CHANNEL-LEVEE SYSTEM THE MAJOR CONTROLLING MECHANISM FOR THE SEDIMENT DEPOSITION ON THE INDUS FAN Asif Inam1

and M. Tahir2
2

National Institute of Oceanography, Karachi Pakistan Fugro-Geodetic Limited, 28-B, KDA Scheme No. 1, Karachi75350, Pakistan

Abstract: The Indus fan is the most pronounced and extensive physiographic and sedimentary feature of the Arabian Sea as well as it is the second largest submarine fan in the world. It has developed off the passive continental margin of Pakistan and India, covering an area of about 1.1 x106 km2, which makes it one of the largest sediment bodies in the ocean basins, totalling ~5 x 106 km3 in volume. The present Indus fan owes its evolution and development mainly to the Himalayan orogeny, the Indus River and its submarine canyon and the resulting channel-levee system, greatly influenced by the sealevel fluctuations, since late Oligocene/Miocene times. The turbidity currents are the dominating controlling process, along with the pelagic sedimentation and mass wasting deposition, in the formation of the Indus fan. The intensity and frequency of the turbidity currents varied in response to the sea-level changes. Turbidity currents, mainly during the late Tertiary sea-level low stands, transported sediments to the fan from the Indus delta, through the Indus canyon and into an extensive, complex, meandering and braided network of fan valleys. Silt and sand were deposited within the channels whereas, clay and sand-size mica were deposited from over bank flows on the levees. During the high sea-level stands the terrigenous sediments were generally trapped within the Indus delta and thus the fan became the site of predominantly pelagic/hemipelagic sedimentation; this is represented by the draping of foraminiferal-nannoplankton ooze over most of the channel-levee system. Besides indicating increased 1

surface water productivity the pelagic interval may also indicate decreased clastic influx. Another mechanism that could produce pelagic deposits on the elevated levee deposits is the abandonment of active channels, which would allow pelagic/hemipelagic sediments to accumulate until the channels become re-activated or another channel migrates across the area. Introduction: The Indus fan is the most pronounced and extensive physiographic and sedimentary feature of the Arabian Sea as well as it is the second largest submarine fan in the world (Figure 1). It has developed off the passive continental margin of Pakistan and India, covering an area of about 1.1 x106 km2, with a length of 1500 km and a width of 960 km maximum (Kolla and Coumes, 1987). This makes it one of the largest sediment bodies in the ocean basins, totalling ~5 x 106 km3 in volume. Its detrital sedimentary record is an important repository of information on the uplift and erosion of the western most Himalayas. However, the recent provenance study by Clift et al. (2001) reveals that the Indus fan has been receiving its sediment flux not only from Himalaya, rather predominantly from the tectonic blocks of the suture zone and the Karakoram. They also suggest that the Indus River and fan system was initiated shortly after the India-Asia collision at ~55 Ma, instead of the generally considered period of late Oligocene/Miocene previously. The present Indus fan owes its evolution and development mainly to the Himalayan orogeny, the Indus River and its submarine canyons and the resulting channel-levee system build up. SEA LEVEL CHANGES Sea level changes have had a profound impact on the growth and development of the Indus Fan. The channel-levee systems on the fan were formed during low sea level stands (Ayub, 1992). It is believed that the formation of channel-levee systems did not begin until after sea-level had fallen significantly. During this interval of low sealevel stand, the Indus River derived sediments, which were presumably deposited at the shelf/delta front during the previous 2

high stand(s), were transported to the fan as a large unchannelised turbidity flows.

Figure 1: Location of Indus Fan and the area of study.

The amount of sediment supply to the channel-levee systems receded in Holocene and probably resulted in the landward shifting of the focus of recent sediment deposition on the Indus fan. A further rise in sea-level eventually resulted in a complete cessation in the supply of terrigenous sediments to the channel-levee systems. Consequently, the role of channelised turbidity flow processes became less effective on the fan and pelagic and/or hemipelagic process dominated. The process of avulsion appears to be responsible for the initiation of new channel-levee systems. As this process shifts the locus of deposition from one part of the fan to another, either during a low sea-level stand or a low sea-level stand followed by a high sea-level, it becomes a major factor that controlled the growth pattern of the Indus Fan (Ayub, 1992; Kenyon et al., 1995).

