BASIC CONCEPTS:

Newtons Laws of motion

First Law of Motion: law of Inertia
An object at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an external and unbalanced force. An object in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by an external and unbalanced force.

This law is also called the law of inertia. The net force on an object is the vector sum of all the forces acting on the object. Newton's first law says that if this sum is zero, the state of motion of the object does not change. Essentially, it makes the following two points: An object that is not moving will not move until a net force acts upon it. An object that is in motion will not change its velocity (accelerate) until a net force acts upon it.

Second Law of Motion: law of acceleration

The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.

Newton's second law of motion explains how an object will change velocity if it is pushed or pulled upon. Firstly, this law states that if you do place a force on an object, it will accelerate, i.e., change its velocity, and it will change its velocity in the direction of the force.

Secondly, this acceleration is directly proportional to the force. For example, if you are pushing on an object, causing it to accelerate, and then you push, say, three times harder, the acceleration will be three times greater.

Thirdly, this acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the object. For example, if you are pushing equally on two objects, and one of the objects has five times more mass than the other, it will accelerate at one fifth the acceleration of the other.

In mathematical terms, Newton's second law can be written as a differential equation:

where: is force is mass is velocity is time. The product of the mass and velocity is the momentum of the object. If mass of an object in question is known to be constant, this differential equation can be rewritten (using the definition of acceleration) as:

where: is the acceleration.

Newton's third law: law of reciprocal actions

All forces occur in pairs, and these two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.

This law of motion is commonly paraphrased as: "To every action force there is an equal, but opposite, reaction force". The concept of mass is introduced here for the first time in the words "reciprocally proportional to the bodies" which are now traditionally added to Newton's second law as "inversely proportional to the mass of the object

The skaters' forces on each other are equal in magnitude, and in opposite directions. Although the forces are equal, the accelerations are not: the less massive skater will have a greater acceleration due to Newton's second law. It is important to note that the action/reaction pair act on different objects and do not cancel each other out. The two forces in Newton's third law are of the same type, e.g., if the road exerts a forward frictional force on an accelerating car's tires, then it is also a frictional force that Newton's third law predicts for the tires pushing backward on the road. The third law follows mathematically from the law of conservation of momentum.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION
The first equation of motion
An object moving with a constant acceleration a (sometimes called a uniform acceleration) starts with an initial velocity u and achieves a final velocity v in a time of t seconds The quantities u, v, a, and t is linked mathematically by the equation: a=v-u/t

Click to make v the subject of the above equation and note that

v=u+at
This is called the first equation of motion.

The second equation of motion

the fact that the acceleration is uniform between speeds u and v allows us to state that the average speed is

The second equation of motion can be expressed as

S=ut+1/2 at2

The third equation of motion

The second equation of motion states that S=ut+1/2 at2 and the first states that a=v-u/t By combining the first and second equations of motion we have been able to derive the third: V2=u2+2as

A. Angular Distance
Suppose the wheel mounted on an axle through its center, as shown below, is rotated through and angle . There are three different ways in which this rotation is measured.

The two common ways to measure are with revolutions and degree units. A revolution is defined to be on complete turn, and one complete turn is defined to be 360 degrees. These two units are simply related by 1 rev = 360 Although you are probably most familiar with these two methods for measuring angular displacement, it is important that you realize that both of these units are arbitrary. There is no physical reason why there should be 360 degrees in one revolution. We could divide a complete revolution into 10, 20, 100, or 1000 parts and define a different relationship between revolutions and degrees.

