Storage of Food in Developing Countries

Storage Of Food In Developing Countries; Engineers Without Borders
1
Summary:
The proposed cold store for agricultural produce in India, uses a novel combination of
a solar chimney and ground source cooling. A theoretical solar chimney model is
developed and predicts 8.5 air room changes per hour for a glazed design in India.
The maximum pressure drop for the design is 0.317 Pascal. An experimental scale
model does not conclusively verify the theoretical model.
The ground source cooling pipe is modelled in ANSYS and predicts 3.2K of cooling
for 25 metres of pipe, when combined with the solar chimney. The solar chimney is
deemed unsatisfactory for creating the necessary pressure drop for effective ground
source cooling. Further studies must be conducted in the field to ascertain ground
source cooling potential.

2
CONTENTS:
Pg
SUMMARY 1
CONTENTS 2
1. INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 Context 4
1.2 Problem Description 4
1.2.1 Existing Cold Storage Room
1.3 Project Overview 5
1.4 Aims and Objectives 6

2. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DESIGN 7
2.1 Simplified Schematic of Existing Design
2.2 Assumptions
2.3 Parameters 8
2.4 Building Heat Transfer Theory:
2.4.1 Thermal Transmission
2.4.2 Solar Load through Walls
2.5 Cooling Load Calculation 9
2.6 Discussion of Existing Design 10

3. REVIEW OF POTENTIAL COOLING METHODS 10
3.1 Mechanical Vapour Compression Refrigeration 11
3.1.1 Grid Electricity
3.1.2 Diesel Generation
3.1.3 Solar Photovoltaic Systems
3.2 Absorption Refrigeration 12
3.3 Natural Cooling Techniques
3.3.1 Evaporative Cooling Swamp Cooler
3.3.2 Roof Ponds
3.3.3 Ground Source Cooling:
3.3.4 Solar Chimneys
3.5 Passive Cooling Techniques 15

4. SELECTION OF COOLING TECHNIQUES & FINAL DESIGN CONCEPT
4.1 Final Design Concept 16

3
5. DERIVATION OF CLIMATIC DATA FOR PABAL 17
5.1 Solar Data derivation & Ambient Air Temperature
5.2 Solar Geometry 18

6. SOLAR CHIMNEYS 20
6.1 Theoretical Volumetric Flow Rate Derivation
6.2 Selection of Parameters 23
6.3 Solar Chimney Volumetric Airflow 24
6.4 Variation of Solar Chimney Height and Diameter 26
6.5 Solar Chimney Pressure Drop and Comparison with Empirical Correlation
6.6 Design Recommendations 27

7. EXPERIMENTAL WORK 27
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Experimental Design 28
7.3 Experimental Procedure 29
7.4 Experimental Results
7.5 Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Results 30
7.5.1 Calculation of Theoretical Average Air Velocity
7.5.2: Calculation of Average Air Velocity Using Experimental Data
7.6 Discussion 31
7.7 Conclusion 33

8. GROUND SOURCE COOLING
8.1 Determining Pipe Depth for Ground Source Cooling 33
8.2 ANSYS Ground Source Cooling Model 34
8.2.1 Aims
8.2.2 Modelling and Assumptions
8.2.3 Parameters
8.3 Results and Discussion 35
8.4 Design Recommendations 36

9. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 37


4

Figure 1.1: Existing Cold Storage Room

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Context

The storage of food in developing countries is vital for sustaining life in remote
agricultural villages located in the Indian and African subcontinent. A very high
ambient air temperature is encountered in these regions; there is often no reliable
electricity connection and the local population earns a minimal disposable income.
Consequently, this project focuses on Short Term Food Preservation as an
alternative means to conventional food refrigeration. Short Term Food Preservation is
a cold storage method, enabling freshly harvested agricultural produce to be kept for
up to a week without significant deterioration, prior to its final consumption or
wholesale.

This project is carried out in partnership with the engineering charity Engineers
without borders UK (1). It is based in the village of Pabal, located in the state of
Maharashtra, India at latitude 18
0
4926 North and longitude 74
0
0392 East (2).
Currently a third of the produce rots before it can be sold in India (3); this leads to
significant food wastage and economic loss. Short Term Food preservation could
therefore benefit many people in a nation, where almost 750 million people live in
rural areas and the majority earn their livelihood as subsistence farmers.

1.2 Problem Description: (refer to (4) for a full project description)

During the dry season agricultural produce becomes less saleable, due to its
deterioration in a climate, where external temperatures approach 40
0
C. A novel Short
Term Preservation method is required in a village that faces 8 hours of power cuts a
day and a scarcity of water. The proposed solution should enable crops to be
preserved at an acceptable quality for a longer period of time; this will allow farmers
to demand higher prices and limit food wastage.

1.2.1 Existing Cold Storage Room

The existing cold store is constructed out of bricks in a rectangular formation
with a 9 wall thickness. This design is advantageous, since there is a cavity
located at the centre of each of the offset rectangular formations. These cavities
are filled with sand. During cold store operation, water is intermittently pumped
to the top of the wall cavity and allowed to run through the sand.


5
The corrugated metal roof is enclosed in a polythene mesh. This reduces the
solar induced thermal flux and therefore its influence on internal room
temperature.

The system appears to dissipate heat by direct evaporative cooling from the
porous brick walls and achieves a temperature gradient of 6-8
0
C. However, this
is not sustainable in the drought prone region of Pabal, where there is a scarcity
of water.

1.3 Project Overview:

Section 2 is an analysis of the existing design. A schematic is proposed along with
relevant parameters and heat transfer theory, enabling a quantitative calculation of
building cooling load. This concludes with an evaluation of the cold store design and
the use of passive cooling methods is recommended.

Section 3 is a review of potential cooling methods for Pabal. Mechanical Vapour
compression systems and heat driven absorption systems are examined, but are
dismissed due to expense. Natural and passive cooling methods are then examined
and deemed more appropriate for Pabal. Section 4 deals with the selection and
explanation of the novel solar chimney and ground source cooling method.

Section 5 is about the derivation of solar and ambient air temperature data for Pabal
from the SoDa database. Solar geometry is then introduced, with aim of computing
solar irradiation occurring on a vertically inclined surface as in a solar chimney.

Section 6 is focussed on the theoretical derivation of volumetric flow rate in a solar
chimney. Suitable parameters are then introduced, for calculation of flow rate
performance throughout the day in simple and glazed solar chimneys. The effect of
varying stack height and diameter is then discussed, along with a calculation of
maximum pressure drop, which shows good agreement with an empirical formula.
Suitable design recommendations are suggested.

Section 7 details the experimental work, which compares predictions of the
theoretical model, to solar chimney scale model data. A full size scale model is
discounted due to climatic considerations. The experimental design, procedure and
results, are followed by a theoretical and experimental calculation of average air
velocity and final comparison. It is not possible to conclusively verify the theoretical
model, due to experimental limitations.

Section 8 focuses on ground source cooling; the determination of ground source pipe
depth is discussed. The parameters and assumptions are introduced for a model in
ANSYS. These results are then discussed, along with variation in pipe length and
recommendations. It is found that the pressure drop provided by the solar tower, is
not sufficient to guarantee effective cooling.


6

Internal
Conditions
To achieve 20-25 degrees Celsius cooling with an internal
temperature of no more than 20
o
C.
To maintain internal relative humidity between 85-95% to suit
multiple crops (leafy vegetables and hardy produce).

Design
Attributes
The cold store is to be 3048 x 3048 x 3048 mm (A community
refrigeration scheme for approximately 5 farmers).
Easy to build and simple maintenance.
Pollution free (Sustainable).
To maximise the usage of local labour, materials and tools.
Energy
Demand
Minimal reliance on mains electricity and water.
Cost

To satisfy a total capital cost of Indian Rs.10000 116. The
running cost for the cold storage unit should be minimal.

