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Cairo University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Power Department

Pre-Master (Fall 2012)

Temperature and Pressure measurement

Name B.N. Submitted to

Mohamed Karam Ali Hassan Fayed 23 Prof. Tharwat Abo Arab 2012-2013

Introduction

The word temper was used in the seventeenth century to describe the quality of steel. It seems, after the invention of crude from of thermometer, the word temperature was coined to describe the degree of hotness or coolness of a material body. It was the beginning of seventeenth century when the thermometer a temperature measuring instrument was first developed. Galileo Galilei is credited with the construction of first thermometer, although a Dutch scientist Drebbel also made similar instrument independently. The principle was simple. A bulb containing air with long vertical tube was inverted and dipped into a basin of water or coloured liquid. With the change in temperature of the bulb, the gas inside expanded or contracted, thus changing the level of the liquid column inside the vertical tube. A major drawback of the instrument was that it was sensitive not only to variation of temperature, but also to atmospheric pressure variation. Successive developments of thermometers came out throughout seventeenth and eighteenth century. The liquid thermometer was developed during this time. The importance of two reference fixed temperatures was felt while graduating the temperature scales. Boiling point of water and melting point of ice provided two easily available references. But some other references were also tried. Fahrenheit developed a thermometer where, it seems, temperature of ice and salt mixture was taken as 0Fand temperature of human body as 96F . These two formed the reference points, with which, the temperature of melting ice came as 32and that of boiling water as 212 . In Celsius scale, the melting point of ice was chosen as 0and boiling point of water as 100 . The concept of Kelvin scale came afterwards, where the absolute temperature of gas was taken as 0 and freezing point of water as 273

The purpose of early thermometers was to measure the variation of atmospheric or body temperatures. With the advancement of science and technology, now we require temperature measurement over a wide range and different atmospheric conditions, and that too with high accuracy and precision. To cater these varied requirements, temperature sensors based on different principles have been developed. They can be broadly classified in the following groups: 1. Liquid and gas thermometer

2. Bimetallic strip 3. Resistance thermometers (RTD and Thermistors) 4. Thermocouple 5. Junction semiconductor sensor 6. Radiation pyrometer

Within the limited scope of this course, we shall discuss few of the above mentioned temperature sensors, that are useful for measurement in industrial environment.

Temperature Measurement Methods


Temperature cannot be measured directly but must be measured by observing the effect that temperature variation cause on the measuring device. Temperature measurement methods can be broadly classified as follows: Mechanical or Non-Electric method     Liquid-in-glass thermometer-Change in pressure Constant-volume gas thermometer Bimetallic Thermometer Pressure thermometer

Electric method  Resistance-Temperature Detectors  Thermistors  Thermocouples Radiation Method  Total radiation Pyrometer  Selective Radiation Pyrometer  Infrared(IR) Pyrometer

Mechanical or Non-Electric method


Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
Although nearly three hundred years old, the thermometer (more properly called a liquid-inglass thermometer) is still a common fixture in numerous applications ranging from measuring a sick patients temperature to measuring the temperature of a pot of molten candy. The basis of the thermometers operation is the thermal expansion of a working fluid. The volume of a liquid will change as a function of temperature. In general, as the temperature of a sample of liquid increases, that samples volume will also increase. The relative change in volume versus change in temperature for most liquids is relatively small, typically characterized

in hundreds of part-per-million per degree C, and referred to as the liquids Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE). Because most liquids CTEs are small, it is generally impractical to fill a tube of uniform cross section (such as a graduated cylinder) with liquid and use this arrangement as a thermometer. To observe small changes in volume requires the combination of a relatively large reservoir of working fluid connected to a long, thin capillary tube. This combination results in the familiar thermometer form of Figure 1.

Figure 1. - Liquid Thermometer

Because the total reservoirs volume is much greater than that of the capillary tube, a small change in the total working fluid volume will result in a large change in the level of liquid in the capillary. For example, consider the case where the reservoir has 50 times the volume of the capillary. If the liquids volume expands by just 1% (roughly the expansion experienced by mercury over a 55C temperature change), this will be sufficient to move the fluid level halfway up the capillary. By controlling the ratio of capillary volume to reservoir volume it is possible to control the thermometers sensitivity. If the working fluids volume increases too much, however, there is the danger that the thermometer could burst. As most liquids are essentially incompressible, they are capable of exerting tremendous pressures on their containers when they expand, an effect often seen by unfortunate homeowners when freezing water bursts pipes during cold weather. For this reason thermometers often incorporate an expansion

