckn3 Cgn1
0 - 15 20 - 30 35 - 50 55 - 70 80 - 150 110 - 125 130 - 150 155 - 175
160
Appendix III.
Kg - Sol b~lan gleizat / Calcaro - Calcic Kastanozem - phreatic - sodic phase / Endooxyaquic Calcixerolls
gradual boundary; A AC Ckg Cg 12 - 31 cm; 31 - 51 cm; 51 - 80 cm; 80 - 130 cm; Dark brown (10 YR 3/3); loam; weak granular - subangular blocky structure; many warmcasts; friable; porous; frequent grass roots; gradual boundary; Brown - dark brown (10 YR 4.5/4); loam; weak - subangular blocky structure; slightly hard porous; few wormcasts; few grass roots; diffuse boundary. Light yellowish brown (2.5 Y6/4); loam; massive; slightly hard; porous; fine veins and few lime concretions; diffuse boundary; Pale olive (5 Y 6/4) with grey (5 Y 5/1) and yellowish brown (10 YR 5/6) mottles; loam; massive slightly porous; fine lime veins. Dark brown - dark greyish brown (10 YR 3.5/2); loam; moderate fine granular structure; friable; porous; many wormcasts; many grass roots;
Profile no. 33 (Source: Piciu & Trandafir, unpublished data) Location : 3 km south of Chilia village Relief : Chilia field, flat, 3.0 m above MBSL Parent material: loess Land use: grassland with Festuca sp., Artemisia maritima, Cynodon, Dactylon, Trifolium sp. Drainage: imperfect; groundwater table: 2 m depth
Profile description Ah1 0 - 12 cm;
Table 34. Analytical data of Calcaro-Calcic Kastanozem (phreatic / sodic phase) / Endooxyaquic Calcixerolls
Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.2 - 0.02 mm 35.8 39.3 41.0 50.0 45.0 0.02 0.002 mm 32.5 30.1 30.9 26.1 27.2 < 0.002 mm 31.7 30.6 28.1 23.8 27.7 1.56 1.31 42 51 1.46 46 BD g / cm3 Tp % Org.mat (c x 1.72) % 3.5 1.8 1.0 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O) (1 : 2.5) 8.50 8.90 9.55 9.40 9.00 VNa % 1.8 6.5 12.3 13.5 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5 %) 0.11 0.10 0.17 0.21 0.30
Ah A ACk Ckgn Cg
0 - 12 12 - 27 35 - 50 55 - 70 110 -130
0.203 0.124 0.07 -
11.5 9.9 9.6 -
3.2 7.6 16.8 15.8 11.6
161
Appendix III.
Cg - Cernoziom carbonatic gleizat (salinizat) / Gleyi-Calcaro-Calcic Chernozem - saline phase / Aquic Haploxeroll
saline phase
Profile no. 22 (Piciu & Trandafir, unpublished) Location : 4 km southeast of Chilia village Relief : Loessic plain, ~ 3 m above MBSL Parent material : loamy, eolian loess Land use: pasture Drainage : imperfect, groundwater table depth 1.5 - 2.0 m Ckg1 Profile description Ah1 0 - 10 cm; Dark greyish brown (10 YR 3.5/2); loam; weak, fine granular structure; many roots; clear boundary; 2Ckg2 61 - 82 cm; 82 - 130 cm; C 47 - 61 cm; AC 31 - 47 cm; Ah2 10 - 31 cm; Very dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2); loam; moderate, medium granular structure; porous, friable; many roots; clear boundary; Dark brown (10 YR 3/3); loam; weak, subangular blocky structure; friable; slightly porous few roots; gradual boundary; Yellowish brown - brown (10 YR 5/3.5); loam; weak subangular blocky structure; porous friable; thin lime veins; gradual boundary; Olive (5 Y 5/3) with olive grey (5 Y 4.5/1) mottles; porous; slightly hard; few hard lime concretions; moist; gradual boundary; Olive (5 Y 5/4) with olive grey (5 Y 5/1) mottles; loam; massive; porous; very few hard lime concretions; wet.
Table 35. Analytical data of Gleyi - Calcaro Calcic Chernozem - saline phase
Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) C.Sand 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 F, Sand 0.2 - 0.02 mm 46.2 39.7 38.2 43.4 43.7 46.0 Silt 0.02 0.002 mm 29.2 30.4 31.3 30.1 30.2 31.2 Clay < 0.002 mm 24.6 29.9 30.5 26.5 26.1 22.8 BD g/cm3 T.P. % Org.mat (c x1.72) % 3.6 2.7 2.1 N % CN CaCO3 % pH T me 100 H 2O g 1 : 2.5 soil 8.1 7.8 8.0 8.2 8.3 8.4 21.2 23.4 22.0 15.5 13.6 Vna % 2.2 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.0 Soluble salts water.extr. 1: 5 % 0.150 0.475 0.834 0.817 0.658 0.560
_______
Cl-
_____________
Na+
SO422.6 2.9 6.3 8.5 4.6 3.0
Na2+ + Mg2+ 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.6
Ah1 Ah2 AC C Ckg1 Ckg2
0 -10 15 - 30 32 - 46 48 - 60 65 - 80 110 - 130
1.20 1.15 1.46 1.46
55.3 57.0 45.7 45.6
0.29 0.21 0.12 -
8.4 8.8 11.6 -
1.1 0.0 0.4 10.9 15.8 18.3
162
Appendix III.
Hn - Histosol hemic fibric, natant poten]ial sulfatic acid / Thionic Histosol / Hydric Sulfihemist
gradual boundary; H3 50 - 130 cm; Dark yellowish brown (10 YR 4/4); mixture of half decomposed stems; dead roots and leaves; many living roots; full with free water; abrupt boundary; follows 100 cm of free water; H4 H5 130 - 215 cm; 215 - 230 cm; 230 -265 cm; 265 - 390 cm; Dark brown (10 YR 3/3); hemic - sapric organic material with organo mineral layers; loose; slightly sticky; clear boundary; Very dark grey (10 YR 3/1); organo - mineral, sapric material with many friable ferihumic oolithes; friable; slightly sticky, clear boundary; Black; (N1 ) viscous and slightly, sticky strong decomposed organic material; many living roots; abrupt boundary; Yellowish brown - brownish yellow (10 YR 5.5/4); mixture of dead and living roots; half decomposed stems, roots and leaves of reed; full with free water; H6 / Ah Cr Dark brown - very dark brown (10 YR 3/2.5); organic material rich in loamy sand; non sticky, many broken shells; Pale - yellow - pale olive (5 YR 6.5/3) coarse sand, loose; few broken sheels.
Profile no. 180 Location : Uzlina lake area Relief : flat; horizontal, 0.0 m at MBSL Parent material : organic deposits Vegetation : reed marsh Drainage : nul; free water starts from 0.0 m Profile description H1 H2 0 - 10 (15) cm ; 14 (15) - 50 cm ;
Table 36. Analytical data of Thionic Histosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.8 0.9 2.3 31.7 80.4 79.2 0.2 - 0.02 mm 43.8 32.3 17.4 51.3 17.6 19.1 0.02 0.002 mm 15.2 14.7 12.0 5.7 1.2 1.6 < 0.002 mm 40.2 52.1 68.3 11.3 0.8 0.1 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 83.5 83.1 60.0 70.7 73.8 36.3 37.2 1.4 0.5 N % CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 :2.5)x) 6.26 (5.50) 1 5.92 (5.42) 1 6.80 5.90 5.40 6.10 7.10 7.80 8.10 T meq. 100 g soil 108.1 (225.2) 1 111.2 (233.9)1 112.1 116.0 132.8 106.8 80.7 H meq 100 g soil 13.3 (92.2)1 18.1 (93.6)1 5.6 19.7 30.0 10.3 1.6 V % 87.7 83.7 95.0 83.0 77.4 90.3 91.2 Soluble salts (water.extr 1: 5)xx) % 0.30 0.28 0.24 0.53 0.45 0.32 0.33 0.12 0.08 CaSO4 % Soluble Fe+2 (ppm)
H1 H2 + H3 H4
0 -10 10 - 130 130 - 160 160 - 180 180 - 210
1.93 1.89 2.28 2.78 2.68 1.38 -
0.0 0.0 3.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 33.7 11.2 5.8
0.03 0.20 0.36 0.90 1.01 0.60 0.34 0.24
1 0.7 5 5 13 -
H5 H6 / Ah Cr
215 - 230 230 - 265 265 - 280 280 - 290
1) After two months of exposure to the air and periodically remoistening
Organic soil material :
x) 1 : 5 xx) 1 : 10
163
Appendix III.
Ht - Histosol hemic poten]ial sulfatic-acid / Thionic Histosol / Typic Sulfihemist