Angular Velocity and Acceleration

Definition: Angular Velocity Angular velocity of a rigid body is the rate of change of its angular position. at t = t2 , then the average angular velocity of t = t2 - t1 is: (4) = = . As for linear motion, the instantaneous velocity is obtained by making the time interval very small:

Thus, if = 1at t = t1 , and = the body over the time interval

(5) = . The units of angular velocity are most conveniently given in rads/sec, but can also be expressed in revolutions/sec or degrees/sec using the conversions given above. Definition: Angular Acceleration Angular Acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity with time. The average angular acceleration of a rigid body over a time interval t = t2 - t1 is: +The instantaneous angular acceleration is obtained by taking a very small time interval: (7) = . The units of angular acceleration are normally radians/sec 2.

s r

(6.1)

Where is measured in radians (rad). Since s = 2r for one full turn of the wheel, we see that 1 rev = 360 = 2 rad Note: s/r is simply a ratio of lengths, so, strictly speaking, it has no units. Even so, we shall say, for example, the angle is rad (radians) or 180 or rev to make it clear how we are measuring angles.

Centrifugal and Centripetal force

Centripetal force: Real force Whenever an object moves in a circular path we know the object is accelerating because the velocity is constantly changing direction. All accelerations are caused by a net force acting on an object. In the case of an object moving in a circular path, the net force is a special force called the centripetal force (not centrifugal!).So a centripetal force is a center seeking force which means that the force is always directed toward the center of the circle. Without this force, an object will simply continue moving in straight line motion.

Centrifugal force:Pseudo force Centrifugal force is a virtual force. It is not really a force. A real or "reactive" centrifugal force occurs in reaction to a centripetal acceleration acting on a mass. This centrifugal force is equal in magnitude to the centripetal force, directed away from the center of rotation, and is exerted by the rotating object upon the object which imposes the centripetal acceleration. RELATION BETWEEN ANGULAR ACCELARATION ,VELOCITY WITH LINEAR Relationship between linear and angular motion Relationship between linear speed and angular speed If a point P move round a circle of radius r with constant linear speed, v, (see Figure 1.7) then the angular speed, , will be constant at

Figure 1.7: Circular Motion Where t is the time to move from Q to P along the arc QP of the curve. However, arc length QP is rwhen is measured in radians. Hence linear speed v is

Equation 1.9

Substituting Equation 1.8 into Equation 1.9 leads to the this relationship for circular motion:

Relationship between linear acceleration and angular acceleration

and

as r is constant this can be written

and as

is linear acceleration a,

DEGREES OF FREEDOM In mechanics, degrees of freedom (DOF) are the set of independent

displacements that specify completely the displaced or deformed position of the body or system. This is a fundamental concept relating to systems of moving bodies in mechanical engineering, aeronautical engineering, robotics, structural engineering, etc. The number of DOF that a manipulator possesses is the number of independent position variables that would have to be specified in order to locate all parts of the mechanism. In other words, it refers to the number of different ways in which a assembly component can move.

WORK, ENERGY & POWER

"The WORK done on an object is the product of the average force on it and the distance travelled in the direction of the force." The unit of work in the modern system is the joule J . (Very old units include the calorie, BTU and the erg. ) GRAPHICALLY

Work has no sense of direction. We do not ascribe arrows to work or energy. Distance is used rather than displacement in the simple definition because the force acting may take a windy path. The total path taken which is important is the distance rather than the displacement.

"ENERGY is the ABILITY of an object to do work for whatever reason." PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY; " In any closed system, the total amount of energy remains constant regardless of any process which takes place." GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY;

In falling through a height "h" which is in the same direction as the force, the work done by gravity is Work done = force. Distance = Mg.h Thus Grav. Pot. Energy (Ep) = Mgh This is a stored energy available to be converted into movement energy on release. KINETIC ENERGY; Energy available because of the object's motion". Consider a mass, m, which is moving with a speed, v, and does work which brings it to rest. The unbalanced force, F, which it exerts in doing the work is, by Newton's Third Law also exerted on it , bringing it to a halt. Funbal = ma so, Work done = Funbal . di st = mas ( we are assuming all of this takes place in a straight line so that distance and displacement are essentially the same ) Using 2as = v2 - vo2 We get mas = 1/2 .mv2 = Work done Ek = Kinetic energy = 1/2 mv2 All forms of energy can have such formulae worked out for them .

POWER
"Power is the rate of doing work or changing energy."

