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RESEARCH TECHNIQUES Final Exam

Contents 1 CHAPTER 1: ALL AT SEA BUT LEARNING TO SWIM 2 CHAPTER 2: GETTING STARTED 3 CHAPTER 3: THINKING ABOUT METHODS 4 CHAPTER 4: READING FOR RESEARCH 5 CHAPTER 5: MANAGING YOUR PROJECT 6 CHAPTER 6: COLLECTING DATA 7 CHAPTER 8: WRITING UP 8 CHAPTER 9: FINISHING OFF

CHAPTER 1: ALL AT SEA BUT LEARNING TO SWIM

The first time researcher. Undertaking an audit of the skills, knowledge and resources you already posses, and developing a Personal Development Plan for the successful completion of your research One way of gaining a sense of the skills, resources and knowledge you already posses is to undertake an audit. Exercise 1.2 should have highlighted fours issues 1. 2. 3. 4. That you already posses some of the main elements that will contribute to you successfully completing your dissertation or project. When things get tough dont forget this. That, in terms of skills and knowledge, you have some learning needs that need addressing in either the short run or the long run. That you have resource needs that need addressing. That there are some areas of skills, knowledge and resources that you are unsure or unclear about and, in consequence, need to explore further.

Personal Plan Development It will record three aspects which will be central for the successful completion of you project: 1. 2. 3. Your Identified learning needs How they are going to be met The planned timescale for meeting these

BOX 1.1 Sources of Help Getting a flavor of possibilities. Introducing some elements of research design and developing understandings of the varies nature of research You might start you research this topic Asylum Seekers in UK or any other in any of the following ways: By gathering together existing statistics Looking a policy at local or national level Exploring the responses of relevant to charitable organizations Devising a questionnaire for various stakeholders in this field Conducting interviews with asylum seekers Living among asylum seekers over a period of time

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Undertaking an analysis of media representations of asylum seekers The most standard understanding of research is that showing a linear design, where the research begins with a problem and proceeds through data collection and analysis to the written report (Box 1.3 Diagram on TOP). The other diagram shows a far more iterative approach. This design seeks to convey the interrelationship between data collection, analysis and report writing (Box 1.3 Circle Diagram). These two representations may be understood as lying towards the polar ends of a continuum where, between these points, there are many variations. There are at least four common viewpoints when it comes to conveying and understanding the various processes of research. Research is often presented as fixed, linear series of stages, with a clear start and end. This is the Standard view. There are also somewhat more complicated representations of this linear view that allow for slightly different routes to be taken through the process at particular stages. Another common representation portrays research as a circular process, analogous to the more general process of learning. Much the same set of stages is included, and in much the same order as in the linear view, but there is an implication both that the process might be entered at a number of points, and that the experience of later stages might lead to a reinterpretation or revising of earlier stages. There are also variants, often associated with action research, that see the research process as cyclical. Here, the process is shown as going through a number of cycles, the effects of each one impacting upon the way in which successive cycles are approached. Our preferred view builds on these representations, seeing the research process as a spiral (Box 1.4). Seen from this perspective, research: is cyclical; can be entered at any point; is a never ending process; will cause you to reconsider your practice; and will return you to a different starting place. Box 1.4 In most quantitative research projects, decisions about analysis have to be taken before any fieldwork or data collection is undertaken. In the case of qualitative research, by contrast, data collection, sorting, analysis and reading can take place simultaneously. Why am I doing this research? Exploring your motivations for undertaking research. You might seek motivation to research in one of the following ways: Changing the research project to something you are more interested in; Focusing in the skills you develop through undertaking the research; Incorporating within the research some knowledge acquisitions of relevance to you; Seeing the research project as part of a larger activity, which will have knock-on benefits for you work, your career, your social life or your life in general; Finding someone who will support you and push you through until you finish; Promising yourself a reward when it is successfully completed Will I have anything new to say? Debunking the idea of originality. Fifteen Definitions of Originality (Box 1.5) The element of originality in your own research is, realistically, likely to be very small. Highly original research is very unusual, and you are probably setting your sights fat too high if you try aiming for it. In whose interests is this research? Issues of truth, power and values and the context of your research. In this section it basically talks how researchers tend to get involved in what they do emotionally and try to find the truth. The idea behind research is to present the case the best way possible, and we know when emotions kick in, arguments may not be the most reasonable. Researchers should not be thinking that they are establishing a truth, but they should be just presenting it. Politics and power

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have great influence in the direction or the conclusion of a research. It is very important to understand the perspective and motivations of those who facilitate your access, or take part in, or who may be stakeholders in your research. Doing research is about producing something that is good enough rather than providing the last final word of truth on a particular topic. Research should be conducted with drive, passion and commitment. Researchers need to maintain their levels of critical reflection, and so ensure their research is conducted in as open and transparent a way as possible in terms of its intentions, methodology, analysis and findings. At last, writing up. Planning ahead means ensuring you know the rules, regulations and audiences for you research. It is important to consider rules, regulations and expectations of the various audiences for your research early on. For example, if you are writing a dissertation as has to be done to meet certain academic criteria. As a researcher, it is essential that you know on what context you are writing. How to use this book. What you will find in it, and how to make your way through it. Me perdor si leter per me dhez shporetin :P:D What is different about this edition? What has changed and what has been added since the second edition. In particular the authors of this book have: Thoroughly updated the bibliographies and references, to reflect contemporary concerns and issues in social research; Added new examples and illustrations; Revised the format by moving all exercises to the end of the each chapter; Completely revised Chapter 1, using a case study format and introducing new material on identifying and addressing learning needs. Summary Having read this chapter, you should: have an awareness of the skills, knowledge and resources you already possess that will enable you to survive stormy waters ahead; have an awareness of the skills, knowledge and resources that you need to enhance or acquire to enable you to thrive through your research work; now recognize the need to produce a Personal Development Plan; have some understanding of the variety of activities which may be considered as being research; appreciate that the research process is not straightforward, predictable or linear; have a clearer idea of your own motivations for engaging in research and of the context for your research; be more confident about your own ability to carry out a small-scale research project. I hope that you find this summary helpful and you get a B not but an A on the final exam

