Chapter 22 Alternating-Current and Machines Lecture 13

22.1 Generation of AC Voltage

22.2 Analysis of AC Circuits (with Resistors)
22.3 AC Circuits with Capacitors
22.4 AC Circuits with Inductors
22.5 LC Circuits
22.6 Resonance
22.7 AC Circuit and Impedance
22.8 Frequency-Dependent Behavior of AC Circuits: A
Conceptual Recap
22.9 Transformer
AC Circuit Introduction
AC stands for alternating current
The power source is a device that produces an electric
potential that varies with time
There will be a frequency and peak voltage associated
with the potential
Household electrical energy is supplied by an AC
source
Standard frequency is 60 Hz
AC power has numerous advantages over DC power
Most sources of AC voltage employ a generator
based on magnetic induction

Introduction
DC vs. AC Sources
Introduction
Resistors in AC Circuits
Assume a circuit
consisting of an AC
generator and a resistor
The voltage across the
output of the AC source
varies with time
according to
V = V
max
sin (2 t)
V is the instantaneous
potential difference
V
max
is the amplitude of
the AC voltage
Section 22.2
Resistors, cont.
Applying Ohms Law:

Since the voltage varies
sinusoidally, so does the
current
V
I
R
=
( )
( )
max
max
max
max
V
I sin t or
R
I I sin t where
V
I
R
t
t
=
=
=
2
2
Section 22.2
RMS Voltage
To specify current and
voltage values when
they vary with time, rms
values were adopted
RMS stands for Root
Mean Square
For the voltage


For the current
( )
= =
max
rms max
avg
V
V V ,V
2 2
2
Section 22.2
( )
max
rms max max
I
I I . I = = ~
2
1
0 71
2
2
Power
The instantaneous
power is the product of
the instantaneous
voltage and
instantaneous current
P = I V
Since both I and V vary
with time, the power
also varies with time:
P = V
max
I
max
sin
2
(2t)
Section 22.2
Power, cont.
The instantaneous power varies between V
max
I
max

and 0
Using


the average power is the maximum power
P
avg
= (V
max
I
max
) = V
rms
I
rms

This has the same mathematical form as the power in a DC
circuit
Ohms Law (V=IR) can again be used to express the
power in different ways

rms
ave rms
V
P I R
R
= =
2
2
Section 22.2
( )
max
rms
avg
V
V V = =
2
2
( )
max
rms max max
I
I I . I = = ~
2
1
0 71
2
2
Section 22.2
AC Circuit Notation
It is important to distinguish between instantaneous
and average values of voltage, current and power
Phasors
AC circuits can be
analyzed graphically
An arrow has a length V
max

The arrows tail is tied to the
origin
Its tip moves along a circle
The arrow makes an angle of
with the horizontal
The angle varies with time
according to = 2t

Section 22.2
The rotating arrow represents the voltage in an AC circuit
The arrow is called a phasor
A phasor is not a vector

V
V
Phasors, final
The current in an AC circuit can also be represented by a
phasor
The two phasors always make the same angle with the
horizontal axis as time passes
The current and voltage are in phase for a circuit with only
resistors
Section 22.2
AC Circuits with Capacitors
Assume an AC circuit
containing a single capacitor
The instantaneous charge is
q = C V = C V
max
sin (2 t)
The capacitors voltage and
charge are in phase with each
other

Section 22.3
Current in Capacitors
The instantaneous
current is the rate at
which charge flows onto
the capacitor plates in a
short time interval
The current is the slope
of the q-t plot
A plot of the current as
a function of time can
be obtained from these
slopes
Section 22.3
Capacitor Phasor Diagram
The current is out of
phase with the voltage
The angle /2 is called
the phase angle, ,
between V and I
For this circuit, the
current and voltage are
out of phase by 90 Section 22.3
The current is a cosine function
I = I
max
cos (2t)
Equivalently, due to the relationship between sine
and cosine functions
I = I
max
sin (2t + ) where = /2


Current Value for a Capacitor
The peak value of the current is


The factor X
c
is called the reactance of the capacitor
SI unit of reactance is Ohms
Reactance and resistance are different because the
reactance of a capacitor depends on the frequency f
If the frequency is increased, the charge oscillates
more rapidly and t is smaller, giving a larger current
At high frequencies, the peak current is larger and the
reactance is smaller
max
max C
C
V
I where X
X C t
= =
1
2
Section 22.3
For an AC circuit with a
capacitor, P = VI = V
max

I
max
sin (2t) cos (2t)
The average value of the
power over many
oscillations is 0
Energy is transferred from
the generator during part of
the cycle and from the
capacitor in other parts
Energy is stored in the
capacitor as electric
potential energy and not
dissipated by the circuit

Section 22.3
Power In A Capacitor
AC Circuits with Inductors
Assume an AC circuit
containing an AC
generator and a single
inductor
The voltage drop is
V = L (I / t)
= V
max
sin (2 t)
The inductors voltage
is proportional to the
slope of the current-time
relationship