During low sea-level stands, turbidity currents were strong and contained a mixture of both mud and sand. This resulted in the deposition of sandy sediments on the lobe and at the end of the channel system with a spill over of thicker flows from within the channel, building the levees. However, the decrease in the size of the Indus fan channel-levee system down-fan suggests that the coarser sediments were deposited on the axis of channels on the upper fan while the finer sediments over spilled from channels, and consequently not enough material was available to supply the middle and lower fan areas to form a large channel-levee system on the lower fan. CHANNEL-LEVEE SYSTEM The vast overlapping and stacked channel-levee system, a strikingly characteristic feature of the Indus fan, commenced developing during the Neogene period (Ravene et al., 1988; Clift et al. 2001). This canyon-channel-levee system has produced a complex seafloor bathymetry in the upper and middle fan areas, which in itself is expressive of the severity and extent of the lateral migration of the channel-levee system. The GLORIA system mapped at least twenty channel-levee systems on the Indus Fan (Figure 2). Of the twenty channel-levee systems mapped, six are large and fourteen are small (Ayub, 1992; Prins et al., 1995; Kenyon et al., 1995). The fourteen smaller channel-levee systems are distributary complexes of two large channel-levee systems A and B. The two youngest large channel levee systems show a lower order of distributary complexes developed on the middle fan, each consisting of seven smaller channel-levee systems (Prins et al., 1995). Three canyon complexes have been mapped on the shelf edge proximal to the mouth of the Indus River (Mchargue and Webb, 1986; Kolla and Coumes, 1987 and Ravenne et al., 1988). Channel A is the most recent channel-levee system because it is connected to the present Indus Canyon and has a floor that backscatters more strongly than any of the other first order channels. The area surrounding the channels has a low level of back scatter in the upper part and moderate levels in the lower part. 4

Initial Point of Avulsion

Channel A

Figure 2: GLORIA sonograph of the Indus Fan. At a point identified as "the initial point of avulsion" at least six or seven minor lower order channel-levee systems originated from the area and the large channel-levee systems physically transformed to lower order channel-levee systems. The present Indus submarine canyon is a prominent elongated bathymetric feature in the eastern part of the continental margin off Indus. The canyon appeared to be active during the Pleistocene time. It remains a typical erosional (degradational) feature without levees up to the outer-shelf/upper slope area where it gradually becomes transitional in nature by having both levees and erosional base, in the lower slope region. The canyon becomes aggradational in character, with large levee deposits and without significant erosion

at base, and enters the Indus Fan as the youngest large channel-levee system, channel A of the Indus canyon (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Detail bathymetry of Indus Canyon and Channel A of the Indus Fan (from von Rad and Tahir, 1997) Seismic data have not only shown the eastward migration of the present canyon but also reveals at least two buried older submarine canyons systems of the Indus in the west of present canyon (Kolla Coumes, 1984, McHargue and Webb, 1986). These canyon complexes have been the main mechanism for transporting the sediments of the Indus River to the deeper parts of the Arabian Sea by which the vast Indus fan has been developed. SEDIMENT CHARACTERISTIC The distribution of grain-size of the sediment within turbidites is important in studying the behaviour of the turbidity currents. It appears that sediment has been transported to the fan as thick muddy and thinner sandy turbidites (Figure 4). Sandy turbidity currents were fast and capable of eroding the axis of the channel and generally would not overtop levees and can transport sand a greater 6

Figure 4: Typical levee sequence in the distal part from the channel in the lower region of the upper Indus fan. (Profile SO122-26, water depth ~ 3100m, V.E. = X53)

distance (Mutti, 1979; Shanmugam and Moiola, 1988; Rasul, 1992). The thick and slow moving muddy turbidity currents would build prominent levees via the process of over spilling (Stow and Bowen, 1980; Bowen et al., 1984). The presence of sand in the middle/lower fan is probably caused by the high speed turbidity currents rich in sandy material, whereas the formation of levees is due to a slower moving, muddy turbidite causing over spilling. Based on the textural morphology of the fan, it is suggested that turbidity currents were of both erosional and depositional types. The presence of fine-grained sediments and sand-sized mica on the levees of the most recently active channel A on the upper fan and coarser-grained terrigenous material within the channel suggest that channelised turbidity currents, and over spilling from the channel walls were important mechanisms of sediment transport on the upper fan during the Pleistocene (Figure 5). Since the depth of the channels (up to 400m) and the levee heights (up to 600m) are considerable, it is inferred that the turbidity currents were very thick (> 600m). Unchannelised turbidity-sheet flow deposition was dominant in front of the terminated channels. These unchannelised deposits are much sandier (e.g., CD27/34) than the levee deposits (e.g., CD27/5). 7