CHAPTER 2: GETTING STARTED

The Getting Started part of the research has to do with what is a person going to do with the piece of research s/he planned to conduct. There are some steps that a researcher should consider before starting to work on the research:

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CHOOSING A TOPIC The authors of the book used a quote to tell us how to behave about our research projects. They advise researchers to be selfish, to focus on what they are interested in, to consider their CVs, their future professional development, and the impact that their study might have at their workplace and then step forward with confidence into this journey. How much choice you have Being a student, a person may not have much choice about their research project since they would be monitored somehow by an employer or a teacher. The research may have specific details that are determined by an employer or a teacher; therefore, a researcher might not find that project interesting or relevant. However, a researcher may focus on a special part of the project that makes it at least a little bit more appealing. These research projects may be handed as reports to the person that assigned it; hence, the researcher should plan ahead according to the expectations. Your motivation In order to evaluate him/herself, a researcher should ask him/herself whether the research would get them out of bed on a rainy Monday morning, or will s/he want to work on the research on a Friday evening. If not, the researcher might have problems and should consider changing or modifying the topic. Regulations and Expectations Independently on whether the researcher is a student, employee, or self-oriented researcher, s/he has to be aware of certain regulations and go by them. They may not be clearly given; therefore, one should ask persistently about them. If something is unclear, the research should make sure to clarify the dubious point with the professor or the employer, meaning with the supervisor of their research projects. Moreover, there are some unwritten rules (expectations) which may have to be identified by the researcher him/herself; however, they should be followed in order to have a well-developed research project and not have any trouble after handing it in. Your subject or field of study Many of the research expectations (unwritten rules) will be related to a researchers area of study. Therefore, a researcher should consider the use of specific writing styles or conventions and/or use specific methodologies. The supervisor may have special preferences and the researcher must go by them as well. The way to check these expectations or preferences, the researcher should: Talk to the supervisor, colleagues, or other researchers in the area Look at other research projects carried out on the same subject Look at the research literature (books, journals, and reports) Previous examples of research projects If a researcher can get access to previous research projects on the same topic s/he is researching should really make a good use of them since they would help on identifying how a research project is carried on. Not in the terms of what to write about it instead in order to see how a piece of research looks like, the way it is put together, its scope and its limitations. If you cannot easily access or find previous works on the field you are researching you should ask for help from librarians, supervisors, colleagues, friends or fellow researchers. The size of your topic A key skill for a researcher is to chose a topic which is not too big, not too small, but do-able within the time, space, and resources available. Probably, if the research project is conducted in order to earn a university degree there will be some restrictions such as word limit and format by which the researcher should work. The research should probably be given in a written form, or even orally; however, make sure that in the end you deliver a good enough one. Overwriting or underwriting may lead to bored readers, so try to be as well-judgmental as possible. The same should be considered even if you are a person that is conducting a research as a part of job.

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The time you have available The time that is available for a research project varies from the approach the researcher took to conduct it. However, when doing a research project no matter its size and its way of conducting, a researcher should make the best use of it. You should consider your sources; therefore, limit your data collection and be aware that not much empirical research can be done from home, university or even work. Just keep in mind what you have to do and when you have to do it so you can use your time wisely. The cost of research Unless someone else like your supervisor, employer, or funder will cover every cost of your research, you should be aware of the different costs that you will have to cover yourself regarding the research project. (Some of them are shown in a table Box 2.1 page 26 but I will just mention some) Some of the costs that you might have are: travel costs to different research sites, costs of consumables (paper, tapes, ink, etc.), charges for access to different documents, printing, photocopying, renting different software, etc. The resources you have available Most people who work on small-scale research projects will probably work largely on their own; however, they may need help from friends, colleagues, and family to carry on the research. Moreover, other sources that are helpful are: a good library, computer, access to Internet, and so forth. However, in order to know whether you have the right resources you should make a list of those resources you have and those that you dont have but need to finish the project. If those that you do not have are hardly accessible, you may want to change your topic that needs fewer or easier accessible resources. The need for support There is always a need for support, not only academic/professional, but as well as personal/emotional support. The support that includes bringing you cups of tea or coffee, asking how the research is going, or just listening to your concerns regarding it. Be aware that undertaking research may threaten your personal, family, work or social life. So, take the right steps. Additionally, try to make sure you have this kind of support unless you think you are really confident, self-aware kind of support. But you might be mistaken, so consider that as well. Access issues Accessing resources is always an important issue to be considered regarding the choice of your research topic. Because to access some resources (e.g. a good library or good information from an institution) may be quite problematic, you may want to choose those that are more accessible to you. A possible choice is to research within your own institution but this is not a guarantee that you wont have problems. This is because your supervisor may exert influence on your findings and/or your strategy of carrying on the project. However, when time is limited this approach should be considered. Overall, consider the access issues before you become totally committed into a research topic that may end up being a little bit difficult to be completed. Methods for researching Always try to use methods you would enjoy using. For example, if you like to talk you might consider interviews; on the other hand, if you dont like to talk, you might consider library or document-based research. Another approach is carrying out statistical or multivariate analyses so as to direct your research on quantitative methodology. Or, you may want to use other methods that you have not used before in order to learn them. Just beware that the methods you will use are a key point, so consider their strengths and weaknesses in order to conduct a well-developed research. WHAT TO DO WHEN YOU CANT THINK OF A TOPIC Sometimes happens that you are committed to research something, but you just cannot come up with an idea on what to research. It may have to do with your confidence on doing a research project. Sometimes, you may have an idea but want to refine it. Or, you may have a lot of ideas but cannot