chamber at the top of the fluid column. If the working fluid expands beyond the length of the capillary, it can overflow into the expansion chamber. Another feature on many thermometers is the immersion line. As most of the expansion effects result from the working fluid in the bulb, it is important that this fluid be exposed to a uniform temperature. For example, if one attempts to take a measurement by contact with just the bottom of the bulb, the temperature within the bulbs working fluid is almost certain to vary - resulting in measurement error. By defining the portion of the thermometer which must be exposed to the temperature being measured, a defined immersion line is an important aid in making repeatable measurements. In certain applications it is desirable to be able to record the peak temperature that occurred. One such case is when a doctor or nurse measures a patients body temperature. A peak temperature reading is desirable because when the thermometer is removed from the patient to be read, it will rapidly cool, potentially resulting in measurement errors. Although virtually every liquid experiences changes in volume in response to temperature changes, not all are desirable for use as working fluids in thermometers. The suitability of a working fluid also is dependent on the application for which the thermometer is intended. Some important characteristics of potential working fluids are: Melting Point - A thermometer becomes ineffective and may be damaged at temperatures below which the working fluid freezes. Boiling Point - A thermometer also becomes ineffective and may be damaged at temperatures above which the working fluid begins to boil and become a gas. Magnitude of CTE - A high thermal expansion coefficient means a large change in volume versus change in temperature. This can makes it easier to make highly sensitive thermometers. Consistency of CTE - While a large CTE can be useful, it is also important that it be consistent over the temperature range of interest. A CTE that is relatively constant over a wide temperature range makes it possible to use a capillary of constant cross section and a scale with a uniform spacing. While CTE varies as a function of temperature, some materials show more variability than others. It is possible to realize thermometers using working fluids with highly variable CTEs, but using a material with less variability results in a simpler design. In applications such as consumer window thermometers, where a high degree of accuracy is not very important, organic working fluids such as alcohols have been popular because they are inexpensive and can be dyed to make the liquid columns easy to see. For more exacting applications that may require accurate measurements or measurements over a wider temperature range, mercury has traditionally

been the working fluid of choice. Mercurys combination of low melting point, high boiling point, and consistent CTE over a wide range of working temperatures make it suitable for many thermometric applications. One major drawback of mercury, however, is its toxicity. For this reason, alternatives such as Galinstan (a trademark of Geratherm Medical AG) have been developed. Like mercury, Galinstan is a metallic material that is liquid at room temperature. Unlike mercury, which is an elemental metal, Galinstan is an alloy of gallium, indium and tin. Galinstans melting point of -19C, although higher than that of mercury (-39C) still makes it useful for many thermometric application in which mercury is currently employed. The primary advantage of Galinstan over mercury is that Galinstans component metals all have much lower levels of toxicity than mercury. For this reason a major application for Galinstan is in medical diagnostic thermometers where one does not want to risk exposing patients or clinical staff to mercury in the event that a thermometer should break. Advantages of mercury as a thermometric liquid: y y y y y It is a good conductor of heat and therefore the whole liquid reaches the temperature of the surroundings quickly. It does not wet (cling to the sides of) the tube. It has a high boiling point. It expands uniformly (linear expansion) and responds quickly to temperature changes, hence is sensitive. It has a visible meniscus.

Disadvantages y y y y Mercury is very poisonous. its expansively is fairly low. it is expensive. It has a high freezing point therefore it cannot be used in places where the temperature gets very low.

Gas Thermometer
Like liquids, gasses also experience changes in mechanical properties in response to changes in temperature. Unlike a liquid, a gas has no fixed volume and will expand to fill whatever container is holding it. When a gas is confined to a fixed volume, however, its pressure will increase in response to increasing temperature, or decrease in response to decreasing temperature. This effect can be readily observed by putting an empty, but sealed plastic soda or water bottle in the refrigerator. As the air inside cools, the volume of the bottle shrinks because the internal pressure drops.

While the coefficient of thermal expansion for a liquid is highly dependent on that particular liquid, the relationship between pressure and temperature for a gas is largely independent of the particular gas in question. The behavior of most gasses conforms substantially to the ideal gas law: PV = nRT Where P is the pressure (Pa), V is the volume (m3), n is the number of moles of gas, R is the gas constant (8.314 Pa*m3/mole*K), and T is the absolute temperature (K). If one solves for P, it becomes clear that pressure is a linear function of absolute temperature, and that pressure becomes zero at absolute zero.

Figure 2.- Manometric Gas Bulb Thermometer An important feature of the ideal gas law is that it doesnt require any special constants that are dependent on the exact nature of the gas, and the relation is substantially linear over a wide temperature range. The key to exploiting the ideal gas law for temperature measurement

is in being able to either hold pressure constant and measure volume, or hold volume constant and measure pressure. A sealed bulb of the gas sample to be used for the temperature measurement is attached to a manometer (a pressure measuring instrument). The heart of this device is a column of fluid with a vacuum at the top. The height to which the column rises, is read off on an associated scale to indicate pressure. Unlike a typical manometer, this instrument also provides an auxiliary adjustment tube attached by a flexible coupling. The adjustment tube is moved up or down so that the level of the manometers working fluid at the point which it interfaces with the gas bulb is maintained at a uniform level. This ensures that the gas sample in the bulb is maintained at a constant volume. Although a manometric temperature sensor like the one shown above can provide significant advantages, its use is also subject to a number of limitations. For example, if a real gas is cooled to the point very close to absolute zero, its volume will not in actuality shrink to zero. At sufficiently low temperatures the gas will liquefy or even solidify, below which points it will contract much more slowly with decreasing temperature - as the material is no longer in its gaseous phase, it no longer obeys the ideal gas law. Also, under conditions where the gas simultaneously exists in both gaseous and liquid phases, the ideal gas law no longer predicts pressure. Instead, pressure is determined by the materials vapor pressure, which is strictly a function of temperature. If one operates a gas-law based thermometer under a suitable set of conditions, it can provide a high degree of linearity.

Bimetallic Strip Thermometers


Bulb thermometers are good for measuring temperature accurately, but they are harder to use when the goal is to control the temperature. The bimetallic strip thermometer, because it is made of metal, is good at controlling things.