Table 1.1: Cold Storage Solution Objectives
1.4 Aims and Objectives:

Aims: To design a cold storage unit for the short-term preservation of agricultural
produce in the village of Pabal, India.
Objectives:

Table 1.1 lists objectives such as cold store internal requirements and costs. A
weighted objectives tree can be used to rank their relative importance in the design in
Figure 1.2. The project aim is split into two further levels, each specifying the
objectives in increasing detail.

The detailed objectives in Level 2 are each assigned an absolute score in the bottom
right hand box. This represents their fraction of importance in the overall design and
will be used to select the final cooling method in section 4.

0.4 0.12
Operating Costs
0.3 0.3
Cost
Figure 1.2: Weighted Objectives Tree
0.6 0.24
Temperature
0.4 0.16
Relative Humidity
0.6 0.18
Construction Cost
0.3 0.3
Design Attributes
0.4 0.4
Internal Conditions
1 1
Cold Storage Concept
0.1 0.03
Local Labour
0.1 0.03
Pollution Free
0.1 0.03
Ease of Construction
Low Electricty/water usage
0.7 0.21
Level 1
Level 2

7

T int

3048mm
229m
229m
2590m
G
horz

Brick
Moist Sand
Corrugated Steel R oof
Figure 2.1: Simplified Cross Sectional Schematic of an Existing Design

Note: All exterior
surfaces immersed
in ambient fluid of
temperature T amb
G
vert

Solar Irradition
Solar Irradition

2. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING DESIGN:

The cooling load for the existing design will be calculated; this is the amount of heat
that must be removed in order to maintain a desired internal temperature. A
schematic of the existing design is proposed, followed by the analysis assumptions
and relevant parameters. Finally the appropriate heat transfer theory is introduced,
along with a cooling load calculation and an evaluation of the existing design.

2.1 Simplified Schematic of Existing Design

The schematic below illustrates a cross-section of the existing design, which features
a simplification of the brick sand cavity and a single layer corrugated steel roof. It is
exposed to respective solar irradiation values of G
horz
and G
vert
.

2.2 Assumptions:

Building heat transfer is modelled as a one-dimensional steady heat flow, with an
internal temperature of T
int
and an ambient temperature of T
amb
. Heat storage is
assumed to be negligible within the brick wall, since its thickness is small.

Parameters occurring at midday will be used to compute the peak cooling load, since
this coincides with maximum solar irradiation. The roof and south facing wall are
exposed to solar irradiation G
horz
and G
vert
respectively, whereas the other walls are
only subject to convective heat transfer from the ambient air.

Heat Transfer by radiation and infiltration are assumed to be negligible. Heat transfer
coefficients are applied assuming wall airspeed is less than 0.1ms
-1
(5). 67


8
2.3 Parameters:

The roof is modelled as single laminar surface. The thermal material parameters in
and heat transfer coefficients are for typical building applications, obtained from
CIBSE Guide A (5). The thermal conductivity of sand varies between 1.5-2.5 Wm
-1
k
-1

depending on its degree of saturation; a median value has been used. Climatic data
is derived from section 5.1.

2.4 Building Heat Transfer Theory:

2.4.1 Thermal Transmission:
The overall thermal transmission
T
Q
into a building with N individual

components (eg: a north facing composite wall and roof) is given by (8):

=
=
=
N i
i
Amb i i T
T T A U Q
1
int
) ( [1]

U
i
can be defined as the overall heat transfer coefficient of the i
th
component (a
function of thermal conductivity k, thickness x and film heat transfer coefficient)
and A
i
the surface area of each component. In our model the overall heat
transfer coefficient for each of the composite walls can be defined as:

sand
sand
brick
brick
wall wall
k
x
k
x
h h U
+ + = 2
1 1 1
int
[2]

The overall heat transfer coefficient U
roof
for the roof can be defined as:

steel
roof
roof roof
k
x
h h U
+ + =
int
1 1 1
[3]

Layer Material Layer
Thickness
x/(m)
Thermal
Conductivity
k/(Wm
-1
k
-1
)
Thermal Absorptivity

Brick 0.102 0.65 (5) 0.49 (5)
Sand (saturated) 0.025 2 (6)
Roof: Mild Steel (0.5%C) 0.025 54 (7) 0.20 (5)

Table 2.1 Material Parameters
Solar Irradiation G
(N/m
2
)
External Heat
Transfer
Coefficient h
ext
(Wm
-2
K
-1
)
G
vert
G
horz

T
amb
/(k) T
int
(K)
h
roof
h
wall

Internal Heat Transfer
Coefficient h
int
(Wm
-2
K
-1
)
389 935
308 300
0.7 (5) 2.5 (5)
2.5 (5)

Table 2.2: Climatic Data and Film Heat Transfer Coefficients
(Climatic data derived later in section)


9

Convection
Reflection
SUN
T
amb

T
int

sol
q

T
wall

Figure 2.2: Solar Load on Wall
2.4.2 Solar Load through Walls

When a wall is exposed to solar
irradiation a proportion of this energy is
immediately lost by reflection. The
absorbed energy is either conducted
through the wall with a heat flux of
sol
q
or lost the surroundings by convection or
radiation. Heat lost by radiation is
neglected. The situation can be reduced
to the following heat resistance diagram
in Figure 6 (5).

2 heat flow equations can be written
from Figure 6 by using equation [1]
and summing them in accordance
with Kirchoffs law. Algebraic
manipulation results in an expression
for overall heat flux through the wall
as quoted in (5):

( )
(
+ =
ext
vert
amb wall sol
h
G
T T U q

int
[4]

The total building-cooling load
C
Q can be calculated by the summing of heat
flow by thermal transmission in [1] and total solar load heat flow
Sol
Q for all
components derived from [4]:

( )
(
+ + = + =

=
=
=
=

ext
i i
amb
N i
i
i i
N i
i
Amb i i Sol T C
h
G
T T A U T T A U Q Q Q
int
1 1
int
) ( [5]

2.5 Cooling Load Calculation:

The surface area and the overall heat transfer coefficient for have been computed
using [2] for the walls and [3] for the roof. This has enabled the calculation of overall
thermal transmission using [1]. Similarly the individual solar loads have been
calculated for i=2 and i=5 and summed. Finally, the total cooling load has been
obtained using [5].

T amb
T int

T wall

Sol
q
ext
h
1
G
vert

i
U
1

G q
sol

Figure 2.3: Thermal Resistance
Diagram
T wall


10

2.6 Discussion of Existing Design

Significance of cooling Load calculation

Under steady conditions the estimated peak cooling load is 2262W; this energy
is supplied for the specific heat and latent heat of vaporisation of water.

This equates to a significant consumption of water by indirect evaporative
cooling (greater if radiative heat transfer and heat infiltration was considered)
and is extremely wasteful in a drought region (9). The existing temperature
gradient is not satisfactory for effective short-term food preservation.

Heat gain by thermal transmission only accounts for 11% of the total cooling
load; the effects of solar load are far more significant, as indicated by Stoecker
and Jones (5). Furthermore, 62% of the heat flow enters through the roof; this is
consistent with studies by Nahar et al (10) who stipulate that almost half the heat
gain enters through the roof.

Design Improvements

This model suggests that solar irradiation accounts for the majority of cooling
load; passive cooling techniques such as the use of external shading and
vegetation could be very beneficial in the future design (see section 3.5).

Methods to reduce heat flow through the roof could involve increased roof
thickness, the introduction of insulation or even roof shading (11). Low cost
insulation within the building walls and roof are currently absent; this would
reduce heat by thermal transmission. Implementing these passive methods in
Pabal will reduce cooling load.