Figure 5: Sediment texture of the cores changes with reference to its proximity to channel-levee system (Rasul, 1992; Inam 1996). Since the development of the channel-levee systems, the flow became channelised and sand started depositing within the channel axis, interchannel, and the channel-mouth lobe. Detrital material of Indus origin present in cores CD27/27 and CD27/34 is indicative of sand transportation to the distal part of the fan. The lack of sediment supply to the Indus canyon resulted in almost complete cessation of turbidity current transport. Away from the fluvial influence, pelagic calcareous components become significant whereas, fine to coarse grained sediments are widespread near the channel. Hemipelagic sediment becomes important in and around the channel-levee system. . On the Indus fan, a few centimetre thick reddish brown iron-rich crust separates the terrigenous silty/clayey turbidites from the overlying pelagic foraminiferal ooze. The iron crust (2-3cm thick) within sediments on the fan has been recognised because of a sharp change in colour and oxidation state within the sediment (Rasul, 1992; Inam, 1996). The sediment below the iron-crust is dark grey and reduced, with a major Indus river component. The crust separates the terrigenous and the hemipelagic from the over-lying pelagic foraminiferal ooze. The depth at which the iron-crust is observed is dependent on the location of the cores with respect to 8

the channel-levee system. The formation of the crust is related to the Holocene sea-level rise, and the input and dispersion of fluvial sediment. Iron-rich crusts or pans are a world-wide marine phenomenon and are reported to mark the cessation of the supply of terrigenous sediment to deep sea after the post glacial sea level rise (after Pleistocene). The iron-crust is always post-glacial, and is observed at or very near the Pleistocene/Holocene interface (Ewing et al., 1958; Broecker et al., 1960; Heezen et al., 1966; McGeary and Damuth, 1973; Gardner et al., 1982 and Wallace, et al., 1988; Damuth, 1994). The increase in carbonate content also reflects the waning influence of terrigenous sediment from the Indus River during the rise in the sea-level. It is suggested that the variation in the carbonate content on the fan is a consequence of climatic changes in the Quaternary period and attributed to the biological productivity in the post-glacial period under the deteriorating sediment supply from the Indus River. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Being one of the most important and largest geological features on the earth, the Indus Fan has not been investigated and explored adequately as it deserved. Apart from its scientific significance and interest, it is expected to be the next frontier for the future petroleum economies. The wide spread three dimensional channel levee complex holds the key for the hydrocarbon exploration. We strongly support the proposal for drilling the Indus Fan in order to investigate the erosional and tectonic history of the western Himalaya, Karakoram and Tibet, with reference to possible links to the evolution of the southwest Indian Monsoon. The implementation of the proposed drilling projects will also provide vital information from the point of view of future hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We wish to thank our British, Dutch and German colleagues participating in the offshore studies during RRS Charles Darwin, R/V Tyro and R/V SONNE cruises of the Indus Fan. We are 9

indebted to all scientists, technicians and crew members for their commitment during the Indus Fan Project; Netherlands Indian Ocean Programme; PAKOMIN I & II. The authors gratefully acknowledge the dedication, untiring commitment of Chief scientists Dr. U. von Rad, Dr. H. Roeser, Dr. C. Reichert, Dr. E. Flueh of SO-90 & SO-130, SO-122 and SO-123 cruises respectively and all shipboard scientists. REFERENCE:

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Prins, M.A., G. Postma, A.C. Cramp, N. Kenyon, 1995. Late Quaternary sedimentation on the Indus Fan. Abstract, Oral presentation in the workshop on the Arabian Sea Texel, Netherlands. Rasul, N., 1992. Late Quaternary to present day coarse-grained sedimentation of the Indus fluvial-marine system. University of Wales' PhD Thesis (unpub.). Ravenne,C., Coumes, F. and Estece, J. P., 1988. Relative sea level changes and depositional modes of the shelf and the deepsea fan of the Indus. In: Bally A.W. (Editor), Atlas of Seismic Stratigraphy, Am.Assoc.Petrol. Geol., Studies in Geology, no. 27: 270-276. Shanmugam,S.,and R.J. Moiola, 1988.Submarine fans: Characteristics, models, classification, and reservoir potential. Earth-Science Rev., 24 :383-428.Stow, D,A.V., and A.J. Bowen, 1980. A physical model for the transport and sorting of fine-grained sediment by turbidity currents. Sedimentology, 27:31-46. Von Rad, U., Tahir, M., 1997. Late Quaternary sedimentation on the outer Indus shelf and slope (Pakistan): evidence from highresolution seismic data and coring. Mar. Geol. 138, 193 236.

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