Figure 3. - Bimetal Thermometer The principle behind a bimetallic strip thermometer relies on the fact that different metals expand at different rates as they warm up. By bonding two different metals together, you can make a simple electric controller that can withstand fairly high temperatures. This sort of controller is often found in ovens. A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement. The strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated, usually steel and copper, or in some cases brass instead of copper. The strips are joined together throughout their length by riveting, brazing or welding. The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the opposite direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner side when cooled. Solids, like liquids and gasses, also expand and contract in response to temperature changes. When temperature increases, most solids expand in all dimensions. For amorphous materials, such as glass and metals, the change in dimension is equal along all axis. For materials which have different properties along different axis, such as crystalline materials or materials with a grain structure such as wood, the degree of thermal expansion can differ significantly depending on the dimension along which it is measured. Whereas the coefficient of thermal expansion for a liquid is normally characterized by changes in volume, the corresponding coefficient for a solid is normally characterized as change in length, or a linear coefficient of thermal expansion. As is the case for CTEs of liquids, the CTEs of solids also vary based on the solids composition and over temperature. Note that even when one considers the geometric relationship between linear and volumetric characterization , the CTEs for solids tend to be much lower than those for liquids.

Figure 4. - Bimetal Strip While CTEs for solids are normally only a few tens of parts-per-million/C, they can manifest themselves quite noticeably. One familiar example can be seen when attempting to open a tight lid on a glass jar. By running hot tap water over the lid the resulting expansion of the lid is often enough to loosen it to the point where it can be easily removed. If the thermal expansion effect in solids is so small, how can it be used to create useful sensors? The most common means of exploiting thermal expansion is through the bimetallic strip, where two strips of metals with differing CTEs are bonded together along their lengths, as shown in Figure 3. Because the two materials have differing CTEs, their lengths will change by differing amounts in response to temperature changes. While these changes in length may be small, and the difference between them smaller yet, these small differences will be reflected in a more noticeable change in the curvature of the bonded strip. To implement a practical thermometer, the amount of curvature realizable with a short strip of material may not be sufficient. For this reason bimetallic strips are typically fashioned into a coil. One end of the coil is fixed, and an indicating pointer is affixed to the free end, as shown in Figure 3. This type of bimetallic thermometer is popular for many applications, one common example being the cooking thermometers used to determine whether meat is sufficiently welldone. Another common application for bimetallic thermometers is in temperature controls. For example, if one replaces the indicator dial with electrical contacts, one can realize a temperature-sensitive switch. Another way to exploit the bimetallic principal is to use a bimetallic disk rather than a strip. The disk is manufactured so that it has a slight convex bias to one side. Advantages: y Simple, robust and inexpensive. y It has good accuracy. y It can measure temperature in the range of (-40 to 550) in Celsius. y It can withstand 50% overage temperature measurement. Disadvantages: y y y Not recommended for measurement of temperature above 550 degree Celsius. The metals undergo permanent warp distortion. Usage is limited to local mounting.

Phase-Transition Temperature Measurement

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Solids and liquids typically experience relatively small changes in length and volume as a result of temperature changes. Many materials, however, experience substantial changes in volume either during the transition between solid and liquid phases or close to the transition point. Water, for example, expands significantly just before it freezes into ice. Another example, familiar to anyone who has made candles or sealed canning jars with hot paraffin wax is that the wax shrinks substantially as it cools and solidifies from its molten state. The dramatic changes in volume of waxes near their solid-liquid transition points is the basis of the wax-pellet thermostat (Figure 5a.). When the device is cold (Figure 5a), the wax pellet inside a canister is at minimum volume. This allows a pin to enter the canister to a maximal degree, resulting in the canister being forced into a valve-closed position by a return spring.

Figure 5. - Wax Pellet Thermostat in closed (a) and open (b) states When the assembly heats up, the wax begins to melt and expand. This forces the pin out of the wax canister (Figure 5b), moving the canister against the return spring and opening the valve. The trip-temperature of a wax thermostat is determined both by the devices mechanical design and by the temperature at which the wax experiences its greatest change in volume. This temperature, in turn, can be controlled to within a range of a few degrees to tens of degrees by careful formulation of the wax. Currently available thermostat waxes can provide volumetric changes in the range of 10%-20%, with transition temperatures ranging from approximately 20C to over 100C, depending on the formulation. Although wax thermostats can be used in a wide range of applications where one needs to obtain a mechanical motion in response to temperature changes over a relatively narrow range, perhaps the common application of wax pellet thermostats is in automotive cooling systems. When an engine is below its operating temperature, the thermostat remains in the closed position, preventing water from circulating through the radiator and being cooled. When the engine reaches operating temperature, the thermostat valve begins to open and allow water circulation, cooling the engine.

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Electric method
THE RTD
The electrical conductivity of a metal depends on the movement of electrons through its crystal lattice. Due to thermal excitation, the electrical resistance of a conductor varies according to its temperature and this forms the basic principles of resistance thermometry. The effect is most commonly exhibited as an increase in resistance with increasing temperature, a positive temperature coefficient of resistance. When utilizing this effect for temperature measurement, a large value of temperature coefficient (the greatest possible change of resistance with temperature) is deal; however, stability of the characteristic over the short and long term is vital if practical use is to made of the conductor in question.