P = Work Done = Energy t t

Friction
Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion or tendency toward such motion of two surfaces in contact. It is not a fundamental force, as it is made up of electromagnetic forces between atoms. When contacting surfaces move relative to each other, the friction between the two objects converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, or heat. The coefficient of friction (also known as the frictional coefficient) is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used -- for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction (the two materials slide past each other easily), while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction (the materials do not slide past each other easily). Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one under good conditions. Types of Friction: Static friction Static friction occurs when the two objects are not moving relative to each other (like a rock on a table). The coefficient of static friction is typically denoted as s. The initial force to get an object moving is often dominated by static friction. The static friction is in most cases higher than the kinetic friction Kinetic friction Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as k, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. Rolling Friction Rolling friction is caused primarily by the interference of small indentations formed as one surface rolls over another. This is the idea behind the frictional forces involved with wheels, cylinders, and spheres. The coefficient of rolling friction is typically denoted as r, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. Laws of Friction:

They are 5 laws of friction. They are:

1) When the surfaces of two objects are in rough contact, and have a tendency to
move relative to each other, equal and opposite frictional forces act, one on each of the objects, so as to oppose the potential movement. 2) Until it reaches its limiting value, the magnitude of the frictional force F is just sufficient to prevent motion. 3) When the limiting value is reached, F= uR, where R is the normal reaction between the surfaces and u is the coefficient of friction for those two surfaces. 4) For all rough contacts 0 < F <uR. 5) Friction depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. 3. COLLISIONS When bodies collide they must exert equal and opposite forces on each other for the same period of time so the impulse given to each is equal and opposite. Since the impulse is equal to the rate of change momentum, it follows that each body will receive equal and opposite changes in their momentum. It further follows that the total momentum before the collision is equal to the total momentum after the collision. 3.1 THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM. The total momentum before a collision is equal to the total momentum after the Collision. Consider two bodies of mass m1 and m2 moving at velocities u1 and u2 in the same direction. After collision the velocities change to v1 and v2 respectively.

figure 1. The initial momentum = m1 u1 + m2 u2

The Final momentum = m1 v1 + m2 v2 By the law of conservation we have m1u1+ m2u2= m1v1+ m2v. TYPES OF IMPACT An impact force is a high force or shock applied over a short time period. Such a force can have a greater effect than a lower force applied over a proportionally longer time period.

COEFFICIENT OF RESTITUTION: The coefficient of restitution is the ratio of the differences in velocities before and after the collision. In other words, the difference in the velocities of the two colliding objects after the collision, divided by the difference in their velocities before the collision. In symbolic language:

c = coefficient of restitution v1 = linear velocity of the racquet mass center before impact s1 = linear velocity of the ball before impact (will be negative according to our convention that away from the player is positive) v2 = linear velocity of the racquet mass center after impact s2 = linear velocity of the ball after impact

SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

Beam supported at two ends is called a simply supported beam. Different types of support provided can be roller, pin etc.

For the loaded, simply supported beam shown, determine expressions for the internal shear forces and bending moments in each section of the beam, and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam.

Solution: We first need to determine the external support reaction by applying our standard static equilibrium conditions and procedure..

PART A STEP 1: Draw a free body diagram showing and labeling all load forces and support (reaction) forces, as well as any needed angles and dimensions.

STEP 2: Resolve any forces not already in x and y direction into their x and y components. STEP 3: Apply the equilibrium conditions. Sum Fx = 0 (no external x-forces acting on structure.) Sum Fy = (-800 lbs/ft)(8 ft) - (1,200 lbs/ft)(8 ft) + Ay + Cy = 0 Sum TA = (Cy)(12 ft) - (800 lbs/ft)(8 ft)(4 ft) - (1,200 lbs/ft)(8 ft)(12 ft) = 0 Solving for the unknowns: Cy = 11,700 lbs; Ay = 4,270 lbs Part B: Determine the Shear Force and Bending Moment expressions for each section of the loaded beam. For this process we will cut the beam into sections, and then use Statics - Sum of Forces to determine the Shear Force expressions, and Integration to determine the Bending Moment expressions in each section of the beam. Section 1: We note that the loading of the beam (800 lb./ft) remains uniform until 8 feet, where it changes to 1200 lb./ft. As a result, for our first beam section, we cut the beam at an arbitary position x, where 0 < x < 8 ft. Then we analyze the left hand beam section. 1. Draw a FBD of the beam section showing and labeling all forces and toque acting including the shear force and bending moment (which act as an external force and torque at the point where we cut the beam.) (See Diagram - Section 1) Notice we have drawn the shear force and bending moment in their positive directions according to the defined sign convention discussed earlier, and have labeled them as V1 and M1, as this is section 1 of the beam.