H2 H3 H4 Ahr 30 - 80 cm; 80 - 130 cm; 130 - 160 cm; 160 - 180 cm; 180 - 210 cm; Dark yellowish brown (10 YR 3.5/6); mixture of rotted stems and roots, many living roots; loose; water saturated; diffuse boundary; Very dark greyish brown (10 YR 3/2); strong decomposed (sapric) organic material; few living roots; water saturated; loose; diffuse boundary; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2); strong decomposed (sapric) organic material; water saturated; loose; abrupt boundary; Very dark grey (5 Y 3/1); loam; half ripened; slightly sticky; diffuse boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 G 4/1); sandy loam; very wet; slightly sticky half ripened. Cr Dark brown (10 YR 3/3); mixture of half rotted stems/roots; many living roots; loose; water saturated; diffuse boundary;
Profile no. 256 Location : Dranov area Relief : flat, horizontal, ~ 0.2 m above MBSL Parent material : organic deposits Vegetation: reed marsh Drainage : very poor; groundwater table < 0.2 m depth Profile description H1 0 - 30 cm;
Table 37. Analytical Data of Thionic Histosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 38.4 61.9 0.02 0.002 mm 37.9 26.0 < 0.002 mm 23.7 12.1 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 50.8 47.7 70.8 57.7 7.2 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5)x) 5.20 5.25 5.30 5.12 7.48 8.30 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5)xx) % 0.27 0.43 0.50 0.58 0.32 0.17 CaSO4 % 0.61 1.05 1.03 1.20 0.41 0.14
H1 H2 H3 H4 Ahr Cr
0 - 30 30 -80 80 - 130 130 - 160 160 - 180 180 -210
1.324 2.004 2.192 1.765 -
25.9 16.0 21.8 22.1 -
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 7.0 7.1
Organic soil material : x) 1 : 5 xx) 1: 10
164
Appendix III.
Hd - Histosol hemic-terric, poten]ial sulfatic-acid / Terric-Thionic Histosol / Terric Sulfihemist