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choose one. Thus, there are some steps that may help you brainstorm in the next subtopics. Ask your supervisor, manager, friends, colleagues, customers, clients or mother You can ask anyone for ideas; experts and non-experts. Your supervisor may give you very good advice which may help you on the organization of the topic. On the other hand, asking friends or neighbors for suggestions may help your local community somehow. Indeed, ideas given from people that arent involved with your research topic may be very helpful and revealing. Look at previous research work Look at other published articles, theses, or research reports that at least resemble academic and are rather broad in content because they usually mention implications for further research on which your research may focus. This can be very useful and illuminating confirming, adding, or casting doubt on earlier findings on the topic you are interested in. Develop some of your previous research, or your practice at work If you have researched at least a little bit on another topic for an essay or shorter paper, you may use that for further, more detailed research. Or, maybe some areas that have interested you, or you were curious about may be just the right choice. Curiosity and desire to learn are an excellent place to start. Relate it to your other interests You, most probably, have other interests outside of your work or area of study. These are family, social, voluntary, community or sporting activities. Your topic may be related to one of these areas. Think of a title Thinking of a title may lead you work on the research based on the title. TV programs, movies, or books may help you coming up with a title. These titles may be punning, alliterative, and/or pithy (asnjonen spi mar vesh, sbesoj qe jon te rendesishme). However, your original title may need to be changed over the course of your research based on what you have to serve to your audience. Start from a quote that engages you Based on the literature you have read there may be points that had really left an impression on you; either positive or negative. There may be quotes that may make you think this author really knows what s/he is talking about, or you may disagree with him/her and want to confirm or contradict them. These quotations may be comments, interpretation of the research data, questions, assertions, or may be areas that are clearly identified as in need for further research. Follow your hunches There may be some areas that you really think need research, or for some of them you think that there will be very interesting questions raised. Dont be afraid to follow these hunches; nonetheless, if you notice that they are not getting you anywhere do not spend too much time and energy on them. Draw yourself a picture or diagram Drawing a spider-diagram helps you identify or isolate issues, questions, and their possible interrelation for your research. And then see how they are related to your general subject. Another way may be drawing a picture or diagram based on your skills. Either way is just a helpful tool to get you thinking about possible areas or questions, their relationships and relevance for your research. (Take a look at Box 2.2 page 32 to see how a spider-diagram looks like) Just start anywhere If any of the previous ideas does not work for you, just start anywhere. Sketch out and begin a research project even if it feels dull and routine at first. Something different and better may come out of this activity. Just take a chance.

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But be prepared to change direction Changing direction may become necessary for several reasons such as collecting insufficient data, not accessing documents you intended to, unable to interview people that were crucial for the purpose of your paper, changing your home or job, getting bored, and so many other. So, have some ideas about alternative approaches to your research topic since it is a very good idea, if it comes to changing your direction. *Remember: change can be positive, its OK to change, lots of people change the research project or focus, and you always end up at a different place from where you thought you were going anyway. FOCUSING Once you have chosen your topic, or alternative topics comes the time when you need to refine and focus your topic on something more specific. But this takes quite some time. In order to help yourself focus on a topic Masons 2002 questions may help you (Take a look at Box 2.3 page 34). However, some of the questions may be: What is the nature of the phenomena I wish to investigate? What might represent knowledge or evidence on what I wish to investigate? What topic is the research concerned with? What is the intellectual puzzle (What do I wish to explain or explore)? What type of puzzle is it? What is the purpose of my research? Why am I doing it for? Identifying your research questions or hypothesis A starting point for focusing is trying to set questions that your research should answer. You may develop them into a hypothesis that your research will either prove or disprove. However, on a smallscale research project, you probably will set some questions. Having more than three questions is very difficult, so consider cutting them down. Your questions, then, should help you know the field for study, methods you are going to use, and the kind of analysis that is required. If you may not identify these elements, your questions may be too general. So, you may consider refining your research questions. (Take a look at Box 2.4 page 35) Nonetheless, here are some ways you may refine them: What areas of a topic am I interested in? Will I focus on particular institutions or classes? On whose perspective am I going to research on it? Etc. Defining the key concepts, issues and contexts Defining key concepts, issued and context should help you for your overall work in the research project. In short, they set up the area of your research, indicate the literature you may consult, and methods and theories you may apply. A concept is a general idea which stands for a class of object (e.g. love, hunger, hate, destiny, ethnicity, gender etc.). An issue is the subject of continuing debate and study from a range of perspectives. A context is the background of existing research, knowledge and understanding that informs new and ongoing research projects. (There is a one-page Box 2.5 page 36 on these terms, but I dont think they are important). So, ask yourself whether you already know the concepts, issues, and contexts relating to your research topic. Using the doughnut and jam roly-poly models of research Researchers that are limited in experience, often approach their research topics with enthusiasm, reading widely, checking sources and contacting experts as appropriate. But, this may lead to an overly exclusive topic rather than a narrowly defined one. So, your desire to explore specific areas should be in concordance with the general framework of your research. A balanced research paper should consist of a detailed study within the broader context of the subject field. (There is an explanation of what different patterns your research may have but it is really confusing because it is explained with how a jam roly-poly look likeif you think you want to know that I will try to figure out what the authors are trying to say). Sketching a research outline or project proposal Doing an outline of your research paper may facilitate your work. This outline may be required in order for your supervisor, or teacher to be able to approve or disapprove your research topic. However, even if you have identified the concepts, issues and contexts of your research topic this may help you have an idea of how your research will look like. Simultaneously, you may draft a schedule for the research work itself. This would help you what you have to do week by week, or month by month, but leave some free time, if things dont go as planned. Some questions you may answer in order to do