3. REVIEW OF POTENTIAL COOLING METHODS:

Potential cooling methods for cold storage are reviewed and compared with the
project objectives in section 1.4. Mechanically driven vapour compression systems
and their various power sources are evaluated, followed by a review of heat driven
absorption refrigeration. The review then focuses on natural and passive cooling
techniques, which are simple low cost cooling solutions, involving minimal reliance on
mechanical systems.
i Building
component
A
i
(m
2
) U
i
(Wm
-2
k
-1
)
T
Q
(W)
Sol
Q (W)
i=1 North facing wall 7.89 0.89 56.2
i=2 South facing wall A
1
U
1
56.2 590
i=3 West facing wall A
1
U
1
56.2
i=4 East facing wall A
1
U
1
56.2
i=5 Roof 9.29 0.55 40.9 1406
N=5 =266 =1996

c
Q
= 2262W

Table 2.3: Cooling Load Heat Balance Calculation

11
3.1 Mechanical Vapour Compression Refrigeration

A liquid refrigerant is evaporated at a low pressure and temperature due to heat
transfer from the area to be cooled. Mechanical Compression (for different energy
sources see 3.1.1, 3.1.2 and 3.1.3) results in an increase in entropy, temperature and
pressure. The fluid is passed through the condenser at a constant pressure, losing
heat to the surroundings and is finally expanded back to its original pressure.

This method requires a complex refrigerant and can only be purchased from a
manufacturer. Although vapour compression cooling effectively satisfies the required
internal condition, purchasing costs are high and range from 1900 - 2800 (12) for a
cold store of similar dimensions.

3.1.1 Grid Electricity

Vapour compression systems are usually powered by grid electricity; this
requires a reliable continuous power supply, which does not exist in Pabal. Cold
Store refrigeration in India entails a running cost of 31 per cubic metre per year
(13), which would equate to an unsustainable expense of 837 a year for the
proposed cold store. There is also the cost of maintenance, requiring skilled
personnel and replacement parts.

3.1.2 Diesel Generation

Skilled personnel are permanently required on site, to maintain this form of
energy supply. Apart from the purchase cost, there is also the associated cost of
fuel and spare parts, which is comparable to the high cost of grid generation.

3.1.3 Solar Photovoltaic Systems

The abundant source of solar irradiation in Pabal could be converted into
electricity by photovoltaic cells and stored in batteries; however the current
coefficient of performance is only 0.3 (14). These systems are used for critical
applications such as vaccine preservation, since the capital cost amounts to
3000-5500 (15) for only 60-80W of cooling. The cooling load required for the
existing design is much greater (see section 2.5).

Figure 3.1: Simple Vapour Compression Cycle

12
3.2 Absorption Refrigeration:

Absorption refrigeration is similar to the vapour compression cycle, except it is a heat
driven cycle (5). The low pressure vapour in the evaporator is absorbed by a liquid
solution in the absorber, which rejects the heat to the surroundings as in Figure 9
(16). The pressure is then elevated by a pump (minimal work), which delivers the
fluid to the generator. This receives heat from a high temperature source, which
drives off the high pressure vapour to the condenser and the cycle then continues as
in the vapour compression cycle.

Absorption refrigeration does not depend upon moving parts, simplifying
maintenance and reducing running costs. They have been simple to manufacture
using local labour in developing countries (15). However the cost of purchasing and
running a kerosene or gas power unit would cost 2000 over 10 years and would
only provide 60 -100W of cooling (15).

Solar powered absorption units are also available on the market; they are relatively
new and feature an improved net coefficient of performance of 0.5 (solar to
cooling)(14). Florides (17) absorption air-cooling system in a Cypriot house incurred
a capital cost of 1300 including solar panels, which is uneconomical in Pabal.

3.3 Natural Cooling Techniques:

Natural cooling involves the use of natural heat sinks for internal heat dissipation
(18); evaporative cooling, ground source cooling and solar chimney ventilation will be
examined. The methods attempt to use renewable energy and minimal reliance on
mechanical systems.

3.3.1 Evaporative Cooling Swamp Cooler

Evaporative cooling involves the liquid phase change of water to water vapour
(10). The fan in the swamp cooler drives external air over water soaked pads.
The air provides the latent heat of vaporisation for the water and is consequently
cooled. The performance is based on the saturation efficiency formula (18) and
the air cannot be cooled below the dew point, which falls between the dry bulb
and wet bulb temperatures.

Figure 3.2: The Absorption Cycle

13

These devices are cost effective starting at 71 (19) and would function
successfully in the low humidity environment of Pabal. However, the system
consumes an unsustainable 0.45 litres of water per hour and requires mains
electricity for operation.

3.3.2 Roof Ponds

Roof ponds involve the low cost construction of water ponds over non-insulated
flat roofs (18). The water surface is shaded during the day to avoid excessive
heating and opened during the night. A shaded roof pond cools by evaporation;
the roof below by heat conduction to the roof pond. Tang (9) demonstrates that
6-9
0
C cooling is possible by shaded roof ponds in a single storey building.

Roof ponds are effective natural heat sinks, although Givoni (18) stipulates that
the wet bulb temperature should be less than 20
0
C for effective application,
whereas in Pabal at midday this is 29
0
C. This system consumes a similar
amount of water to the swamp cooler and requires a construction that is capable
of bearing high structural loads.

3.3.3 Ground Source Cooling:

During the summer period, ground temperatures remain significantly lower than
ambient air temperature, with much smaller daily variation (18). In an open loop
system, the ambient air is passed through PVC pipes buried underground, into
the cold store. The ground acts as a heat sink and the cooling of ambient air is
achieved. The temperature the air can be cooled by, is dependent on inlet air
temperature, ground temperature at pipe depth, air velocity, pipe length and soil
thermal properties (18).

Figure 3.4: Roof Pond

Figure 3.3: Swamp Cooler

14

Incident Solar
Irradiation

Figure 3.6: Solar Tower

In a study by Sharan (20) of a very similar open loop system in Gujrat, India, 50
metres of pipe was buried 3 m below the surface. During testing ambient air of
40
0
C was cooled almost 14
0
C, with a coefficient of performance of 3.3. The
solution is very simple; underground pipes could easily be integrated with the
building foundation utilising local labour. However, energy is required to power a
fan or other device to create a pressure drop across the buried pipes.
Furthermore, it is vital that vermin and rainwater are prevented from entering the
pipe system.

3.3.4 Solar Chimneys:

A solar chimney consists of a vertical brick or concrete stack, which is exposed
to solar irradiation. A temperature difference is created between the warmed air
adjacent to the hot interior wall and the quiescent air. This induces buoyancy
forces, resulting in a vertical free convection flow, referred to as the stack effect.
When the flow is fully developed there is also a temperature difference between
the top and bottom of the chimney.

Solar Chimneys often feature a glazed faade in order to increase the stack
effect. An experimental study in rooms with a floor area of 6m
2
by Afonso (21),
demonstrated a ventilation rate amounting to 20 air changes per hour with solar
chimneys. The highest ventilation rate occurs at maximum solar irradiation,
which coincides with the greatest cooling demand. However, solar chimneys are
ineffective during periods of low solar irradiation, such as cloudy days.

Ambient Air Tin

Figure 3.5: Open Loop Ground Cooling

15
3.5 Passive Cooling Techniques:

Passive cooling aims to reduce cooling load in buildings, through wall and roof
insulation, shading devices and surrounding vegetation. Possible wall improvements
could include low conductivity cork insulation and using an air cavity of 25mm
optimum thickness (5). Positioning a low emissivity material such as aluminium foil in
the air gap, acts as radiant barrier by reflecting internal radiation (18). These are low
cost methods of reducing building cooling load and are very simple to incorporate
into any wall construction as in Figure 3.7.

External shading such as horizontal overhangs and balconies are often effective low
cost methods of protecting the building exterior from direct solar irradiation and can
be analysed using shading coefficients.

Surrounding vegetation is advantageous; a fully-grown tree evaporates water on a
sunny day, which is equivalent to almost 870MJ cooling capacity (18). As well as
providing shade, vegetation can reduce surrounding temperature by about 2-3
0
C.