Metal Film RTDs


In the newest construction technique, a platinum or metal-glass slurry film is deposited or screened onto a small flat ceramic substrate, etched with a laser-trimming system, and sealed. The film RTD offers substantial reduction in assembly time and has the further advantage of increased resistance for a given size. Due to the manufacturing technology, the device size itself is small, which means it can respond quickly to step changes in temperature. Film RTDs are presently less stable than their hand-made counterparts, but they are becoming more popular because of their decided advantages in size and production cost. These advantages should provide the impetus for future research needed to improve stability. Metals - All metals produce a positive change in resistance for a positive change in temperature. This, of course, is the main function of an RTD.As we shall soon see, system error is minimized when the nominal value of the RTD resistance is large. This implies a metal wire with a high resistivity. The lower the resistivity of the metal, the more material we will have to use. Because of their lower resistivitys, gold and silver are rarely used as RTD elements. Tungsten has a relatively high resistivity, but is reserved for very high temperature applications because it is extremely brittle and difficult to work. Copper is used occasionally as an RTD element. Its low resistivity forces the element to be longer than a platinum element, but its linearity and very low cost make it an economical alternative. Its upper temperature limit is only about 120C. The most common RTDs are made of platinum, nickel, or nickel alloys. The economical nickel derivative wires are used over a

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limited temperature range. They are quite non-linear and tend to drift with time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the obvious choice. Resistance Measurement The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD range from 10 ohms for the bird-cage model to several thousand ohms for the film RTD. The single most common value is 100 ohms at 0C. Both the slope and the absolute value are small numbers, especially when we consider the fact that the measurement wires leading to the sensor may be several ohms or even tens of ohms. A small lead impedance can contribute a significant error to our temperature measurement. Ten ohm lead impedance implies 10/.385 26C error in measurement. Even the temperature coefficient of the lead wire can contribute a measurable error. The classical method of avoiding this problem has been the use of a bridge. Resistance to Temperature Conversion The RTD is a more linear device than the thermocouple, but it still requires curve-fitting. The Callendar-Van Dusen equation has been used for years to approximate the RTD curve:

Where: RT = Resistance at Temperature T Ro = Resistance at T = 0C = Temperature coefficient at T = 0C (typically +0.00392//C) =1.49 (typical value for .00392 platinum) =0T > 0 0.11 (typical) T < 0 The exact values for coefficients , , and are determined by testing the RTD at four temperatures and solving the resultant equations. This familiar equation was replaced in 1968 by a 20th order polynomial in order to provide a more accurate curve fit.

Thermistors
Like the RTD, the thermistor is also a temperature-sensitive resistor. While the thermo-couple is the most versatile temperature transducer and the PRTD is the most stable, the word that best

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describes the thermistor is sensitive. Of the three major categories of sensors, the thermistor exhibits by far the largest parameter change with temperature. Thermistors are generally composed of semiconductor materials. Although positive temperature coefficient units are available, most thermistor have a negative temperature coefficient (TC); that is, their resistance decreases with increasing temperature. The negative TC can be as large as several percent per degree C, allowing the thermistor circuit to detect minute changes in temperature which could not be observed with an RTD or thermocouple circuit. The price we pay for this increased sensitivity is loss of linearity. The thermistor is an extremely non-linear device which is highly dependent upon process parameters. Consequently, manufacturers have not standardized thermistor curves to the extent that RTD and thermocouple curves have been standardized

Measurement
The high resistivity of the thermistor affords it a distinct measurement advantage. The fourwire resistance measurement may not be required as it is with RTDs. For example, a common thermistor value is 5000 at 25C. With a typical TC of 4%/C, a measurement lead resistance of 10 produces only .05C error. This error is a factor of 500 times less than the equivalent RTD error. Disadvantages - Because they are semiconductors, thermistors are more susceptible to permanent decalibration at high temperatures than are RTDs or thermocouples. The use of thermistors is generally limited to a few hundred degrees Celsius, and manufacturers warn that extended exposures even well below maximum operating limits will cause the thermistor to drift out of its speci ed tolerance. Thermistors can be made very small which means they will respond quickly to temperature changes. It also means that their small thermal mass makes them especially susceptible to selfheating errors. Thermistors are a good deal more fragile than RTDs or thermocouples and they must be carefully mounted to avoid crushing or bond separation.

The IC Sensor
An innovation in thermometry is the IC (Integrated Circuit)temperature transducer. These are available in both voltage and current-output congurations. Both supply an output that is linearly proportional to absolute temperature. Typical values are 1 A/K and 10 mV/K F. Some integrated sensors even represent temperature in a digital output format that can be read directly by a microprocessor. Except that they offer a very linear output with temperature, these IC sensors share all the disadvantages of thermistor. They are semiconductor devices and thus have a limited temperature range. The same problems of self-heating and fragility are evident and they require an external power source.

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These devices provide a convenient way to produce an easy-to-read output that is proportional to temperature. Such a need arises in thermo-couple reference junction hardware, and in fact these devices are increasingly used for thermocouple compensation.

THERMOCOUPLE
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat into electricity. They are inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve. Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature. Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of measurements. Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.