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an outline are: What: (What is my research about? What is its purpose? What is it trying to find out or achieve? What questions is it trying to answer*?) How: (How will my research answer its questions?) Why: (Why is this research worth doing?) E.g. to get an A =) Trying it out on a non-specialist: explaining your topic in simple language It is important if you can explain your research in simple, everyday terms. Not many people will be interested in the theoretical framework, methodology, sampling strategy or analytical approach you have used. You may have to deal with many people on the course of your research day-to-day social and family contacts, fellow researchers, people or organizations which may help you have access on informative documents you may need, etc. Hence, you will need to summarize briefly and in a nontechnical language what you are doing. This way you may clarify your thoughts and avoid the jargon that would make your contacts confused. These non-specialists may have crucial helpful advice for your research, so stick to these advices. Informal piloting In order to focus your research project the last suggestion is to start with the informal piloting activity. The informal pilot may turn into a pilot, but this relates to an initial try-out which may help you judge the feasibility of your research plans. This may be done through some interviews, fill-out questionnaires by friends, etc. As early you start to do this activity, the faster you may alter your strategies, if necessary, to something more effective. FINDING AND CHOOSING YOUR SUPERVISOR If you are a small-scale or a novice researcher you quite surely will need a supervisor. However, if you ask more experienced researcher, they may tell you about horrific or very good relationships with their supervisors. So, you may want to make sure that you have a kind and open supervisor because it would facilitate your work. Nonetheless, this does not mean that otherwise you will not be able to carry on with the research. What is a supervisor? Supervisor is the term most commonly used within universities and colleges for academics who have personal responsibility for overseeing the progress of individual students research projects. A supervisor of this kind should have some knowledge on research projects, written and unwritten restrictions and regulations and/or the area or study on which their supervisee is researching. However, there are different types of supervisions. You may have one supervisor who continuously gives you feedback about your work and helps you keep your focus. You may, on the other hand, have two supervisors with whom you meet individually. Or you may be a part of a group of researchers who have individual supervisors. At a workplace, your supervisor may be called you mentor, or simply your manager or boss. At times, they are even colleagues. However, if you havent got an assigned supervisor you may consider asking a friend to be your supervisor because, undoubtedly, you will need some supervision of your work, so you dont lose track of your own work. What to look for in your supervisor You should have a clear idea on what you expect from your supervisor since being a student (smallscale) researcher you wont have much say on who your supervisor is going to be. S/he is, usually, assigned to you. However, in order to maintain a good relationship with your supervisor try to know what qualities do you look for in him/her, and try to reach his/her expectations. But, always make sure that you do affect this relationship and that you do have control on your research. There are different expectations that a student has for the supervisor and vice versa; however, the one essential quality is that both the researcher and the supervisor are committed to successfully completing the research project. INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP RESEARCH Sometimes you may be required to conduct a research in a group, or this may be your choice.

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Although, the most parts of conducting a research alone and in group are the same, there are some key differences. Individual versus group research When you work as an individual you have sole ownership on the research, are wholly responsible for its progress and success, the focus and its quality are as a result of only your work etc. On the other hand, when you work in a group you are a co-author of the research, you share responsibility, experience team-working, may conduct the research based on different outlooks etc. Being able to know these divisions, ask yourself what type of work best suits you and go by it. However, sometimes, whether you are going to work individually or in a group is not your choice. So, try to make the best use out of it. Managing the group When involved in a small-scale group research activity, much depends on the composition of the group and the power relationships between them, undertaking the research. However, if you are all at the same age, with similar educational backgrounds, and with similar motivations, you need to work on resolving your differences and dividing responsibilities (Who is going to do what?). Make sure, you have a very clear idea of who has what responsibility in order not to have problems. Producing the finished product When undertaking a research project, especially when in a group, you should have an idea what the finished research might look like. You should know whether the final report is going to be a truly joint effort, or there are going to be separate reports. Sometimes, you may need to define each group members work in order not to be disadvantaged. RESEARCHING IN YOUR WORK PLACE Researching in your workplace has both its advantages and disadvantages. Some of the advantages are: ease of access, research a little during work time, receive financial and other support from your employer, insider knowledge, colleagues may help you with contacts, may help your promotion, etc. Nonetheless, some of the disadvantages are: pressure from your employer about your research topic, difficult to maintain anonymity, conclusions may be rejected or modified; you may change your job, etc. So, just be aware of these issues and decide whether you want to research on your workplace or not. Of course, if you have a choice. KEEPING YOUR RESEARCH DIARY Regardless the methodology, strategy, or place in which you are going to research, it is always helpful to keep a diary of your insights, fears, thought, feelings, progress, and insecurities about your research project. It may be handwritten, taped, or even typed in a document file in your PC. This may be used as a resource in filling the context for your research, and reminding you of data collection or fieldwork. It may help you distill your ideas of writing. In short, it helps as a support in which you confide your concerns about the project, and as a reminder of your research progress.