4. SELECTION OF COOLING TECHNIQUES & FINAL DESIGN CONCEPT

Each of the cooling methods evaluated in section 3 have been scored against the
objectives featured in section 1.4. The total scores in Table 4.1 will be used to select
the most appropriate cooling methods for Pabal.

The vapour compression and absorption refrigeration systems receive low scores
due to their unfeasible expenditure and will be discounted. The swamp cooler and
roof ponds are both low cost and effective, but their water consumption is
undesirable. Consequently, solar chimneys received the highest score of 8.56 and
will be selected as the most cost effective and sustainable method. Similarly, ground
source cooling achieves the best performance by natural cooling. These methods will
be combined with passive cooling techniques, to maintain a desirable internal
temperature.

Aluminium Foil

Cork Insulation

Air Gap

Figure 3.7: Thermal Insulation

16

4.1 Final Design Concept:

The final concept is novel and will integrate a solar chimney and ground source
cooling. The idea is inspired by a simple schematic in Figure 16, which has been
proposed by Vail (22):

As discussed in section 3.4.5 a chimney stack is exposed to solar irradiation, which
creates a vertical free convection current of heated air. This induces a pressure drop
between the top and bottom of the chimney and drags ambient air through an open
loop ground source cooling pipes. The ambient air is cooled to a certain temperature,
through heat exchange with the surrounding thermal mass of the soil, before entering
the building. This technique will be used to maintain a desirable internal temperature.

Figure 16: Concept Proposed By Vail (22)

Score out of 10

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
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r
e

R
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l
a
t
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v
e

H
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C
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C
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a
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C
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L
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W
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s
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E
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e

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f

C
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s
t
r
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c
t
i
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P
o
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t
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F
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L
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a
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L
a
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u
r

Total
Score
Vapour Compression Refrigeration
(I) Grid Electricity 10 7 0 2 0 0 6 0 3.94
(ii) Diesel Generation 10 7 0 2 7 0 6 0 5.41
(iii) Solar Photovoltaic Systems 5 7 0 7 10 0 10 0 5.56
Absorption Refrigeration
(I) Kerosene/Gas 5 7 0 2 7 5 6 6 4.54
(ii) Solar Irradiation 7 7 0 7 10 5 10 5 6.34
Swamp Cooler 6 10 7 5 0 5 7 5 5.41
Roof Ponds 5 7 9 7 3 10 10 9 6.28
Ground Source Cooling 7 7 8 8 8 10 10 10 7.78
Solar Chimneys 6 7 10 10 10 10 10 10 8.56
Passive cooling Techniques 5 7 8 10 10 10 10 10 7.96

Table 4.1: Design Objective Scores & Overall Absolute Scores for Cooling Methods

17
5. DERIVATION OF CLIMATIC DATA FOR PABAL

This section deals with the derivation of average hourly solar irradiation values for a
horizontal surface and ambient air temperature in Pabal. These parameters influence
the air mass flow rate in the Solar chimney and cooling potential of the ground source
system. Relevant solar theory is then introduced, with the aim of calculating the
incident solar irradiation on a vertically inclined surface as is encountered in a solar
chimney.

5.1 Solar Data derivation & Ambient Air Temperature

Since it is not possible to obtain climatic data measured directly at the site in Pabal,
the required data has been acquired from a solar interpolation and database service
called SoDa (23).

The resource can calculate hourly values for horizontal clear sky radiation, modelling
direct and diffuse radiation components. Irradiation values are calculated according
to Aguiar and Collares-Pereira (23). The hourly ambient air temperature is
interpolated from the temperature distribution of the nearest measurement station
and hourly global irradiation.

The incident angle , between the normal of the surface and the suns rays, dictates
the magnitude of solar irradiation. It is influenced by latitude, date and solar time (7).
Consequently, the Latitude-longitude coordinates and solar time settings are required
for the database.

Hourly horizontal solar irradiation and ambient air temperature values have been
calculated for each day in the month of April. This month corresponds to the peak
summer dry season in Pabal. The values have been averaged for each solar hour;
they are converted to vertical surface solar irradiation values, using theory in section
5.2. The variation in vertical solar irradiation and ambient air temperature is illustrated
in Figures 5.2 and 5.3.

SUN
Normal

Figure 5.1: Incident Angle

18
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Solar Hour/(hour)
S
o
la
r
Ir
r
a
d
ia
t
io
n
/(
W
m
-2
)
29.0
30.0
31.0
32.0
33.0
34.0
35.0
36.0
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Solar Hour/(hour)
A
m
b
i
e
n
t

A
i
r

T
e
m
p
.
(
0
C
)

The database provides an acceptable basis for deriving climatic data, since it is of a
similar magnitude to climatic data from nearby Pune city. However, the derived solar
irradiation values only offer an estimate of real solar values, due to the error in
interpolative calculation methods, uncertainty in the value of diffuse radiation and
climate variations such as cloudy skies. Reflected radiation, which is influenced by
the immediate surroundings, is also neglected.

5.2 Solar Geometry (7)

Relevant equations will be introduced to convert horizontal surface solar irradiation to
vertical solar irradiation, as occurs in the Solar Chimney.

Solar Irradiation is composed of three radiation components; direct radiation from the
sun I
D
, diffuse radiation from the sky I
d
and reflected radiation I
r
(depending upon
surface properties known as albedo) illustrated by Figure 5.4.

Consequently total Solar Irradiation G is a function of the three radiation components
and incident angle (7):

r d D
I I I G + + = cos
[6]

Assuming that I
r
is a negligible component of the total solar irradiation and that
diffused radiation I
d
accounts for approximately 30% of total incident irradiation, direct
radiation on a horizontal surface with angle of incidence
horz
(24):

Figure 5.4 Composition of Solar Irradiation

Figure 5.2: Variation in Vertical Surface
Solar Irradiaton in Pabal during the day
(April)

Figure 5.3: Variation in Ambient Air
Temperature during day (April)

19

horz
horz
D
G
I
cos
7 . 0 = [7]

Determining the angle of angle of incidence
horz
on a horizontal surface

The calculation of
horz
is necessary, to compute the value of direct radiation I
D
from
[7] at each hour of the day. The angle of incidence for a horizontal surface
horz
is
given by:

solar horz
=
0
90 [8]

where
solar
is the solar altitude angle defined as the angle from the horizontal to the
sun as depicted by Figure 20.

solar
is a function of latitude L, hour angle H and the suns declination (7):

sin sin cos cos cos sin L H L
solar
+ = [9]

The hour angle varies with time and is a function of the solar hour:

) 12 ( 15
0
= SolarHour H [10]

The suns declination is a function of n, which is the day of the year numbered from
January 1
st
. A value of n corresponding to April 15th is used.

365
) 284 ( 360
sin 47 . 23
n +
= [11]

Determining the angle of incidence on a vertical surface
vert

The angle of incidence on a vertical surface
vert
is given by (7):

cos cos cos
solar vert
= [12]

Where is the solar surface azimuth, which is the angle between solar azimuth
and the surface azimuth given by:

= [13]

Figure 5.5: Solar altitude angle

20
The solar azimuth is defined as the angle between horizontal projection of the sun
(Figure 5.5) and the south given by:

cos
sin cos
sin
H
= [14]

The surface azimuth is an attribute of wall orientation. It is defined as the angle the
normal of the vertical surface makes with the South. Therefore = 0
0
for our south
facing solar chimney.

Determining total vertical solar irradiation:

If reflected radiation I
r
is neglected and equations [6] and [7] are combined, it is
possible to compute vertical solar irradiation, using calculated values of
horz
and
vert
:

horz vert
horz
horz
vert
G
G
G 3 . 0 cos
cos
7 . 0 + =
[15]

6. SOLAR CHIMNEYS

This section aims to derive a theoretical formula for the air mass flow rate in a Solar
Chimney. Parameters are then introduced in order to calculate volumetric flow rate.
The effect of altering solar chimney height and diameter are also examined.