H1 H2 Cr1 Cr2 Cr3 0 - 45 cm; 45 - 70 cm; 70 - 130 cm; 130 - 160 cm; 160 - 180 cm; Very dark brown (10 YR 2/1.5); loamy organo - mineral material; many living roots; unripened; diffuse boundary; Very dark brown - very dark grey brown (10 YR 2.5/2); many undecomposed plant remains mixed with loamy material; very wet; loose, clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1), and dark grey (5Y 4/1); silty clay loam; few roots; unripened; very sticky; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1); silty loam; micaceous; unripened; very sticky; clear boundary; Dark greenish grey (5 GY 4/1); silty loam with sandy layers; some broken shells, unripened.
Profile no. 41: Holbina Location : Holbina II Relief : flat, horizontal; 0.0 m at MBSL Parent material : organic deposits Land use : abandoned artificial fishpond, reed marsh Drainage : artificially drained; groundwater table: < 0.10 cm depth
Profile description
Table 38. Analytical data of Terric - Thionic Histosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.0 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.0 0.2 - 0.02 mm 7.6 11.3 9.7 47.6 55.4 72.8 0.02 0.002 mm 33.5 35.5 40.7 25.1 22.4 13.0 < 0.002 mm 58.9 53.1 49.5 27.2 22.1 13.2 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 31.7 42.3 26.3 3.8 2.1 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5)x) 6.30 6.60 5.40 7.80 8.10 8.25 Soluble salts CaSO4 % (water.extr.1 : 5 %)xx) 0.63 0.52 0.73 0.80 0.53 0.55 0.39 0.20 0.97 0.20 0.04 0.02
H1 H2 Cr1 Cr2 2Cr3
0 - 20 20 - 45 45 - 70 90 - 130 130 - 160 160 - 180
1.231 0.960 0.137 0.115 -
17.4 18.6 18.9 12.6 -
0.0 0.0 0.0 3.5 6.3 7.7
Organic soil material : x) 1 : 5 xx) 1 : 10
165
Appendix III.
Hs - Histosol teric - sapric poten]ial sulfatic acid / Terric - Thionic Histosol / Terric - Sulfisaprist
Profile no. 221 Location : Dranov area Relief : flat; 0.2 m above MBSL Parent material : organic deposits Vegetation: sedges Drainage: very poor; groundwater table 0.0 m depth; periodically submerged H2 30 - 50 cm; H1 0 - 30 cm; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1); strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material mixed with clayey loam; slightly sticky; many living roots and rhizomes; clear boundary; Black (5 Y 2.5/1); strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material; few living roots and rhizomes; clear boundary; H / Cr 50 - 70 cm; Very dark grey (5 Y 3.5/1); strongly decomposed organic material mixed with sandy loam; slightly sticky; unripened; few living roots and rhizomes; clear boundary; Cr 70 - 90 cm; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); loamy sand; structureless (massive); very few roots and rhizomes. Profile description
Table 39. Analytical data of Terric - Thionic Histosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 3.7 0.6 0.2 - 0.02 mm 69.4 89.3 0.02 0.002 mm 9.1 4.4 < 0.002 mm 17.8 5.7 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 34.1 55.7 21.2 1.4 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5)x) 5.15 2.12 7.50 8.20 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5)xx) % 1.21 2.84 0.63 0.26 ClSO42Na+ Ca2+ + Mg2+
H1 H2 H / Cr Cr
0 - 30 30 - 50 60 - 70 70 - 90
1.518 1.324 -
15.2 28.4 -
0.0 0.0 15.1 9.4
0.15 0.24 0.37 0.42
0.23 0.46 0.55 0.58
x) 1 : 5 - organic soil materials xx) 1 : 10 - organic soil materials
166
Appendix III.
Hs - Histosol teric sapric / Terric Histosols / Terric Medisaprist
Profile no. 246 Location : Dranov area Relief : flat, horizontal, 0.2 m above MBSL Parent material : organic deposits Vegetation : reed marsh Drainage : very poor; groundwater table: 0.0 m Ahr Cr 70 - 110 cm ; 110 - 140 cm; H 0 - 70 cm ; Black (10 YR 2/1- 5 Y 2.5/1); strongly decomposed organic (sapric) material, with fine (< 2 cm thick) layers of alluvial, sandy loamy material, dark greygreenish grey; very friable; wet; many living roots; clear boundary; Very dark grey (5 Y 2.5/1); sandy loam; structureless; half ripened; few living roots; clear boundary; Greenish grey (5 GY 5/1); fine sand; fine layered; loose; very wet. Profile description
Table 39a. Analytical data of Terric - Histosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 0.2 - 0.02 mm 74.3 42.0 51.8 55.5 91.6 0.02 0.002 mm 7.0 39.1 17.8 24.8 3.0 < 0.002 mm 18.3 17.9 29.5 18.2 5.2 Org.mat (c x1.72) % 39.5 46.5 47.9 13.9 0.8 N % CN CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 5)x) 7.22 7.44 7.48 7.16 7.80 Soluble salts (water.extr. 1: 5 %)xx) 1.18 1.59 1.89 0.80 0.43
_______
Cl-
____________
Na+
SO420.8 1.9 2.1 1.8 1.8
Na2+ + Mg2+ 0.7 1.1 1.2 1.9 1.4
0 - 20 20 - 40 40 -70
0.4 1.0 0.9 10.5 0.2
1.412 1.840 1.584 -
18.6 17.1 19.9 -
0.7 13.4 8.1 10.0 12.3
Ahr Cr
75 - 110 110 - 140
Organic soil material: x) 1 : 5 xx) 1 : 10
167
Appendix III.
Hj - Histosol hemic sulfatic acid / Thionic Histosol / Typic Sulfohemist