CHAPTER 3: THINKING ABOUT METHODS

Everyday research skills: Each person has different skills that uses in their everyday life. These skills will help also while researching, for collection, selection, analysis and presentation of data. Some of these everyday skills are: Reading: since we read every day, we have developed certain skills through reading. Depending on what we read that is how much we analyze things. While reading publicity material we are more critical and while reading novels or magazines more relaxed. Listening: almost every moment of our life we get to listen to different voices either consciously or sub-consciously. Through listening we have developed the skill to distinguish among important and

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unimportant voices, peoples attitudes, emotions, openness, honesty. Also we know how to extract the useful information from what we learn through-out the day. Watching: Through watching we learn how to identify wide range of visual signals, indicative of, for example, friendliness, unease or danger. Watching, like listening and reading, involves categorizing. Choosing: We have to make different decisions during the day from the simplest one to those that are more complicated. So, until now we have developed skills of relevance to selecting topics for research, methods to be used in research, and the subjects or objects to be sampled during research. Questioning: We do implicitly question the information that we receive through our senses, place this within acceptable frameworks, critically assess its relevance, and challenge it when we want it. The questioning skills are particularly relevant when using documentary and questionnaire techniques. Summarizing: When we want to summarize information we try to select the most important things, so we have learned from our everyday actions to leave out certain information, to stress something more, and to choose what is of key importance. Organizing: We organize information by giving the key points first, and then filling in the detail; or by focusing on the most momentous events; or by telling your story in its historical sequence. Writing: Everyone has experience in writing, but not at the same level and at the same length. Some have written even books, and some just e-mails, letters, or memos. So the quality of writing depends on the previous experiences of a person. Presenting: We present our ideas daily, in a non-formal way or even at the college. Presenting forms part of the general process of discussion and argument. It is a key in which we exert our influence on others and establish a place in the world. Reflecting: This has to do with the ability to stand back from, and think carefully about, what we have done or are doing. In research terms, it is particularly important to reflect upon your own role in the research process. Which method is best? There is no possibility to choose a certain method for the research, because every research has its own specifics, but yet it wouldnt be efficient to just collect data and make statements. So it is good to make a distinction among methods and methodologies. The term methodcan be understood to relate principally to the tools of data collection or analysis: techniques such as questionnaires and interviews.Methodology has a more philosophical meaning and usually refers to the approach or paradigm that underpins the research. Broader philosophical issues associated with researching social reality can be done in two ways: By providing some guidance about how you can develop an understanding of the underlying philosophical issues that impact on your research By indicating the main issues that you should consider in the initial design of your research. The issues about how the nature of humankind is, and what it is possible to know and not know are known as paradigms. They offer a way of categorizing a body of complex beliefs and worldviews. Oakley defines paradigms as: the ways of breaking down the complexity of the real world that tell their adherents what to do. Paradigms are essentially intellectual cultures, and as such they are fundamentally Positivism: This is the view that social science procedures should mirror, as near as possible, those of the natural sciences. The researcher should be objective and detached from objects of research. It is possible to capture reality through the use of research instruments such as experiments and questionnaires. The aims of positivist research are to offer explanations leading to control and predictability. Positivism has been a very predominant way of knowing the social world; what Guba

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and Lincoln refer as the received view. This can be seen by ways in which many still perceive positivist approaches to be simply a commonsensical way of conducting research. While there are many varieties of positivism, quantitative approaches that use statistics and experiments are seen as classic examples. Post-positivism: This includes anything that comes after positivism. It is a response to the criticisms that have been made about positivism. As its name suggests, post-positivism maintains the same set basic beliefs as positivism. However, post-positivists argue that we can only know social reality imperfectly and probabilistically. While objectivity remains an ideal, there is an increased use of qualitative techniques in order to check the validity of findings. Post positivism holds that only partially objective accounts of the world can be produced, for all methods for examining such as accounts are flawed. Interpretivism: Interpretivist approaches to social research see interpretations of the social worlds as culturally derived and historically situated. It I soften linked with social sciences that are concerned with understanding (verstehen) and is compared with explaining (erklaren). Critical: Critical social paradigms critique both positivism and interpretivism as ways of understanding the social worlds. This research seeks merely to understand, challenges of conflict and oppression and seeks about to bring change. So, according to this theory change is possible .It is opposite of Hitlers theories. Here are included feminism, neo-Marxism, anti-racist, and participatory approaches. Postmodern: Here the knowledge is seen as expression of power. It doesnt believe in human progress. Advocated of this paradigm have argued that the era of big narratives and theories is over: locally, temporally, and situationally limited narratives are now required. Post-modernist approaches seek to overcome the boundaries that are placed between art and social science. They do not offer a view of rational progression to a better world. All we might expect is that social life will be in some ways different. Here is also included post-structuralism. Families, approaches, and techniques The below questions are useful when thinking methodologically about research design: What are the main purposes of your research? Are you trying to change injustices in the world, or are you trying to understand how social reality is perceived through the perspectives of the researched? What is your in the research? Are you an expert or a change agent? What is the nature of the knowledge? Do you believe that there are facts or laws that can be known, or is knowledge informed historically through insights that occur from time to time and replace ignorance and misapprehensions? What are the criteria that you are brining to judge the quality of your research? Should the research be objective and generalizable, or should it contribute to a fundamental change in social life? Do you think your values should affect your research? What is the place of ethics in your research? Do you consider it sufficient to abide by a code of professional ethics, or should the way the research is conducted closely match you own ethical frameworks? What voice do you adopt (or are you encouraged to adopt) when writing a research report? Do you write as a disinterested scientist, a transformative intellectual or a passionate participant? What do you (and your teachers, managers and/or colleagues) think are the essential issues that you need research training in? Should you be trained primarily in technical knowledge about measurement, design and quantitative methods, in this and qualitative approaches, or do you need to be resocailized away from your existing assumptions about the nature of research? Can you accommodate several methodologies in your research?