Two types of solar chimney are considered (Figure 6.1). The simple solar chimney
consists of a cylindrical stack made of either concrete or brick and with an inlet
located near its base. The glazed solar chimney is very similar, except a portion of
the South facing faade is replaced with glazing. These structures can be
incorporated on a rooftop or free standing.

6.1 Theoretical Volumetric Flow Rate Derivation

Since the solar chimney wall is usually of minimal thickness (<0.010m) (21), heat
storage will be neglected and steady conditions assumed. The flow will be modelled
as a one-dimensional steady flow. Wind forces exert a dynamic pressure at the top of
the Solar Chimney, creating a pressure difference and consequently influence flow
Figure 6.1: Simple and
Glazed Solar Chimneys

Glazing
Air
Mass
Flow
rate

21
rate. Although this effect is significant, Afonso (21) suggests it can be neglected for
design purposes, due to the unpredictability of wind velocity. The model will solely
consider solar irradiation.

The piezometric head lost to friction for a fully developed flow in a pipe is given by
Darcys Formula (25):

2
2
av
f
u
m
fl
p =
[16]

where l is the length of pipe, f the friction factor and m the hydraulic mean depth
which for a circular cross section diameter d can be defined as (25):

4
4
nce circumfere
area sectional - cross
2
d
d
d
m = = =
[17]

Substituting [17] into [16] and summing with minor friction losses the total frictional
head becomes where u
av
is average air velocity:

|
\
|
+ =

k
d
fl
u p
av f
4
2
1
2
[18]

The solar chimney is modelled as cylindrical stack of height H (where H = H
1
+H
2
),
exposed to vertical solar irradiance G
vert
. The stack is attached to a hypothetical
frictionless thermosiphon; air entering from the cold store at a temperature T
int
and
density
1
. The air is uniformly heated in the stack resulting in a density change from
2
to
3,
exiting with temperature T
out
(Figure 6.2).

Figure 6.2: Hypothetical Thermosiphon model
2 G
ver
tt

T
out

S=0
Length S along perimeter
(dashed perimeter)
Z
1
H
1

H
2

1 =
z
s
1 =
z
s
S=L
T
int

3


22
Considering a small section of pipe of length s the overall pressure loss combined
with the hydrostatic component is:

( )
|
\
|
+
|
|
\
|
+

s
z
g
L
s k
d
s f
u
s
p
av

4
2
1
2
[19]

Integrating [19] between S=0 and S=L with respect to S calculate the total pressure:

[20a]

0
4
2
1
2
1
= |
\
|
+

gH k
d
fH
u
av
[20b]

The fluid close to the hot right hand wall is less dense than the remainder of the fluid.
The temperature difference creates a density gradient, appearing in the hydrostatic
term gH in equation [20b]. Consequently, buoyancy forces induce a free
convection boundary layer in which the heated fluid rises vertically.

If density variations exist only due to temperature variations the volumetric thermal
Expansion Coefficient is (constant pressure):

p
T
|
\
|
1
[21]

It can be expressed as the Boussinesq approximation, where T is the absolute fluid
temperature and
T is the free stream temperature (26):

T T T
1 1

) (
= T T
[22]

Substituting equation [22] into [20b]:

|
\
|
+ =

k
d
fH
u gH T T
4
2
1
) (
2
1 1

[23]

Equation [23] equates buoyancy pressure to friction pressure losses. The absolute
temperature T can be approximated as an average of T
int
and T
out.
[23] can be
rewritten as:

|
\
|
+ = |
\
|

+
k
d
fH
u gH T
T T
out
4
2
1
2
2
int
int
[24]

The air mass flow rate within the stack is driven the vertical temperature difference
and depends on specific heat of air C
p
. This is equated to heat flow into the chimney;
a function of vertical solar irradiation G
vert
, stack diameter d and collector efficiency :

2 3 1 2 1
2
1 0
4
2
1
0 gH gH gH k
d
fH
u p p
av L
+ +
|
\
|
+ = =


23

2
) (
int
d
H G T T C m
vert out p
[25]

Substituting mass flow rate into [25] for flow using an average air density
air
:

2
) (
4
int
2
d GH
T T uC
d
out p air

= [26]

Combining equations [24] [25] [26] and rearranging for average air velocity :

3
1
2
4
2
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
+
=
k
d
fH
dc
g GH
u
p air
av

[27]

Volumetric Flow rate within the Solar Chimney is therefore given by:

4
2
av
u d
v
[28]

6.2 Selection of Parameters

Equations [27] and [28] can be used to predict solar tower mass flow rates in Pabal.
This will be investigated after selecting suitable fixed parameters.

Thermal Parameters:2728

If the air is assumed to be an ideal gas = p/RT the volumetric thermal
coefficient can be rewritten as:

T RT
RT
RT
p
T
p
1 1 1
2 2
= = = |
\
|
[29]

T is the absolute temperature can be approximated by an average of T
int
and

T
out
. A typical temperature gradient of 7K will be used as achieved
experimentally by Afonso (21) in solar chimneys of 2m high, allowing calculation
of . Although this is an approximation, increasing the temperature gradient
value to 12K would only introduce a 0.33% error in [27]; therefore is near its
Internal
Coldstore
Temperature
T
int
/(k)
Volumetric
Thermal
Coefficient
/(K
-1
)
Average
Air
Density

air
/(kgm
-
3
)
Average Air
Specific
Heat
C
p
/(Jkg
-1
K
-1
)
Friction
Factor
f
Total Minor
loss
Coefficients
k

Unglazed
Collector
Efficiency
293 0.00337 1.190 (27) 1004.8 (27) 0.01 (21) 2 (28) 0.11 (7)

Table 6.1: Thermal and Fluid Parameters for Model

24
true value. Average air density and specific heat values have been selected at
absolute temperature T.

Fluid Friction Losses:

The magnitude of the friction factor f has been found to be less than 0.01 in
solar chimneys (21). The total minor loss coefficient k was calculated by the sum
of values for contraction on entrance, a 90
0
bend and expansion on exit.

Collector Efficiency:

The collector efficiency is the ratio of heat flux transferred to the fluid to incident
vertical solar irradiation (7):

vert
G
q
=
[30]

For the simple solar chimney stack, collector efficiency is a function of heat flux
due to solar load from [4] in section 2.4.2 and vertical solar irradiation. The
efficiency of the glazed solar chimney is a function of the optical and thermal
properties of the glazing and solar chimney wall; vertical solar irradiation, fluid
entry temperature T
in
and ambient air temperature T
amb
are also influential (7).

Figure 6.3: Efficiency of a Single Glazed Flat Plate Collector
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
(t
in
-t
amb
)/G
v ert
, (Km
2
W
-1
)
C
o
l
l
e
c
t
o
r

E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

However it is more appropriate to obtain efficiencies for a glazed solar chimney
from Figure 5.8 (7). Values will be extrapolated for each solar hour of day, since
input values are a function of ambient air temperature and solar irradiation and
efficiency varies from 0.19-0.49. However, this graph is an approximation since it
is for flat plate collectors. Due to smaller daily efficiency variations for the simple
solar chimney, an average unglazed collector efficiency value in Table 5.1 will
be used.

6.3 Solar Chimney Volumetric Air Flow

The parameters in section 6.2 and climatic data in 5.1 are used to model the simple
and glazed solar chimneys, each height 2 metres and diameter 0.5 metres.

25
Figure 6.4: Volumetric Flow Rate During Day (April) For
Glazed and Simple Solar Chimneys
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Solar Hour/(hour)
V
o
l
u
m
e
t
r
i
c

F
l
o
w

R
a
t
e
/

(
m
3
/
s
)
Glazed
Solar
Chimney
Simple
Solar
Chimney

The air flow rates are very similar for both chimneys early and late in the day, with
only a 6.0% difference (Figure 6.4). This is due to the low solar irradiation occurring
in this period. Similarly, the peak air flow rate in both chimneys correspond to
maximum solar irradiation occurring at midday.