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Principle of operation
In 1821, the GermanEstonian physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that when any conductor is subjected to a thermal gradient, it will generate a voltage. This is now known as the thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect. Any attempt to measure this voltage necessarily involves connecting another conductor to the "hot" end. This additional conductor will then also experience the temperature gradient, and develop a voltage of its own which will oppose the original. Fortunately, the magnitude of the effect depends on the metal in use. Using a dissimilar metal to complete the circuit creates a circuit in which the two legs generate different voltages, leaving a small difference in voltage available for measurement. That difference increases with temperature, and is between 1 and 70 microvolts per degree Celsius (V/C) for standard metal combinations. The voltage is not generated at the junction of the two metals of the thermocouple but rather along that portion of the length of the two dissimilar metals that is subjected to a temperature gradient. Because both lengths of dissimilar metals experience the same temperature gradient, the end result is a measurement of the temperature at the thermocouple junction.

Cold junction compensation


Thermocouples measure the temperature difference between two points, not absolute temperature. To measure a single temperature one of the junctions normally the cold junction is maintained at a known reference temperature, and the other junction is at the temperature to be sensed.

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Having a junction of known temperature, while useful for laboratory calibration, is not convenient for most measurement and control applications. Instead, they incorporate an artificial cold junction using a thermally sensitive device such as a thermistor or diode to measure the temperature of the input connections at the instrument, with special care being taken to minimize any temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction applied. This is known as cold junction compensation. Some integrated circuits such as the LT1025 are designed to output a compensated voltage based on thermocouple type and cold junction temperature.

Extension wire
Extension grade wires made of the same metals as a higher-grade thermocouple are used to connect it to a measuring instrument some distance away without introducing additional junctions between dissimilar materials which would generate unwanted voltages; the connections to the extension wires, being of like metals, do not generate a voltage. In the case of platinum thermocouples, extension wire is a copper alloy, since it would be prohibitively expensive to use platinum for extension wires. The extension wire is specified to have a very similar thermal coefficient of EMF to the thermocouple, but only over a narrow range of temperatures; this reduces the cost significantly

Laws for thermocouples


Law of homogeneous material A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material by the application of heat alone, regardless of how it might vary in cross section. In other words, temperature changes in the wiring between the input and output do not affect the output voltage, provided all wires are made of the same materials as the thermocouple. No current flows in the circuit made of a single metal by the application of heat alone. Law of intermediate materials The algebraic sum of the thermoelectric emfs in a circuit composed of any number of dissimilar materials is zero if all of the junctions are at a uniform temperature. So If a third metal is inserted in either wire and if the two new junctions are at the same temperature, there will be no net voltage generated by the new metal. Law of successive or intermediate temperatures If two dissimilar homogeneous materials produce thermal emf1 when the junctions are at T1 and T2 and produce thermal emf2 when the junctions are at T2 and T3 , the emf generated when the junctions are at T1 and T3 will be emf1 + emf2,provided T1<T2<T3.

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Temperature Range
Thermocouples provide measurement over a large temperature range--from 200 to 2600 degrees Celsius. This allows thermocouples to be used in a variety of circumstances in different industries. Their vast temperature range also allows them to be used at high temperatures where most temperature gauges do not work.

Applications
Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to 2300 C. They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0100 C with 0.1 C accuracy. For such applications thermistors and resistance temperature detectors are more suitable. Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes. Advantages of thermocouples:
y y y y y y

Capable of being used to directly measure temperatures up to 2600 oC. The thermocouple junction may be grounded and brought into direct contact with the material being measured. They are quit rugged type, i.e. they can withstand rough handling. Output Signal is electrical and they can be used for indicating, recording or microprocessor based control system. Output signal, i.e. emf is independent of length or diameter of wire. They have excellent stability for a long period of time.

Disadvantages of thermocouples:
y

y y

Temperature measurement with a thermocouple requires two temperatures be measured, the junction at the work end (the hot junction) and the junction where wires meet the instrumentation copper wires (cold junction). To avoid error the cold junction temperature is in general compensated in the electronic instruments by measuring the temperature at the terminal block using with a semiconductor, thermistor, or RTD. Thermocouples operations are relatively complex with potential sources of error. The materials of which thermocouple wires are made are not inert and the thermoelectric voltage developed along the length of the thermocouple wire may be influenced by corrosion etc. The relationship between the process temperature and the thermocouple signal (millivolt) is not linear. The calibration of the thermocouple should be carried out while it is in use by comparing it to a nearby comparison thermocouple. If the thermocouple is removed

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and placed in a calibration bath, the output integrated over the length is not reproduced exactly.

Noncontact Temperature Measurement


Noncontact temperature measurement is the preferred technique for small, moving, or inaccessible objects; dynamic processes that require fast response; and temperatures <1000C.

Radiation Thermometers (RTs)


Radiation Thermometers (Pyrometers) are non-contact temperature sensors that measure temperature from the amount of thermal electromagnetic radiation received from a spot on the object of measurement. This group of sensors includes both spot or "point" measuring devices in addition to line measuring radiation thermometers, which produce 1-D and, with known relative motion, can produce 2-D temperature distributions, and thermal imaging, or area measuring, thermometers which measure over an area from which the resulting image can be displayed as a 2-D temperature map of the region viewed. A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a process known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an object's surface. The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "" (pyro), and meter, meaning to measure. Pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring temperatures of objects above incandescence (i.e. objects bright to the human eye).

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Principle of operation
A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the thermal radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the StefanBoltzmann law, the constant of proportionality , called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity of the object.

This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for direct contact between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple and Resistance temperature detector (RTDs).