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Who are the audience for your research? Are you hoping to persuade government administrators, funders and policy committees feminists and Marxists or your colleagues and fellow researchers? Research families: Quantitative or Qualitative Quantitative research tends to involve relatively large-scale and representative sets of data, and is often , falsely in our view, presented or perceived as being about the gathering facts, it is in the form of numbers. Qualitative research is concerned with collecting and analysing information in as many forms, it is not in the form of numbers. Deskwork or Fieldwork Fieldwork is process of going out to collect research data, visiting an institution, sitting on a meeting, observing etc. Deskwork includes processes that dont need to go out of the office, such as administration, analysis of data, Internet, library, writing. For either quantitative or qualitative and deskwork or fieldwork there is no exact line how much each of them should be used. It is the best to combine each of them and decide yourself how much of each you need. Research approaches: Action research has a practical, problem solving emphasis. It is carried by individuals, professionals, and educators. It involves research, systematic, critical reflection and action. It aims to improve educational practise. Action is undertaken to understand, evaluate, and change. Case studies . is the cases when an individual unit a child, a clique, a class, a school or a community is observed deeply into its characteristics. Its main purpose is to analyse intensively the multifarious phenomena that constitute the life cycle of the unit with a view establishing generalizations about wider population to which the unit belongs. Advantages: 1. are seen as strong reality, 2.allow generalizations from a specific instance to general issue, 3.show complexity of social life, 4. can provide data source for further analysis, 5.might lead to action, and 6. can be more persuasive and accessible. Disadvantages: 1.it is very hard to analyse and the case might not be the perfect one for the research, 2.difficult to know where the context begins and where it ends. Experiments are situations in which the independent variable (known as exposure, the intervention, the experimental, or predictor variable) is carefully manipulated by the investigator under known, tightly defined and controlled conditions, or by natural occurrence. It should consist of an experimental group which is exposed to the intervention under investigation and control group which is not exposed. It is very important when conducting experiments with people to be ethical and not take advantage as a researcher. Advantages 1.the risk of extraneous variables confounding the results is minimized, 2.more clarified direction of cause and effect, 3.more control over time-related validity, 4.greater flexibility, efficiency, and powerful statistical manipulation, 5.it is the only one that yields causal relationships. Disadvantages - 1.difficult to design experiments to represent a specified population, 2.difficult to choose the control variables, 3. Impossible to isolate the one variable that is hypothesized as the cause of the other, 4.the natural setting is often not possible, 5. The role of the participants is not completely natural since it has to obey the experimenter, 6.hard to capture all goals and objectives. Surveys are systematic observations where groups of people are asked the same questions. Advantages- 1.provides generalized results, 2.easy to administer, 3.easy to be repeated in order to compare results, 4.provide a lot of data relatively quickly. Disadvantages- 1.the data loose the linkage of wider theories and issues, 2.less focus on the underlying processes and changes, 3.difficult to check the truthfulness of the respondents, 4.validity isnt looked into depth. Research techniques Documents

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Interviews Observations Questionnaires Questionnaires and interviews are the main part of a research. They are the first things that researches think of. But also the documents and observations are important. Which methods suit? Before deciding which methods to choose it is good to pose some questions such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Research questions: What exactly are you trying to find out? Leads to quantitative or qualitative direction. Are you interested in making standardized and systematic comparisons or do you really want to study this phenomenon or situation in detail? The literature: How have other researchers dealt with this topic? To what extent do you which to align your own research with standard approaches to the topic? Practical considerations: time, money, availability of data, familiarity with the subject etc. Knowledge payoff: Will you learn more about this topic using quantitative or qualitative forms of research? Which approach will produce more useful knowledge? Which will do more good? Style: Depends on the preference of the researcher. Among the key determinants of the approach that you will use is the nature of the research proposed. You also need to look at the time and resources available. You should also look at what skills you posses. You should try to take advantage from the skills that you have, or if you see that you need a skills that you dont really have you have to try to develop it more. Sometimes you can choose among different options for methods according to your preferences, but sometimes this might be impossible because you have to use each of the methods even those that you dont prefer. The methods that you plan to use very often affect the answers that you get during the research. You as the researcher are an important factor while conducting the research. You have to take into consideration your age, sex, background, class etc. This is mostly is important when going to fieldwork since you might encounter different types of respondents. If the organization that you are working for asks for specific methods, you should be able to reach the wanted results based on those methods. It is always good to use more than just one method, to combine different methods. Most research projects are multi-method. You should always leave space for modification of methods since the research might be the case that needs to change the direction of the beginning. Here are eleven ways to combine qualitative and quantitative research

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Logic of triangulation comparing the results from both researches Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research qualitative research helps in providing background in information on context and subjects Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research helping with the choice of subjects for a qualitative investigation Quantitative and qualitative research are combined in order to provide general picture Structure and process quantitative research is good at structural feature of social life, qualitative research is good at processual aspects. Researchers and subjects perspectives quantitative research is driven by researchers concerns, qualitative research is driven by subjects perspective. Problem of generality- some addition of quantitative evidence might be helpful

14 8. 9. 10. 11.
Qualitative research may facilitate the interpretation of relationships between variables Relationship between macro and micro levels- using both researches help to bridge the large scale features of life (quantitative) with small-scale behavioural aspects (qualitative). Stage in the research process the usage of quantitative and qualitative research depends on the stage of research. Hybrids when qualitative research is conducted within a quantitative research. Deciding about methods When definitely deciding about the methods you should be able to answer these questions: How are you going to do the research? What is your strategy and approach? What techniques and methods are you going to use? If you are not yet able to answer these questions you should continue to read more about the subject, reflect on your plans; see if you have a methodological perspective etc.