H3 40 - 57 cm; Dark brown - brown (10 YR 3.5/3); half decomposed (hemic) organic material; many fine and large (1 - 3 cm f ) living reed roots; loose; abundant silty mineral material in interstices; moist; diffuse boundary; H + Cr 57 - 82 cm; Grey (5 Y 4/2); clay; with interbedings of half (hemic) decomposed organic material; sticky; half ripened; many rotted fine roots; thin (5 - 7 cm clayey layers; very wet; diffuse boundary; Cr + H 82 - 97 cm; 97 - 107 cm; 107 - 119 cm; Dark grey (5 Y 4/1) with brown (10 YR 4/3) spots; loam with many half decomposed roots and leaves; unripened; abrupt boundary; Cr1 Grey - greenish grey (5 Y 6/1 - 5 GY 6/1) ; fine sand; loose; slightly micaceous; wet; Cr2 Olive grey (5 Y 5/2) with greenish grey (5 GY 6/1) spots; fine sand; fine layered; loose; wet. Very dark brown (10 YR 2/2); strongly decomposed (sapric) organic material; loose; many fine roots; moist; clear boundary; Brown (10YR 4/3); half decomposed (hemic) organic material; many fine roots; very loose; moist; diffuse boundary;
Profile no. 499 Location : - 1.0 km northeast of Lake Dranov Relief : flat, horizontal plain, 0.2 m above MBSL Parent material : organic deposits Land use : abandoned, man-made fish pond Drainage : artificially drained; groundwater table 0.9 m depth Profile description H1 H2 0 - 18 cm; 18 - 40 cm;
Table 40. Analytical data of Thionic Histosol