2. Resolve all forces into x & y components (yes) 3. Apply translational equilibrium conditions (forces only) to the section 1 of the beam: Sum Fx = 0 (no net external x- forces) Sum Fy = 4,300 lbs - 800 lbs/ft(x)ft - V1 = 0; Solving for the shear force: V1 = [4,300 - 800x] lbs 4. We can find the bending moment from static equilibrium principles; summing torque about the left end of the beam. Referring to the free body diagram for beam section 1, we can write: Sum Torque left end = -800 lb/ft * (x) * (x/2) - V1 (x) + M1 = 0 To make sure we understand this equation, let's examine each term. The first term is the torque due to the uniformly distributed load - 800 lb./ft * (x) ft (this is the load) times (x/2) which is the perpendicular distance, since the uniform load may be considered to act in the center, which is x/2 from the left end. Then we have the shear force V1 times x feet to the left end, and finally we have the bending moment M1 (which needs no distance since it is already a torque). Next we substitute the expression for V1 (V1 = [-4,300 - 800x] lb.) from our sum of forces result above into the torque equation to get: Sum Torque left end = -1000 lb/ft * (x) * (x/2) -[-4,300 - 800x] (x) + M1 = 0 ; and solving for M1 = [-400x2 + 4,300x] ft-lbs for 0 < x < 8 ft. We will now also find the bending moment expression by integration of the shear force , solving M1 = -400x2 + equation. Integration 4,300x + C1 Our boundary condition to find the integration constant, C1, is at x = 0, M = 0 (since this is a simply support beam end.) Applying the boundary condition: 0 = -400(0)2 + 4,300(0) + C1, and solving gives us: C1 = 0. Therefore the bending moment expression for section 1 of the beam is: M1 = [-400x2 + 4,300x] ft-lbs for 0 < x < 8 ft. (The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown at the bottom of this example page.)

Section 2: We continue in the same manner with beam section 2. We note that the loading changes once more at 12 ft, due to the upward support force acting at that point. So for beam section 2, we cut the beam at location x, where 8 < x <12 ft., and then analyze left hand beam section from x to the end of the beam. 1. Draw a FBD of the beam section showing and labeling all forces and toque acting including the shear force and bending moment (which act as an external force and torque at the point where we cut the beam.) We have labeled them as V2 and M2, as this is section 2 of the beam.

2. Resolve all forces into x & y components (yes). 3. Apply translational equilibrium conditions (forces only): Sum Fx = 0 (no net external x- forces) Sum Fy = 4,300 lbs - 800 lbs/ft*(8 ft) - 1,200lbs/ft *(x - 8)ft - V2 = 0; and solving for the shear force expression: V2 = [7,500 - 1,200x] lbs 4. We may determine the bending moment expression by applying rotational equilibrium conditions, or by integration. We will do it both ways for this section. Rotational Equilibrium: Sum of Toque left end = - (800 lb./ft * 8 ft) * 4 ft. -1200 lb/ft * (x - 8')*[(x-8')/2+8'] - V2 * x + M2 = 0; Please notice the second term. In that term the quantity (1200 * (x-8')) is load due to the 1200 lb/ft acting over the distance (x-8). However we still need to multiply the force expression times the distance to obtain the torque. The uniform load of 1200 lb/ft acts at the center of its distance (x-8'), so the lever arm to point A would be [(x-8')/2 + 8'] (See diagram.)