CHAPTER 4: READING FOR RESEARCH

Introduction: Carrying out a research project in the social sciences will almost invariably involve the researcher in a significant amount of reading, particularly if they are not already well read in their subject area. The purpose of this chapter is to support you in the developing and using your research reading skills. Why read? Ten reasons for reading for research 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. It will give you ideas You need to understand what other researchers have done in your area To broaden your perspectives and set your work in context Direct personal experience can never be enough To legitimate your arguments It may cause you to change your mind Writers(and you will be one) need readers So that you can effectively criticize what others have done To learn more about research methods and their application in practice In order to spot areas which have not been researched

Reading at different stages and purposes Stages: 1. 2. At the beginning of your research, in order to check what other research has been done, to focus your ideas, shape your hypothesis and explore the context of your project; During your research, to keep you interested and up to date with developments, to help you better understand the methods you are using and the field you are researching, and as a source of data; After your research, to see what impact your own work has had and to help develop your ideas for further research projects. Purposes:

3.

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1. 2. 3. 4. Accounts of research on similar topics to your own Accounts of research methods being applied in ways which are similar to your own plans Accounts of the context relating to your project To protect against duplication and enrich your arguments

Coping with the research literature: The volume of literature- the amount of material written on most subjects is huge. How does the researcher get to grips with this? The variety of literature- there are many kinds of literature such as: textbooks, journals, magazines, newspapers, policy documents, internet materials, internal reports, novels, etc which may be relevant. How does the researcher use this range of sources? Lack of boundaries- unless a project is very tightly defined, it may be impossible to judge which areas of the literature are relevant. How does the researcher avoid reading to widely or aimlessly? Conflicting arguments- as soon as you start reading, you are likely to be confronted by different opinions, arguments and interpretations. You may see that not two writers agree about even the most basic issues. So how does the researcher access these arguments, and place themselves within them? Where to read Using libraries- may seem to be the obvious place where you can read and especially when you are doing a research project. Library comes on different guises. There might be wide range of specialized sources, general or academic in function, for reference only or available for borrowing Using the internet- Nowadays, computer is making use some of the vast range of materials available through the internet compared to libraries; the material in the internet is much more variable in quality. Of course you do need to have acces to, a computer and internet connection. Given this, access is easy, though at times it may be frustrating and can be expensive. What to read Books- of all kinds Journals- local, national, international, practitioner-oriented or research based, etc. Reports- produced by institutions or organizations of different kinds, including employers, representative associations, political parties, trades unions, voluntary bodies, community groups, etc. Popular media- the daily weekly press, magazines, radio and television broadcasts; Computer based materials: an increasingly important source, which may include textbooks and journal materials as well as discussed groups and websites. Memos, minutes, internal reports: produced by organizations you are studying or which are relevant to your topic. Letters, diaries: and other personal documents produced by individuals of interest

Whom to read Faced with a bookshelf containing 20 or 30 books on the same topic, it can be very difficult to decide where to start. You might chose one volume at random, or take a more considered view, perhaps selecting the most recent book written and published in your country. You should take plenty of

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guidance on whom to read, at least to start with, from your supervisor, manager, colleagues or fellow researcher. As you read more and more literature, you will begin to build up a view of the most quoted or cited authors, and the classic text; but you should also follow your own hunches and seek out less read materials. How to find what you need to read If you are a researcher and you are taking an unfamiliar field of study for the first time, you need to get grips with the relevant literature as quick as possible. You aim is to become familiar with the key texts on your subject area, and to supplement this understanding with a broader and more selective reading around the topic. Hint: You might find it useful to look at the section in Focusing in chapter 2. Eight stages for finding what you need to read

1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Take advice from your available sources: your supervisor, manager, fellow researchers or students. Locate your sources: books, journals or other materials that appear relevant by asking advice, browsing around or Using Librariesand Using the Internet. If you have identified relevant shelf or internet locations, look at the other materials there are relevant to your topic. Once you have identified relevant journals, in print or online, look through recent issues to find the most up-to-date writing on your topic. Read outwards from your original sources by following up interesting looking references. Identify the key text by noting those that are referred again and again. Make sure that you need and take the most popular of these. Seek out the latest editions. As you develop a feeling for the literature relevant to your field, try to have some understanding and have done some reading within in different areas. Use the time and resources you have available to do as much pertinent reading as possible. Using libraries Sources of information in library:

Librarians Catalogues Databases and computers Abstract and reviews Dictionaries and encyclopedias Open shelves -Besoj te gjithe e dime cka permban sources library,e qe doni I lexoni veq e veq cka permbajne ne page 107. ( se shume informata po perseriten). Reading journals as well as books Dont neglect to read the journals relevant to your topic. If you are studying in a university, you should find that many of these are available to you online and printed. Accessing materials not in library If you probably run up against the problem of identifying materials which you look of interest and then

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finding that they are not available in library, there are three obvious strategies for responding to this problem: Inter library Loan system Using available electronic resources to access materials online. Photocopying Where you cannot borrow materials, or do not have the time to bring them back, you wish to photocopy selected items. Using the internet There is no doubt that opportunities for researching for information via the internet are enormous. It needs a carefully and systematic managing, and requires to keep an eye on the quality of the information you are accessing. Good enough reading How to read a book in five minutes If you are doing a research and you find a lot of sources and materials, of course you wont have time to read all the books you have found. As a result, with some practice, you should be able to get to the gist of a book, report or move on to read or do something else. You may find it particularly useful to scan relevant sections looking for passages which succinctly summarize or advice the argument. These sections are often worth noting down as potential quotations. Getting to the gist: Note down the author, publisher, title and date of the book Look for an introduction, executive summary, abstract or concluding chapter Look for the contents page Look for an index First and last paragraphs; first and last sentences of a paragraph Critical Reading In research terms, critical reading, critical thinking, and critical assessment refer to a considered, though not necessarily balanced, and justified examination of what others have written or said regarding the subject in question. An important skill at the heart of these processes is the ability to recognize, analyze and evaluate the reasoning and forms of argumentation in the texts and articles that you will read. Being critical does not mean rubbishing or rejecting someone elses work. As a researcher and thinker you should be able to simultaneously entertain two or more contradictory ideas at one time. What is a critical reading? One that goes beyond mere description by offering opinions, and making a personal response, to what has been written One that relates different writings to each other, indicating their differences and contradictions, and highlighting what they are lacking One that does not take what is written at face value One that strives to be explicit about the values and theories which inform and color reading and writing