Section 22.4
Current in Inductors
The instantaneous
current oscillates in time
according to a cosine
function
I = I
max
cos (2t)
A plot of the current-
time relationship is
shown
Section 22.4
The current equation can be rewritten as
I = I
max
sin (2t /2)
Equivalently,
I = I
max
sin (2t + ) where = -/2


Inductor Phasor Diagram
The current is out of
phase with the voltage
For this circuit, the
current and voltage are
out of phase by -90
Remember, for a
capacitor, the phase
difference was +90
Section 22.4
Current Value for an Inductor
The peak value of the current is


The factor X
L
is called the reactance of the inductor
SI unit of inductive reactance is Ohms
As with the capacitor, inductive reactance depends
on the frequency
As the frequency is increased, the inductive reactance
increases
max
max L
L
V
I where X L
X
t = = 2
Section 22.4
For an AC circuit with an
inductor, P = VI = V
max
I
max

sin (2t) cos (2t)
The average value of the
power over many
oscillations is 0
Energy is transferred from
the generator during part of
the cycle and from the
inductor in other parts of the
cycle
Energy is stored in the
inductor as magnetic
potential energy

Section 22.4
Power in an Inductor
Section 22.4
Properties of AC Circuits
(Ideal) LC Circuit (1)
From Kirchhoffs Loop Rule
0
Q dI
L
C dt
+ =
0
1
LC
e =
Natural Frequency
harmonic oscillator with angular
frequency
2
2
1
0
d Q
Q
dt LC
| |
+ =
|
\ .
dQ
I
dt
=
( )
max 0
cos Q Q t e | = +
24
LC Circuit (2)
Consider a circuit consisting of an
inductor L and a capacitor C
The charge on the capacitor as a
function of time is given by


The current in the inductor as a
function of time is given by


where | is the phase and e
0
is the angular frequency

q = q
max
cos e
0
t +|
( )
0
1 1
LC
LC
e = =

i = i
max
sin e
0
t +|
( )
LC Circuit (3)
The energy stored in the electric
field of the capacitor C as a function
of time is


The energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor L as a
function of time is



The total energy stored in the circuit
is given by
( )
2
2
max
0
cos
2
cap E
q
PE U t
C
e | = = +
( )
2 2
max 0
sin
2
ind B
L
PE U i t e | = = +

U =U
E
+U
B
=
q
max
2
2C
2
2
max
max
2 2
q L
i
C
=
LC Oscillations
2
2
1
, ,
2 2
E B
Q dQ
U U LI I
C dt
= = =
No Resistance =
No dissipation
( )
2
2
max
0
cos
2
cap E
q
PE U t
C
e | = = + ( )
2 2
max 0
sin
2
ind B
L
PE U i t e | = = +

U =U
E
+U
B
=
q
max
2
2C
27
Transformers (1)
When using or generating electrical power, high currents and
low voltages are desirable for convenience and safety
When transmitting electric power, high voltages and low
currents are desirable
The power loss in the transmission wires goes as P = I
2
R
Assume we have 500 MW of power to transmit
If we transmit at 750 kV, the current would be 667 A (P=IVI=P/V)
If the resistance of the power lines is 200 O, the power dissipated in the
power lines is 89 MW
18% loss
Suppose we transmit at 375 kV instead
75% loss
The ability to raise and lower
alternating voltages would be
very useful in everyday life
28
Transformers (2)
We use a transformer to transform alternating currents and
voltages from high to low or from low to high
A transformer consists of two sets
of coils wrapped around an iron core
as illustrated
Consider the primary windings with N
P

turns connected to a source of emf

We can assume that the primary
windings act as an inductor
The current is out of phase
with the voltage and
no power is delivered to
the transformer is delivered to the
trans
max
sin
emf
V V t e =
29
Transformers (3)
Now consider the second coil with N
S
turns

The time-varying emf in the primary coil induces a time-
varying magnetic field in the iron core. This core passes
through the secondary coil


Because both the primary and secondary coils experience
the same changing magnetic field, we can write

Thus a time-varying voltage is induced
in the secondary coil described by Faradays Law
B
emf
d
V N
dt
u
=

S S P
S P
P S P
V N V
V V
N N N
= =
,
B
P P
d
V N
dt
u
=
B
S S
d
V N
dt
u
=
1 2
,
P S
V V V V = =
step-up
step-down
S P S P
N N V V > >
S P S P
N N V V < <
S S
P P
V N
or
V N
=
Transformers (4)
If we now connect a resistor R across
the secondary windings, a current will
begin to flow through the secondary coil
(switch is closed)
The power in the secondary circuit
is then P
S
= I
S
V
S

Energy conservation: the power produced by the emf source in
the primary coil will be transferred to the secondary coil, so we
can write




,
P P P S S S
P P
S P S P
S S
P I V P I V
V N
I I I I
V N
= = =
= =
S
I
S

P P
S S
V N
V N
: =

S P
S P S P
S P
N N
I I V V
N N
= =
31
Demo: Cylindrical Object Falling (1)
through a Pipe Object
32
Demo: Magnet Falling through a Pipe
N
S
B
induced

B
magnet

N
S
N
S