We next substitute the value for V2 (V2 = [7,500 - 1,200x] lb.) from above and obtain: - (800 lb./ft * 8 ft) * 4 ft. -1200 * (x - 8')*[(x-8')/2+8'] - [7,500 - 1,200x]* x + M2 = 0; and then solving for M2 we find: M2 = [-600x2 + 7,500x - 12,800] ft-lbs for 8 < x < 12 Next we find the bending moment, M2, from integration of shear force expression,V2. Integration: , and solving, M2 = -600x2 + 7,500x + C2 We obtain our boundary condition for beam section 2 by remembering that the bending moment must be continuous along the beam. This means that value of the bending moment at the end of section 1 (at x = 8 ft.) must also be the value of the bending moment at the beginning of section 2 (at x = 8 ft.). Thus our boundary condition to find C2 is: at x = 8 ft M = 8,560 ft-lbs (from equation M1). Now applying the boundary condition and solving for the integration constant, C2, we have: 8560 ft-lbs = -600(8)2 +7500(8) + C2, and solving: C2 = -13,000 ft-lbs Therefore our bending moment expression is: M2 = [-600x2 + 7,500x - 12,800] ft-lbs for 8 < x < 12 (The shear force and bending moment diagrams are shown at the bottom of this example page.) Section 3: Finally, we continue with the last section of the beam, cutting the beam at location x, where 12 < x < 16 ft., and analyzing the left hand beam section from x to the left end of the beams. 1. Draw a FBD of the beam section showing and labeling all forces and toque acting including the shear force and bending moment (which act as an external force and torque at the point where we cut the beam.) We have labeled them as V3 and M3, as this is section 3 of the beam.

2. All forces in x & y components (yes) 3. Apply translational equilibrium conditions (forces only): Sum Fx = 0 (no net external x- forces) Sum Fy = 4,300 lbs - 800 lbs/ft(8 ft) + 11,700 lbs - 1,200lbs/ft (x - 8)ft - V3 = 0 Solving for the shear force expressing: V3 = [-1,200x + 19,200] lbs 4. We may determine the bending moment expression by applying rotational equilibrium conditions, or by integration. Once more we will do it both ways for this section. Rotational Equilibrium: Sum of Toque left end = - (800 lb./ft * 8 ft) * 4 ft. - 1200 lb. *(x- 8 ft.)*[(x-8')/2 +8'] + 11,700 lb. * 12 ft -V3 * x + M3 = 0;

Once again the distance from end A at which the effective load due to the uniform load of 1200 lb/ft [1200 lb/ft * (x-8')]may be considered to act must be determined carefully. That distance [(x-8')/2 + 8')] is shown at the top of the adjacent diagram. We next substitute the value for V3 (V3 = [-1,200x + 19,200] lb.) from above and obtain: - (800 lb./ft * 8 ft) * 4 ft. - 1200 lb. *(x- 8 ft.)*[(x-8')/2 +8'] + 11,700 lb. * 12 ft - [-1,200x + 19,200] lb* x + M3 = 0; and then solving for M3 we find: M3 = [-600x2 + 19,200x 153,000] ft-lbs for 12 < x < 16.

Determine the bending moment by Integration: or, M3 = -600x2 + 19,200x + C3

We find our boundary condition for beam section 3, by realizing at the end of the beam (a free end) the bending moment must go to zero, so our boundary condition to find C3 is: at x = 16 ft M = 0 ft-lb. Appling the boundary condition, and solving for the integration constant C3, we have: BC: 0 = -600(16)2 + 19,200(16) + C3; and then C3 = -153,000 ft-lbs So the final expressionn for the bending moment on section 3 will be: M3 = [-600x2 + 19,200x - 153,000] ft-lbs for 12 < x < 16 PART C: Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams: Now using the expressions found in Part B above, we can draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for our loaded beam. V1 = -800x + 4,300 lb.; V2 = -1,200x + 7,500 lb.; V3 = -1,200x + 19,200 lb M1 = -400x2 + 4,300x ft-lb.; M2 = -600x2 + 7,500 - 12,800 ft-lb.; M3 = -600x2 + 19,200x 153,000ft-lb

CANTILEVER BEAMS A cantilever is a beam supported on only one end. The beam carries the load to the support where it is resisted by moment and shear stress. Cantilever construction allows for overhanging structures without external bracing. Cantilevers can also be constructed with trusses or slabs.