Particle size, % Horizon Depth (cm) 2 - 0.2 mm 1.2 1.0 4.6 1.8 0.2 - 0.02 mm 22.5 53.5 89.2 88.5 0.02 0.002 mm 14.2 22.6 4.7 5.5 < 0.002 mm 62.1 22.9 1.5 4.2 Org.mat. (c x1.72) % 42.8 40.3 38.4 24.5 20.4 0.2 N % CN P % CaCO3 % pH (H2O 1 : 2.5)x) 5.60 5.20 4.55 3.50 4.30 8.20 8.10 T meq. 100 g soil 139.8 95.5 102.4 11.8 H meq 100g sol 26.6 27.0 44.5 V % Soluble salts (water.extr 1: 5)xx) % 0.46 0.46 0.35 0.62 0.58 0.09 0.08 CaSO4 %
H1 H2 H3 H + Cr Cr + H Cr1 Cr2
0 -15 25 - 40 40 - 55 60 - 75 85 - 95 98 - 106 108 - 118
1.730 1.720 1.680 -
16.7 15.8 15.4 -
0.081 0.058 -
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 10.6 11.6
81.1 71.7 56.5 100.0 100.0
0.83 0.78 0.70 0.78 0.88 0.08 0.10
Organic soil material : x) 1 : 5 xx) 1 : 10
168
Appendix IV. Errata in the printed Soil Map
SOIL MAP instead of - Within the Murighiol loop of St. Gheorghe branch - Mati]a lake - Northern part of Musura Bay - Lake Fastic- (West Lake Gorgora) - {ontea area - South Sarinasuf village - Ostrov Tataru - Chilia Field Hs Lk Ln Ht Lc Sg Hs Sm.1 read Hg Lc Lb Lt Ln Sm Gk Sm.4
LEGEND unit Ph Hn romanian classification instead of carbonatic calcareous potential acid unit Pg read noncarbonatic noncalcareous potential sulfatic acid
FAO classification instead of Psammosols read Arenosols

Soils of The Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

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Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta/ I. Munteanu,; Research Institute for

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Prof. Dr. C. R~ut~ director, RISSA

R. {tiuc, M.Sc. director, DDI

A.W. de Haas, M.Sc. head of Research Division, RIZA

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

I. Munteanu, June 1996

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

History of the Soil Survey in the Danube Delta

quoted from Kovda (1946)

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soil Mapping Unit (SMU) Soils Environmental conditions (1334 SMUs)

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Main geographic units

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Razim-Sinoe lagoon complex

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Serviciul Pescariilor Statului

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

remarks non periodic oscillations of about 2C (colder winter/milder winter)

22.8 C -27.2C (18-1-1963) 39.7 C (2-8-1945)

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

History of Human Settlement

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Land-use In the Delta

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

4.10 Natural geomorphologic processes and changes induced By Man

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Geological setting and Holocene evolution of the Danube Delta

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Soils of the Romanian Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve

Types of Sediment facies in the Danube Delta