The air flow rate for the glazed solar chimney is on average 59.7% greater than the
simple chimney, due to it greater collector efficiency. The glazing admits a high
proportion of solar irradiation through transmittance and reduces convection and
reradiation losses from the back solar wall. However, the difference in air flow rate is
exaggerated, since an average collector efficiency value is used for the simple
chimney.
Figure 6.5: Air Changes Per Hour During Day
(April) For Glazed and Simple Solar Chimneys
0
2
4
6
8
10
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Solar Ho ur/ ( hour)
Glazed
Solar
Chimney
Simple
Solar
Chimney

The volumetric air flow rates are of the same order of magnitude as experimental
data obtained by Afonso (21), for solar chimneys of the same dimensions. This
suggests that the theoretical model provides a reasonable estimate.

In Figure 6.5 the air changes per hour reaches a maximum of 8.5 in the glazed stack;
this suggests that glazed solar chimneys are more effective at incrementing natural
ventilation.

This model provides a conservative estimate of volumetric airflow rates. The
intermittent action of wind forces will raise airflow. The external ambient temperature
is always greater than the average chimney temperature in this model; this
temperature difference will increment buoyancy forces in the chimney and increase
air velocity.

26
6.4 Variation of Solar Chimney Height and Diameter

Figures 6.6 and 6.7 illustrate the number of room air changes per hour (ACH)
achievable at maximum solar irradiation, for a range of Solar Chimney heights and
diameters. The diameter was kept constant at 0.5 metres for Figure 6.6 and height at
2 metres for Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.6: Ef f ect of St ack Height On Number of
Room Air changes P er hour
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Stack Height H /(m)
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

A
i
r

C
h
a
n
g
e
s

P
e
r

H
o
u
r
Glazed
Solar
Chimney
Simple
Solar
Chimney

Figure 6.7: Ef f ect of St ack Diamet er On Number
of Room Changes P er Hour
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
St ack Diamet er d / ( m)
Glazed
Solar
Chimney
Simple
Solar
Chimney

Figure 6.6 shows that as stack height is increased, there is a rise in ACH for both
chimneys and also a divergence between both values. This is due to a greater
collector area, and cause major difference in the glazed case. However, the increase
in ACH diminishes as stack height rises; the same result has been obtained in
experimental work (21).

Figure 6.7 shows that there is a rise in ACH for both chimneys, as stack diameter is
increased and a divergence between both values. Using larger stack diameters
raises ACH more significantly compared to stack height; increasing stack diameter by
0.5 metres leads to an initial rise of 8.49 ACH, but only 2.06 ACH for height.
Volumetric air flow rates are most effectively maximised by using a larger stack
diameter.

6.5 Solar Chimney Pressure Drop and Comparison with Empirical Correlation

Maximum pressure drop p can be predicted for a glazed solar chimney
(dimensional parameters in section 6.6) by combining [20a] and [22]:

|
\
|
|
\
|
+ =
2
4
2
1
int
2
T T
gH k
d
fH
u p
out
air av air
[31]


27
where average air velocity u
av
is calculated from [25] using parameters in Table 6.1
at midday. An empirical correlation for the stack effect in buildings is obtained from
(5):

|
|
\
|
=
int
1 1
3455
T T
H p
out
[32]

Table 6.2 shows a good agreement between the predicted theoretical and empirical
pressure drop values for the solar chimney, since the results are the same order of
magnitude. However the empirical correlation is approximate, since it does not
consider cross sectional area.

6.6 Design Recommendations

A glazed solar chimney is recommended since it increments volumetric air flow
rate most effectively.

A stack height of 3 metres is structurally attainable and any increase in height
will only provide a minimal flow rate gain.

Although increasing stack diameter raises air flow rate most effectively, it also
results in a larger stack outlet cross sectional area. Therefore air could enter by
infiltration and increase cooling load. A stack diameter of 0.7 metres is
recommended as a suitable compromise.

7 EXPERIMENTAL WORK

7.1 Introduction

It is difficult to assess the performance of the cold store experimentally in the UK, due
to the differences in climate, soil types and soil thermal properties. Therefore,
experimentation using a 1:1 scale model is inappropriate. Ground Source cooling can
only be effectively assessed by experiments in the field, due to the difficulty of
emulating soil behaviour. Consequently, this section compares experimental data
from a model solar chimney with the theoretical model in section 6.

Barrozi et al (29) have used a 1:12 experimental scale model of a solar chimney and
building, together with a solar simulator and controlled temperature environment, to
monitor performance. However in order to ensure dimensional similarity of the scale
model, higher temperature differences and working fluids other than air are required.

Therefore, a solar chimney model has been used, but not with the intention of directly
verifying predictions made for Pabal in section 6.3. Instead, the experimental air flow
rate data will be compared with the theoretical model, specifically for this case.

Theoretical Pressure Drop p/(Pa) Empirical Pressure Drop p/(Pa)
-0.317 -0.825

Table 6.2: Theoretical and Empirical Pressure Drop Values


28
7.2 Experimental Design

A 1:3 scale model has been constructed, combining an elementary solar chimney
with a cold store enclosure. This consists of a box made of 6 square medium density
fibreboard sheets and each side is 762 millimetres in length (the sheets are
bracketed together in the interior).

Heat transfer to the box is not investigated; its purpose is to form a rigid enclosure
and only admit air through two small holes drilled on one side (Figure 7.1).
The Solar Chimney consists of a 90
0
elbow pipe, attached to a vertical down pipe,
fitted near the top of the box. The stack is fabricated out of PVC and is 0.110 metres
in diameter and 0.582 metres in height. Although this is not a typical solar chimney
material, the geometry is more significant in this instance and friction losses can be
compensated accordingly.

This scale model is not exposed to solar irradiation, due to the complexity of
recreating it. Instead a rectangular aluminium plate is placed within the vertical down
pipe and held by an internal steel bracket (Figure 7.2). It is the same height as the
stack .

The aluminium plate represents the inner wall of the solar chimney and is heated.
The area behind the plate is insulated, ensuring convection from the front of the plate
only. Aluminium possesses a similar specific heat capacity to concrete and therefore
its rate of cooling will be alike. The plate is located 35mm tangentially from the pipe
edge; plate temperature is monitored using a thermocouple attached to a Squirrel
Figure 7.2: Overhead view of Chimney stack
Insulation
Bracket
PVC pipe
Aluminium Plate
Figure 7.1: Solar Chimney and Cold Store Scale Model
PVC Stack
MDF Enclosure
Air Inlet Hole

29
data logger. Air velocity and outlet air temperature are measured using a VelociCalc
Air flow meter at the top of the stack.

7.3 Experimental Procedure

The aluminium plate was heated in the oven until it reached a steady uniform
temperature of 75
0
C and was placed in the bracket. Plate temperature was
monitored every thirty seconds, using the data logger. 2 minutes was allowed for the
free convection flow to develop in the stack.

The radial variation in air velocity across the stack was measured for a range of plate
temperatures; starting 2 millimetres from the plate edge and at increments of 5
millimetres.

Exit temperature T
out
was measured every thirty seconds using the flow meter probe.
Temperature profiles were measured radially in increments of 2 millimetres across
the stack for a range of plate temperatures.