STRUCTURES

A structure is any connected system of members built to support or transfer forces and to safely withstand the loads applied to it.

Types of structures: 1. Trusses 2. Frames 3. Machines Structures are distinguished as statically determinate and statically indeterminate for determination of forces acting on it. Statically Determinate Structures do not have more supporting constraints than are necessary to maintain an equilibrium configuration. Statically Indeterminate Structures are the ones with redundant members or supporting links which can be removed still maintain the equilibrium condition. Lets discuss on this with an example

Statically determinate members

In a situation where values of all external forces acting on a body can be determined by the equations of static equilibrium alone , then the force system is statically determinate. Example

The system is statically determinate since there are three equations of equilibrium available for the system and these are sufficient to determine the three unknowns.

Statically indeterminate structures

Statically indeterminate structures are a principle topic of the theory of structures and the subject of this chapter. The fact that the equilibrium equations in this case have no unique solution is annoying to the extent that a given load should produce a unique response from a linear system. The problem is, of course, that theequations of statics do not completely define a structure; to complete the description. it is necessary to introduce member stiffnesses into the formulation. Once that has been done the expected unique system response follows directly. The role of member stiffness is obvious in the two cases shown in Figure 4.1. Intuitively, stiffer members in a structure carry more of the load. Put another

way, as the area of bar 2 goes to zero in each case bar 1 is forced to carry the entire load P; the argument is symmetric to the extent that as bar 1 goes to zero bar 2 must carry the load. There are thus simple bounds on the manner in which these systems can respond. What eliminates the lack of uniqueness found in the equilibrium equations is the fact that the pieces of a deformed structure must fit together. That fact will be enforced here in two different ways and thus give rise to two different methods of analysis, a force method and a displacement method. For example, if the lower support is removed in the case of the two bars in series, the structure becomes statically determinate and the displacement at this support can be computed by

summing the length changes of both bars

Since a force (F2) is used as the unknown here this type of analysis is called the force method. The parallel bars of Figure 4.1 are obvious candidates for another type of analysis. In this case it is clear that if the displacement is known, the bar forces can be computed as F1 = K1 and F2 = K2 which implies an applied load of (K1 + K2 ) But since the applied load must be P, it follows that P = (K1 + K2 ) = P / (K1 + K2 ) and F1 = K1 = K1 P / (K1 + K2 ) and F2 = K2 = K2 P / (K1 + K2 ) Since a displacement is used as the unknown in this analysis it is called a displacement method.

Statically Indeterminate Structures This chapter is concerned with formalizing the force and displacement methods so that they can be applied to arbitrary structures. The methods are related to the extent that they both begin by introducing procedures that reduce the structure to some case that can be dealt with easily (such as a statically determinate structure). This reduction will be shown to violate the definition of the given structure. Finally a solution is constructed to repair these violations. These introductory comments attempt to show that the logic of the analysis of statically indeterminate structures is simple. The fact that these methods sometimes appear complex in application is due to the inherent geometrical complexity of structures which surfaces when displacements or forces must be computed. 4.1 THE FORCE METHOD Given the idea of the force method just presented, this section develops a systematic approach with three steps. It begins with the discussion of a second