Types of Pyrometer
Brightness/Single-Color Pyrometer. These devices measure and evaluate the intensity, or brightness, of the intercepted thermal radiation. Intensity, or, more generally, spectral radiance, is measured in a narrow wavelength band of the thermal spectrum. Band selection is dictated by the temperature range and the type of material to be measured. The oldest brightness pyrometers compared optical brightness in the visible (red) spectrum at 0.65 m by matching the glowing object to a hot disappearing filament. The term single-color derives from the single narrow wavelength band of red seen by the user. Instruments sensitized to measure in the IR region are also called spectral radiation pyrometers or spectral radiation thermometers. Ratio/Two-Color Pyrometer. This radiation thermometer measures temperatures on the basis of two (or more) discrete wavelengths. The ratio of the brightnesss in separate wavelengths corresponds to color in the visible spectrum. The use of two distinct, visible colors typically red and green has long been popular to infer color temperatures. More recently, the term has broadened from its initial usage to include wavelengths in the infrared. The advantage of ratio measuring is that temperature readings are greatly independent of emissivity fluctuations and/or sight path obscurations. The technique is generally used for temperatures above incandescence (700C,1300F ), but measurements down to 200C (400F) are also possible. Optical Pyrometers Optical Pyrometers work on the basic principle of using the human eye to match the brightness of the hot object to the brightness of a calibrated lamp filament inside the instrument. The

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optical system contains filters that restrict the wavelength-sensitivity of the devices to a narrow wavelength band around 0.65 to 0.66 microns (the red region of the visible spectrum).

Other filters reduce the intensity so that one instrument can have a relatively wide temperature range capability. Needless to say, by restricting the wavelength response of the device to the red region of the visible, it can only be used to measure objects that are hot enough to be incandescent, or glowing. This limits the lower end of the temperature measurement range of these devices to about 700 C. Some experimental devices have been built using light amplifiers to extend the range downwards, but the devices become quite cumbersome, fragile and expensive. Modern radiation thermometers provide the capability to measure within and below the range of the optical pyrometer with equal or better measurement precision plus faster time response, precise emissivity correction capability, better calibration stability, enhanced ruggedness and relatively modest cost. Total radiation pyrometer The total radiation pyrometer receives all the radiation from a particular are of hot body. The term total radiation includes both the visible and invisible radiations. It consists of radiation receiving element and a measuring device. The mirror type radiation pyrometer is shown in figure below. Here, the diaphragm unit along with a mirror is used to focus the radiation on a thermocouple. The distance between the mirror and the thermocouple is adjusted for proper focus.

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Here, the image of the front diaphragm is focused on the thermocouple by the mirror. Therefore, the temperature measurements are independent of the distance of the target If there is any smoke, dust in the space between the tarhet and transducer, it reduces the radiation. Hence negative errors. If there are any heat sources like hot gases and flames, then the meter reading will be high. The characteristic of this pyrometer is non-linear. It has poor sensitivity. This device is not used for temperature lower than 600 to 1200 degree Celsius. Output from this pyrometer is taken to pmmc instrument. Advantages: y y y y Used to measure very high temperature. High output signal and moderate cost. No need to have contact with measuring system. Fast response.

Disadvantage: y y y Non-linear scale. Error will occur. Emmissivity of target material affects the measurements.

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Application: y y y y Used to measure temperature of moving target. Used to measure temperature of a target where physical contact is impossible. Used to measure temperature in corrosive environment. Used to measure invisible rays from radiations

Infrared thermometer
IR Radiation. Infrared is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum beyond the visible (blue to red, 0.4-0.75 m) response of the human eye. IR wavelengths extend from 0.75 m to 1000 m, where the shortest microwaves (radar) begin. Because IR radiation is predominantly generated by heat, it is called thermal radiation. Infrared thermometers infer temperature using a portion of the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by the object of measurement. They are sometimes called laser thermometers if a laser is used to help aim the thermometer, or non-contact thermometers to describe the devices ability to measure temperature from a distance. By knowing the amount of infrared energy emitted by the object and its emissivity, the object's temperature can be determined most of the time. They are a subset of devices more precisely called "Thermal Radiation Thermometers" or Radiation Thermometer for short. The most basic design consists of a lens to focus the infrared thermal radiation on to a detector, which converts the radiant power to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of temperature after being compensated for ambient temperature. This configuration facilitates temperature measurement from a distance without contact with the object to be measured. As such, the infrared thermometer is useful for measuring temperature under circumstances where thermocouples or other probe type sensors cannot be used or do not produce accurate data for a variety of reasons. Some typical circumstances are where the object to be measured is moving; where the object is surrounded by an electromagnetic field, as in induction heating; where the object is contained in a vacuum or other controlled atmosphere; or in applications where a fast response is required, an accurate surface temperature is desired or the object temperature is above the recommended use point of a contact sensors, or contact with a sensor would mar the object or the sensor, or introduce a significant temperature gradient on the object's surface. Infrared thermometers can be used to serve a wide variety of temperature monitoring functions. A few examples provided to this article include:
y y

Detecting clouds for remote telescope operation Checking mechanical equipment or electrical circuit breaker boxes or outlets for hot spots

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y y y y

Checking heater or oven temperature, for calibration and control purposes Detecting hot spots / performing diagnostics in electrical circuit board manufacturing Checking for hot spots in fire fighting situations Monitoring materials in process of heating and cooling, for research and development or manufacturing quality control situations

The most common infrared thermometers are the:


y

Spot Infrared Thermometer or Infrared Pyrometer, which measures the temperature at a spot on a surface (actually a relatively small area determined by the D:S ratio).