7.4 Experimental Results:

An internal temperature T
int
=20.5
0
C and ambient temperature of T
amb
=22.3
0
C were
recorded during the experiment. Figures 7.3 and 7.4 depict velocity and temperature
profiles across the stack for a range of average plate temperatures and are the
average of two experimental runs.
Figure 7.3: Radial Air Velocity Profile For Different
Plate Temperatures
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0 5 10 15 20
Distance from Plate/(mm)
A
i
r

V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

/
(
m
s
-
1
)
44.3C
40.07C
37.7C
34.7C
33.3C
31.2C

In Figure 7.3 higher plate temperatures, results in greater air velocity; this is caused
by a more rapid rate of cooling and a greater heat flow in the solar chimney. This
results in higher air velocities as predicted by [25] and is equivalent to a higher solar
irradiation.

The best-fit line in Figure 7.3 is for the velocity profile at a plate temperature of
31.2
0
C. Due to the no slip condition, it would be expected that fluid velocity
immediately next to plate would be zero. However, fluid velocity increases to a
maximum at 2 millimetres away from the plate and decreases with distance from the
plate. Air velocities are only detected in a free convection boundary layer of
approximately 22 millimetres in thickness. Beyond this point, the air in the pipe is
stagnant.

30
Figure 7.4: Radial Temperature Variation For Different Plate
Temperatures
20
25
30
35
40
0 10 20 30 40
Distance From Plate/mm
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
/
0
C
33.3C
36.3C
39C
48C

Figure 7.4 shows that the variation in temperature profile extends further away from
the plate than for air velocity. High plate temperatures appear to result in higher value
temperature profiles. However, this is not the case for a plate temperature of 48
0
C,
since the flow is still developing in the pipe and the air is increasing in temperature.
Temperature in the pipe remains constant after 30 35 millimetres. This radial
temperature difference in the pipe is responsible for inducing buoyancy forces.

7.5 Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Results

In this section the theoretical expressions derived in section 6.1 will be adapted to
enable predictions of average air velocity. This parameter is also computed for
experimental data, by using numerical approximation. The theoretical and
experimental results are then compared.

7.5.1 Calculation of Theoretical Average Air Velocity

Since plate temperature was measured with respect to time during the
experiment, plate heat flow in the pipe
plate
Q is given by:

dt
dT
mc Q
Al p Plate ) (
=
[33]

where m is the mass of the Aluminium plate and
) ( Al p
c is its specific heat. The
rate of temperature change with respect to time is obtained from the gradient of
the plate temperature time graph.

Substituting [33] for the GHd term in [27] and replacing the terms for circular
section area with experimental flow area A
exp
[28] becomes:

3
1
exp
4
|
|
|
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
+
k
d
fH
C A
gH Q
u
p air
plate
av
[34]

31
Average air velocity can be calculated using parameters at 297K in Table 7.1
and exit temperature T
out
for each plate temperature. The friction coefficient f is
calculated assuming laminar flow (25), since the Reynolds number is
approximately Re=249 from the experimental results.

Re
16
= f [35]

7.5.2: Calculation of Average Air Velocity Using Experimental Data

The results in Figure 7.3 provide radial profiles for air velocity across the stack.
Average air velocity is approximated from this data using the trapezium rule; the
boundary layer flow area will be divided into 5 strips of 2.5mm width, measured
from the plate edge (Figure 7.5). Each velocity measurement is located at the
centre of a trapezium.

The height of each strip is calculated using Pythagoras rule. The product of
each strips air velocity and trapezoidal area is summed together to calculate
volumetric flow rate. Average air velocity is determined by dividing this by flow
area A
exp.
This calculation was performed for each velocity profile.

7.6 Discussion

The experimental and theoretical average flow rates calculated in the previous
section are plotted against plate heat flow
plate
Q in Figure 7.6.

Figure 7.5: Trapezoidal Strips across Boundary Layer for Numerical Approximation
PVC Pipe
Aluminium Plate
Air Density
air
/(Kg/m
3
)
Aluminium
Specific Heat
C
p(al)
/ (Jkg
-1
K
-1
)
Air Specific
Heat C
p
/(Jkg
-1
K
-1
)
Friction
factor, f
Flow
Area
A
exp
/(m
2
)
Aluminium
Plate Mass
m/(Kg)
Minor Loss
coefficient
k
1.194 897 1004.8 0.064 0.00771 0.406 2

Table 7.1: Parameters for Theoretical Calculation

32
Figure 7.6: Experimental and Theoretical Average Air
Velocity Versus Plate Heat Flow
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
5 10 15 20 25
Plate Heat Flow/(Watts)
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

A
i
r
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
/

(
m
s
-
1
)
Experimental
Average Air
Velocity
Theoretical
Average Air
Velocity

For both results, average air velocity increases approximately at the same rate and is
of a similar order of magnitude. However, the theoretical model predicts a higher
average air velocity and differs by a factor of 5 from experimental values. This could
be attributed to the inadequacy of the scale model in simulating a true solar chimney
and error in experimental data and the method of analysis.

Scale model:

The heated plate in the scale model simulates the inner wall of the solar chimney.
The plate cools by natural convection and is in a transient state. However, the
theoretical model proposed in section 6, assumes that the inner wall is at steady
state conditions, due to constant hourly solar irradiation.

Since plate heat flow
plate
Q in the scale model changes with time, it is more difficult
for a fully developed heat flow to occur. This may have caused experimental air
velocity values to be less than theoretical predictions. A plate maintained at a steady
state have led to the higher velocities predicted by [34].

Experimental Error:

The airflow meter possesses a +/-0.015ms
-1
error and therefore causes a 25%
uncertainty in some of the low air velocity values. The readings are also at the
threshold of instruments measurement range of 0 30 ms
-1
, introducing additional
error, questioning its suitability for low velocity applications.

The airflow meter also takes time to output a stable value when the probe is moved
to a new location. This leads to inaccuracy, since the velocity profile could change in
this period. Measurement error also results from using a 5 millimetre probe to take
readings within a 22 millimetre boundary layer.

Analysis Error:

The analysis assumes that measured air velocities do not vary laterally across each
trapezoidal strip. Using the trapezium rule to estimate volumetric flow rate in the pipe
also leads to numerical error. However, these are small in comparison to the
previously discussed errors.


33
Soil Thermal
Diffusivity /(m
2
s
-1
)
Daily angular
frequency /(s
-1
)
Damping Depth
D /(m)
5D / (m)
0.121 x 10
-6
(18) 0.727 x 10
-4
0.058 0.29

Figure 8.1: Calculation of Depth at which Temperature Variation is eliminated
7.7 Conclusion

It is difficult to verify the accuracy of the theoretical model presented in section 6
using experimental data. This is due to the shortfalls of the experimental model in
representing a solar chimney; a more realistic model could recreate steady state
conditions by using a plate maintained at a constant heat flux. The high experimental
error was due to the limitations of the measurement apparatus. This is overcome in a
similar study of free convection flow in a solar chimney, by using a low velocity gas
analyser with a tracer gas (29).

The reliability of the theoretical model can only be verified through further
experimentation. However it does provide predictions that are representative of free
convection boundary flows; since experimental and theoretical results are a similar
order of magnitude. Therefore, it can be used to provide an approximate estimate of
solar chimney volumetric air flow rate in Pabal.

8. GROUND SOURCE COOLING

8.1 Determining Pipe Depth for Ground Source Cooling

The soil depth at which the pipe is buried influences the magnitude of ground source
cooling. Soil temperature is difficult to model at different depths since soil thermal
diffusivity varies with soil type, moisture and density. However, assuming a
homogenous medium, soil temperature T
soil
varies sinusoidally with respect to time t
and depth from soil surface Z (18):

|
\
|
+ =
D
z
t e A T z t T
D
z
amb soil
cos ) , (
0
[36]

where A
0
is the amplitude of variation and damping depth D dictates the extent of
temperature variation given by:

( )
5 . 0
2
= D [37]

where is soil thermal diffusivity and is diurnal angular frequency. At a depth of
Z= 5D almost all daily temperature variation is eliminated (18).