single degree of freedom structure which is more practical than the two-bar truss discussed above. It then moves on to a two-degree of freedom system which finally leads to a general statement of the force method. 4.1.1 A Single Degree of Freedom System The force method can easily be described as a sequence of steps: Step 1. Reduce the structure to a statically determinate structure. That is done in Example 4.1 by replacing the right-hand horizontal support by a roller. This step allows the structure to displace where it was formerly fixed. The reaction R which is temporarily set to zero can be used to define a displacement (discontinuity) and its direction. Step 2. Compute the value of due to the load. The method of virtual work is used to compute the displacement of the structure at its right support. In this case the reduced structure is the real structure and the structure marked R = 1 is the virtual structure. Since this support moves to the right while R and have been taken as positive to the left, comes out to he negative. Step 3. Compute the value of due to a unit value of R. Again, virtual work is used to compute the motion at the support. In this case the structure marked R = 1 serves as both the virtual structure and the real structure. Step 4. Solve for the reaction R. R is of course the value of the reaction which is required in order to push the structure back into place. Step 5. Compute and plot the final stress resultant diagrams. A Two Degree of Freedom System The trouble with the single degree of freedom system is that there is an interaction between redundants which it does not demonstrate. Example 4.2 shows this interaction clearly. It is again convenient to proceed in steps: Step 1. Reduce the structure to a statically determinate structure. In the case of Example 4.2, this requires that two cuts be made thus defining two redundants. (These redundants are taken to be positive when they place their respective bars in tension.) Step 2. Analyze the structure. It will be necessary below to have the bar forces for three cases of load: the structure under the given load and the structure under unit values of the redundants R1 and R2. Step 3. Set up the equations of superposition and compute the coefficients. Two simultaneous equations will be used to determine the bar forces R1 and R2, (4.1) This is now the heart of the force method. Physically it is required to select R1 and R2 so that the ends of the cut bars are not separated in the final solution. ('The pieces must fit together.') The interaction mentioned above arises because a change in R1 causes the ends of bar 2 to separate.

The General Case Step 1. Introduce releases to make the structure statically determinate. The basic idea is to reduce a structure to something that is workable. In this case workable implies a statically determinate structure for which it is possible to compute both forces and displacements. In order to do so releases are introduced into the structure. As remarked in chapter 3, a release is a mechanical device which forces a particular stress resultant called a redundant to be zero. When a release is inserted 110 Statically Indeterminate Structures In a structure it creates, by definition, a discontinuity. In the final solution, the redundants are selected so that the value of each discontinuity is zero. With regard to this text, releases will be introduced on a trial and error basis. When introduced properly, releases can create a statically determinate structure; when introduced improperly the resulting structure will either be statically indeterminate or unstable. The number of releases required to make a structure statically determinate is called the degree of statical indeterminacy, k. For more comments concerning the degree of statical indeterminacy the reader should refer to Appendix 6. Step 2. Analysis. It is necessary to solve the reduced structure for k + 1 loading conditions: k cases of unit loads corresponding to individual redundants and one case of the reduced structure under the applied toads. Step 3. Set up and solve the superposition equations. In general, these equations have the form.

or more simply in matrix form R + 0 = 0 where ij is the discontinuity at release i due to a unit value of redundant j , i0 is the discontinuity at release i due to the applied 'loads' or other external effects such as temperature and settlement, and Ri is unknown value of the i redundant. To compute the coefficient ij again requires combining the i and j solutions in the virtual work expression. As remarked above, each of these equations requires the discontinuity at a specific release to be zero in the final solution where all effects are present For a structure which is statically indeterminate to the kth degree, the force method requires the solution of k simultaneous equations. Step 4. Combine solutions and plot the results. As before the final solution is the combination of all effects, final solution = zero solution + R1 one solution + R2 two solution +... + RK kth solution. THE DISPLACEMENT METHOD There is a less common (manual) method of structural analysis called the displacement method. In this method constraints are added to the structure until it becomes workable or falls within the realm of some known solutions. The displacements associated with the constraints are then selected so that the fictitious forces associated with the constraints are zero in the final solution. This is most easily explained through examples. 4.2.1 A structure with a single displacement degree of freedom Example 4 4 describes an application of the displacement method to a simple rigid frame. It can be argued in the following manner. In general a rigid frame joint has three degrees of freedom: a horizontal displacement, a vertical displacement, and a rotation. In this particular case, if: member length changes are neglected as it is sometimes common to do, one kinematic degree of freedom remains, the joint 114 Statically Indeterminate Structures rotation . When is specified, it is possible to compute member forces using only commonly available beam solutions . As a parallel to the force method, the rotation can be specified to be zero (i.e. a constraint can be introduced), but to do so requires the application of a fictitious external moment F10. A unit value of again requires the application of an external fictitious moment, say F11. In the final solution the value of is selected so that this fictitious external moment is