Emissivity. This quality defines the fraction of radiation emitted by an object as compared to that emitted by a perfect radiator (blackbody) at the same temperature. Emissivity is determined in part by the type of material and its surface condition, and may vary from close to zero (for a highly reflective mirror) to almost 1 (for a blackbody simulator). Emissivity is used to calculate the true temperature of an object from the measured brightness or spectral radiance. Because an objects emissivity may also vary with wavelength, a radiation thermometer with spectral response matching regions of high emissivity should be selected for a specific application. Emissivity values are listed in the literature for a variety of materials and spectral bands, or these values can be determined empirically.

RADIATION DETECTION Emissivity Adjustment. Temperature reading accuracy depends on the correct adjustment of the instrument to the target emissivity. Preset emissivity values can be used for on-line sensors to monitor targets of constant emissivity. Measurements on those materials with changing emissivities require an accurate and reproducible emissivity adjustment. Surrounding Area Temperature. Thermal target radiation always contains stray radiation emitted by the environment surrounding the target area and reflected by the targets surface. In practice, the ambient temperature is frequently presumed to be the same as the temperature of the sensor. If the target is exposed to a different thermal environment, e.g., inside a heated furnace, inside a cooled chamber, or outdoors facing the open sky, adjustments are necessary for accurate measurement. Separate sensors for the area surrounding the target may be used for automatic temperature calculation. Sight Path Obscuration. Gases, water vapor, dust, and other aerosols in the sight path of a sensor may affect the temperature reading. Using one of the atmospheric windows in the IR region greatly reduces measurement errors. Since both optical channels are equally attenuated, ratio pyrometers are generally immune to sight path obscuration, and the signal color ratio remains unaffected.

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Ambient Temperature Drift. By the nature of their design, radiation detectors are strongly affected by ambient temperature changes. To maintain high measurement accuracy, precise compensation of this temperature drift is required. Temperature drift is specified in error/C or error/F of ambient temperature change.

Summary
Reliable temperature measurements require a great deal of care in selecting and using the transducer, as well as choosing the right measurement system. With proper precautions observed for self-heating, thermal shunting, transducer deceleration, specications and noise reduction, even the most complex temperature monitoring project will produce repeatable, reliable data. Todays data acquisition system assumes a great deal of this burden, allowing us to concentrate on meaningful test results.

Conclusion
Temperature is the most important process variable that requires continuous measurement and monitoring in a process industry. Among the different types of temperature transducers, the most commonly used ones are RTDs and thermocouples. Their popularity is mainly due to their ruggedness, repeatability and wide range of operation. Bare RTDs and thermocouples are rarely used in practice; instead, they are put in protective metallic sheaths. The signal conditioning circuits should be properly designed, so as to avoid the errors due to lead wires in RTDs and variation of cold junction temperatures in thermocouples. There are several cases where the temperature to be measured is more than 2000C, the conventional measuring

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techniques fail to measure the high temperature. Instead, the measurement is carried out from a distance. Radiation pyrometers are used in these situations.

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Pressure measurement

Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure pressure are called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometer could also be referring to a pressure measuring instrument, usually limited to measuring pressures near to atmospheric. The term manometer is often used to refer specifically to liquid column hydrostatic instruments. A vacuum gauge is used to measure the pressure in a vacuumwhich is further divided into two subcategories: high and low vacuum (and sometimes ultra-high vacuum). The applicable pressure range of many of the techniques used to measure vacuums have an overlap. Hence, by combining several different types of gauge, it is possible to measure system pressure continuously from 10 mbar down to 1011 mbar.

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Barometer

Schematic drawing of a simple mercury barometer with vertical mercury column and reservoir at base

Old barometers

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Goethe's device A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. It can measure the pressure exerted by the atmosphere by using water, air, or mercury. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Numerous measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, high pressure systems, and frontal boundaries.

Types Water-based barometers Mercury barometers Aneroid barometers

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Mercury barometers

A mercury barometer has a glass tube of at least 84 cm in height, closed at one end, with an open mercury-filled reservoir at the base. The weight of the mercury creates a vacuum in the top of the tube. Mercury in the tube adjusts until the weight of the mercury column balances the atmospheric force exerted on the reservoir. High atmospheric pressure places more force on the reservoir, forcing mercury higher in the column. Low pressure allows the mercury to drop to a lower level in the column by lowering the force placed on the reservoir. Since higher temperature at the instrument will reduce the density of the mercury, the scale for reading the height of the mercury is adjusted to compensate for this effect. Torricelli documented that the height of the mercury in a barometer changed slightly each day and concluded that this was due to the changing pressure in the atmosphere . He wrote:

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"We live submerged at the bottom of an ocean of elementary air, which is known by incontestable experiments to have weight". The mercury barometer's design gives rise to the expression of atmospheric pressure in inches or millimeters (torr): the pressure is quoted as the level of the mercury's height in the vertical column. 1 atmosphere is equivalent to about 760 millimeters, of mercury. Design changes to make the instrument more sensitive, simpler to read, and easier to transport resulted in variations such as the basin, siphon, wheel, cistern, Fortin, multiple folded, stereometric, and balance barometers. Fitzroy barometers combine the standard mercury barometer with a thermometer, as well as a guide of how to interpret pressure changes. Fortin barometers use a variable displacement mercury cistern, usually constructed with a thumbscrew pressing on a leather diaphragm bottom. This compensates for displacement of mercury in the column with varying pressure. To use a Fortin barometer, the level of mercury is set to the zero level before the pressure is read on the column. Some models also employ a valve for closing the cistern, enabling the mercury column to be forced to the top of the column for transport. This prevents water-hammer damage to the column in transit. On June 5, 2007, a European Union directive was enacted to restrict the sale of mercury, thus effectively ending the production of new mercury barometers in Europe.