Figure 8.1 shows that daily soil temperature variation only occurs up till a depth of
0.290 metres. Therefore, ground source pipes should be ideally buried at a depth of
at least 1 metre; this will ensure a constant soil temperature required for effective
cooling. Tests in the field should be conducted to clarify this.


34
8.2 ANSYS Ground Source Cooling Model

8.2.1 Aims:

ANSYS is a general purpose Finite Element Analysis package and is used to
model heat transfer occurring in the ground source cooling pipe. A code was
created for 4 distinct steps; creating a solid model, generating a finite element
mesh, applying boundary conditions and obtaining the final solution.

The aim is to predict the pipe outlet temperature T
outlet
after ambient air has been
driven through the system for different pipe lengths (Figure 8.1). The air is driven
by pressure drop p created in the solar chimney (see section 6.5).

8.2.2 Modelling and Assumptions: (30)

Symmetry allows the horizontal section of the pipe length l, to be modelled 2
dimensionally, along its radius R as in Figure 8.3. The vertical sections are
neglected in Figure 8.2, as they comparatively small in length.

It is assumed that the flow is steady, fully developed and axisymmetric.
Velocity varies with radius only and shear force opposes fluid flow. The air
to be cooled is incompressible and fluid properties remain constant
throughout the pipe.
The pipe wall is subjected to a negative heat flux
q and is assumed to have

negligible thermal resistance. The pipe is subjected to pressure drop p.

8.2.3 Parameters:

T
outlet

T
amb

p
Figure 8.2: Ground Source Cooling Pipe
w

q
Centreline
Inlet Outlet
u(r) R
Pipe wall
Figure 8.3: ANSYS Geometric Model
Pressure
Drop
p/ Pa
Denisity
/Kgm
-3

Air
Viscosity
/Km
-1
s
-1

Air Specific
Heat C
p

/Jkg
-1
K
-1

Pipe
Radius
R /m
Ambient Air
Temperature
T
amb
/K
Heat
Flux
q /Wm
-2

Air Thermal
Conductivity
k/(Wm
-1
k
-1
)
0.317 1.190
(27)
1.46x10
-6

(27)
1004.8
(27)
0.05 310 -0.5 2.624x10
-2
(27)

Obtained from project partners work Table 8.1: Parameters for ANSYS Model

35
The highest ambient temperature in Pabal has been selected, which occurs in
conjunction with the maximum pressure drop. Air thermal properties have been
interpolated at 305K, which is representative of mean pipe temperature. The
pipe radius is typically used in ground source systems. Pipe length has been
varied in this exercise.

8.3 Results and Discussion:

Figure 8.3 shows the temperature profile along a 12 metre pipe; ambient air enters at
310K and leaves the outlet at a minimum temperature of 308.9K. This pipe length is
typically used in ground source applications, but seems to achieve very little cooling.
The air closest to the pipe wall is cooled the most due to the stagnation of boundary
layer flows. The air travelling at the pipe centre only increases in temperature midway
along the pipe, since there is low flow mixing. Figure 8.4 illustrates a 0.7K fall in
radial outlet temperature.

The radial outlet velocity profile in Figure 8.5 shows a maximum velocity of 0.62ms
-1
at the pipe centre line, which falls to zero at the pipe wall. The pipe velocity
influences the axial temperature distribution in Figure 8.3, since a higher values
result in greater fluid mixing and increases air cooling. This is the reason why typical
ground source cooling systems use much higher air velocities ranging from 4 to
8 ms
-1
(20).

Therefore, the maximum pressure drop provided by the solar tower, is insufficient to
achieve desired ground source cooling. Furthermore, the pressure drop will be less
at other hours of the day due to lower solar irradiation. The maximum pressure drop

Figure 8.3 Axial Temperature Profile Along Ground Source Pipe (12 Metres)
Figure 8.4: Outlet Radial Temperature Profile

Figure 8.5: Outlet Radial Velocity Profile

36
value is also based on an internal cold store temperature of 293K; this is not
achieved with this pipe length.

Increasing ground source pipe length raises heat exchange area, allowing greater
cooling as in Figure 8.6. However, only 3.25K of cooling is obtained with 25 metres of
pipe metres. Beyond this length, the ANSYS model seems to predict air cooling
increasing proportionally with pipe length.

Figure 8.6: Ground Source Cooling Achieved with
Variation in Pipe Length
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pipe Length/m
A
c
h
i
e
v
e
d

A
i
r

C
o
o
l
i
n
g
/
K

However, the ANSYS model does not account for the influence of the friction factor in
high pipe lengths, or the pressure losses encountered in the vertical pipe sections. A
constant heat flux is assumed; this value is dependent on soil depth and the variation
in soil thermal properties. This model only provides a crude model of daily cooling in
a ground source pipe, since parameters such as soil temperature and type can only
be obtained from the site. There is also an associated error of using a finite element
analysis method.

Nonetheless, the ANSYS model indicates that the solar chimney pressure drop is too
low, to create the required pipe air velocity for effective ground source cooling.

8.4 Design Recommendations

Ground Source Cooling is an effective form of natural cooling, but a solar
chimney does not provide the necessary pressure drop for cooling. Instead, a low
cost battery powered fan or blower mechanism, could be installed at one end of
the system, to ensure air velocities of 4 to 8 ms
-1
.

The best thermal contact should be sought with the pipe and surrounding soil;
improved thermal conductivity could be achieved by covering the pipe with a 0.05
m of sand, when it is buried.

The horizontal pipe section should be positioned at a 1% gradient slope from inlet
to outlet, to ensure that water does not accumulate in the system and is expelled
from a small hole drilled in the elbow. Furthermore, the pipe inlet should be
gauzed to prevent vermin entering the system and sheltered from the rain.

Pipes should be buried at a soil depth over 1 metre; detailed tests must be
conducted to find the optimum depth for lowest soil temperature. Pipe length and
possible cooling can then be predicted from the ANSYS model using a suitable
pressure drop.

37
9. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

The existing cold store analysis, has highlighted that passive cooling methods must
be used in any future design; this will significantly reduce building cooling load. A
combined solar chimney and ground source cooling system has been proposed,
since it best satisfies the cost and energy requirements for Pabal. Consequently, this
project has investigated the combined cooling performance of this system.

The theoretical model predicts that the glazed solar chimney is the most effective at
incrementing ventilation rate, rising to a maximum of 8.5 room changes per hour.
However, the theoretical model underestimates ventilation rate, since it does not
include wind effects or buoyancy forces induced by ambient air. The most critical
assumption is that internal temperature is maintained at 293K; this has not been
achieved using the ground source cooling system. Furthermore, solar collector
efficiency graph used in the model, is more appropriate for flat plate collectors and
true solar chimney efficiency is unknown.

The model has enabled solar chimney height and diameter to be specified; the
estimated maximum pressure drop for Pabal (0.317Pa) shows good agreement with
an empirical correlation, which suggests that it is a reliable estimate of the true value.
However, it is not possible to corroborate this model with experimental data, due to
the inadequacy of solar chimney representation and apparatus limitations.

The ANSYS model demonstrates that the solar chimney is not satisfactory in
providing the required pressure drop for ground source cooling. However, it should
be retained as an effective natural ventilation method. Instead, the pressure drop
should be augmented using a fan or blower device for ground source cooling. The
model is a crude approximation of ground source cooling, due to the uncertainty of
soil thermal properties in Pabal and error in the finite element method.

There is much future research that could be conducted in solar chimneys and ground
source cooling. The study of free convection flows within a solar chimney model in a
steady state situation, would allow true verification of the theoretical model. Similarly,
more research is required into solar chimney collector efficiency, as this dictates
performance and varies with design. Testing the performance of a full solar chimney
scale model in Pabal would be desirable. A true assessment of ground source
cooling potential in Pabal, can only be achieved by performing further tests in the
field, due to the complexity of soil thermal behaviour.


38

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into a building with N individual

T is the free stream temperature (26):

q and is assumed to have

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