The Displacement Method Solutions are again superimposed to obtain the final moment diagram. 4.2.2 A structure with two degrees of freedom Example 4.5 describes a two-degree of freedom structure analyzed by the

displacement method. In this case, a three-span beam is to be solved. This is a two degree of freedom system, since knowing the two beam rotations at the center supports means that the structure

has been reduced to well known solutions for single span beams. In order to emphasize the idea of a mechanical constraint to which moments may be applied, fictitious shafts are indicated in the figure (of Example 4.5). As in the case of the force method, a two-degree of freedom structure requires three analyses, a zero case which provides for the external load and two cases of unit rotations at the constraints. Having these analyses it is then possible to write the two superposition equations which require that the fictitious constraint forces go to zero in the final solution, Here

Here 1 , 2 are rotations at constraints 1 and 2, F11 is the constraint moment at 1 due to a unit value of 1 , F12 = F21 is the constraint moment at 1 (joint 2) due to a unit rotation at joint 2 (joint 1), F22 is the constraint moment at joint 2 due to a unit rotation at joint 2, F10 is the constraint moment at joint 1 due to load, and F20 is the constraint moment at joint 2 due to load. When the load is applied but the interior joints are not allowed to rotate, a constraint of wL2 / 8 must be applied externally to the first joint as indicated in the figure (of Example 4.5). It follows that F10 = - w L2/8 and F20 = 0 If a unit rotation is applied to the first constraint, external moments must

be applied as indicated in the figure (of Example 4.5). It follows that F11 = 7 EI/L and F21 = 2 EI/L and from symmetry that F22 = 7 EI/L and F12 = 2 EI/L In the case of the example under discussion the superposition equations become

Trusses on functionality are divided into: 1. 2. Axial Member Non-axial member

Axial Member is a member which is only in simple tension or compression. The internal force in the member is constant and acts only along the axis of the member .

Non-Axial Member is a member which is not simply in tension or compression. It may have shear forces acting perpendicular to the member and/or there may be different values of tension and compression forces in different parts of the member.

FRAMES AND MACHINES Frame : A structure is called as frame if one of its individual member is multi-force member and it is designed to support applied loads and they are usually in fixed positions. Machine: Machines are structure which contain moving parts and are designed to transmit forces or couples from input values to output values . RESONANCE Natural frequency: The frequency or frequencies at which an object tends to vibrate with when hit, struck, plucked, strummed or somehow disturbed is known as the natural frequency of the object. All objects that can be made to vibrate have a certain frequency at which they will vibrate most strongly (i.e.. with maximum amplitude). If a body is excited with a whole range of frequencies it will vibrate approximately equally in response to them all except those frequencies nearest to its own natural frequency. At one frequency it will vibrate most strongly. This frequency is called the resonant frequency and the condition is called resonance.

Single Degree-of-Freedom System

The simplest vibratory system can be described by a single mass connected to a spring . The mass is allowed to travel only along the spring elongation direction. Such systems are called Single Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) systems and are shown in the following figure,

Where m is the mass c is the viscous damping coefficient k is the stiffness x is the absolute displacement of the mass y is the base input displacement VIBRATIONS Vibrations refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road. Vibration is occasionally desirable. For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind instrument or harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration, necessary for the correct

function various devices.

ing of the

Types of Vibration

1. Free Vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed to vibrate freely 2. Forced Vibration is when an alternating force or motion is applied to a mechanical system. Vibration isolation is the process of isolating an object, such as a piece of equipment, from the source of vibrations Housed Spring Mountings

Open Spring Mountings