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Aneroid barometers

An aneroid barometer, invented by the French 19th century engineer and inventor Lucien Vidie, uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell. This aneroid capsule (cell) is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated

capsule (or usually more capsules) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. In addition, the mechanism is made deliberately "stiff" so that tapping the barometer reveals whether the pressure is rising or falling as the pointer moves.

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Piezometer

Piezometer to measure sea depth

A piezometer is a small-diameter observation well used to measure the hydraulic head of groundwater in aquifers. Similarly, it may also be a standpipe, tube, vibrating wire piezometer or manometer used to measure the pressure of a fluid at a specific location in a column. Piezometers should ideally have a very short screen and filter zone, so that they can represent the hydraulic head at a point in the aquifer. If the filter zone is located at a specific isolated depth, the piezometer is defined punctual, or, if the piezometer has a filter on all its length, is defined windowed. The windowed piezometer is cheaper than the punctual one, but cannot

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give information on vertical flows. The main problem with the piezometers is the time-lag between the variation of piezometric level in the aquifer and the respective variation in the piezometer. This time-lag is related to the piezometer (type, shape, etc.) and the soil. Modern piezometers with little time-lag are the piezometric cells, where the pressure on a membrane is measured by the pressure of gas (pneumatic piezometric cells), by vibrating thread extensimeters or by electrical extensimeters (strain gauges piezometers).

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Bourdon gauge

The Bourdon pressure gauge uses the principle that a flattened tube tends to change to a more circular cross-section when pressurized. Although this change in cross-section may be hardly noticeable, and thus involving moderate stresses within the elastic range of easily workable materials, the strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil, elastically, as it is pressurized. Eugene Bourdon patented his gauge in France in 1849, and it was widely adopted because of its superior sensitivity, linearity, and accuracy; Edward Ashcroft purchased Bourdon's American patent rights in 1852 and became a major manufacturer of gauges. Also in 1849, Bernard Schaeffer in Magdeburg, Germany patented a successful diaphragm (see below) pressure gauge, which together with the Bourdon gauge, revolutionized pressure measurement in industry. But in 1875 after Bourdon's patents

expired, his company Schaeffer and Budenberg also manufactured Bourdon tube gauges. In practice, a flattened thin-wall, closed-end tube is connected at the hollow end to a fixed pipe containing the fluid pressure to be measured. As the pressure increases, the closed end moves in an arc, and this motion is converted into the rotation of a (segment of a) gear by a connecting link which is usually adjustable. A small diameter pinion gear is on the pointer shaft, so the motion is magnified further by the gear ratio. The positioning of the indicator card behind the pointer, the initial pointer shaft position, the linkage length and initial position, all provide means to calibrate the pointer to indicate the desired range of pressure for variations in the behaviour of the Bourdon tube itself. Differential pressure can be measured by gauges containing two different Bourdon tubes, with connecting linkages.

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Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure, relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, as opposed to absolute pressure; vacuum is sensed as a reverse motion. Some aneroid barometers use Bourdon tubes closed at both ends (but most use diaphragms or capsules, see below). When the measured pressure is rapidly pulsing, such as when the gauge is near a reprocating pump, an orfice restriction in the connecting pipe is frequently used to avoid unnecessary wear on the gears and provide an average reading; when the whole gauge is subject to mechanical vibration, the entire case including the pointer and indicator card can be filled with an oil or glycerin. Typical high-quality modern gauges provide an accuracy of 2% of span, and a special high-precision gauge can be as accurate as 0.1% of full scale. In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the case. This particular gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:

Indicator side with card and dial

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Mechanical side with Bourdon tube

the left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is calibrated in centimetres of mercury on its inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale.

the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure and is calibrated in fractions of 1 kgf/cm on its inner scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale.

[edit] Mechanical details

Mechanical details

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Stationary parts:

A: Receiver block. This joins the inlet pipe to the fixed end of the Bourdon tube (1) and secures the chassis plate (B). The two holes receive screws that secure the case.

B: Chassis plate. The face card is attached to this. It contains bearing holes for the axles.

C: Secondary chassis plate. It supports the outer ends of the axles. D: Posts to join and space the two chassis plates.

Moving Parts: 1. Stationary end of Bourdon tube. This communicates with the inlet pipe through the receiver block. 2. Moving end of Bourdon tube. This end is sealed. 3. Pivot and pivot pin. 4. Link joining pivot pin to lever (5) with pins to allow joint rotation. 5. Lever. This an extension of the sector gear (7). 6. Sector gear axle pin. 7. Sector gear. 8. Indicator needle axle. This has a spur gear that engages the sector gear (7) and extends through the face to drive the indicator needle. Due to the short distance between the lever arm link boss and the pivot pin and the difference between the effective radius of the sector gear and that of the spur gear, any motion of the Bourdon tube is greatly amplified. A small motion of the tube results in a large motion of the indicator needle.
9. Hair spring to preload the gear train to eliminate gear lash and hysteresis.

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