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One that views research writing as a contested terrain, within which alternative views and positions may be taken up One that shows an awareness of the power relations involved in research, and of where writers are coming from One that uses a particular language (authors assert, argue, state, conclude or contend), may be carefully qualified, and may use an impersonal voice Analyzing Identify conclusion and reasons: look for conclusion indicator (keywords to look for are therefore, so, hence, thus, should); look for reason indicator (keywords to look for are because, for, since) Ask What is the passage trying to get me to accept or believe? Ask What reason, evidence is it using in order to get me to believe this?

Reading about methods as well as subjects Why read about methods? Nine reasons for reading about method 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. You are going to be using one or more research techniques or methods about your project, and as well as understand as more about them and their use. You may need to evaluate a number of possible alternative approaches and techniques before deciding which ones are going to use. If you are likely to engage in a series of research projects, you will need to develop your understanding of the broad range of research methods used in your disciplinary or subject area. In doing so, you will develop your knowledge of research and practices and will be better reflect upon your own practice. It will help you justify what are you doing, or proposing to do and why. It will allow seeing the research what it is, a social process with its own varying conventions and changing practices, rather than as an artificial and objective set of procedures. Your method might be more interesting than the subject of your research. You may need, or be expected to write a methodological section or chapter in your research report or dissertation. Simply to expand your knowledge. Where to read about method (page 119) Methodological texts Methods journal Confessional accounts Recording your reading Being meticulousness (strict or perfect) from the beginning of your research will save you time and trouble in the long run. This is particularly important when it comes to recording your reading. You should resolve, right from the start, to note down full details of everything you read. These details should include: The author or authors;

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The title of the paper, report or book; The date of publication; If it is a book or report, the publisher and place of publication ( and the edition, if there has been more than one); If it is a chapter in an edited book, the title and editor of the book, and the page numbers of the chapter; If it is a paper in a journal, the title of the journal, volume and issue number, and pages; If it is a website, the address and the date you accessed the information Literature review A research literature review is a systematic, explicit, and reproducible method for identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the excising body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and practitioners. Some of the questions a literature review can answer: What are the key sources? What are the key theories, concepts and ideas? What are the epistemological and ontological grounds for the discipline? What are the main questions and problems that have been addressed to date? How is knowledge on the topic structured and organized? What are the origins and definitions of the topic? What are the political standpoints? What are the major issues and debates about the topic? How have approaches to these questions increased our understanding and knowledge? Issues in reading As a novice researcher, you are quite likely to encounter some difficulties in reading for your research topic. The most common problems are: Nothing has been written on my research topic Theres too much Its all been done, and How many references do I need These issues are complementary. Indeed, they may all be uttered by the same researchers at different points in the research process.

CHAPTER 5: MANAGING YOUR PROJECT

How people manage their research project differs from a lot of factors. Whether its your personality, or the time frame and the tools you have available to conduct research. These can serve as a helpful asset, or as a drawbacks, but the better you know the circumstances and the better you plan, it will be easier to complete your project. This chapter is all about what skills will you need to use or to develop so that youre able to manage your research project effectively and to know how to work around problems that might arise while youre working.

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Managing time Below is a list of attitudes to time, which should be useful for you to identify yourself with. When it comes to time management, its important that you schedule your work around your own personal traits due to time. You need to understand your own ways of managing your time in relation to your energy levels and coping strategies, and to the demands made upon you. Box 5.1 Attitudes to time Im a night owl Im an early bird I juggle lots of tasks I schedule everything in my diary I over-schedule! I compartmentalize (e.g. I keep Sundays for the family) I slot things in when I can There are too few hours in the day I sleep fast I dont have time to even go to the loo I cook the childrens dinner and write my essays on the corner of the table I have to know I will be uninterrupted The less time Ive got, the more I get done Time for me is really more about energy and motivation How you manage time isnt only a matter of character, but also a matter of your life. While conducting research, not many people can dedicate their life to research only, so they need to adjust it to their normal life. Depending on whether you work or are at university, you need to adjust the time of your research based on your schedule. You might have kids or other family members to look at and therefore have to work evenings, or after you have fulfilled your obligations. On the other hand it also depends on whether youre willing to work on weekends and on holidays or not. Some people reserve the weekends for their family, others prefer to work on Sundays when they have more free time. It all depends on the obligations and the personality we have. Box 5.2 Using time for research Delegation Can you delegate certain aspects of your research? For example, making appointments, carrying out interviews, tape transcription, inputting data to the computer, statistical analysis, typing of drafts. Reading effectively Train yourself to get through the literature, and to get at the nub of the arguments within it, quicker. Chunking You may be able to divide some of your research tasks up into small chunks which can be tackled whenever you have a little spare time. For example, if you take photocopies of materials you need to read, you could bring these out (e.g. during a train journey) as and when you have time. Relaxing with a purpose Make sure all your down-time activities have a clear purpose. You might, for example, be idly looking through a book to gain a sense of what it is about. Or you might use time spent walking the dog or having a bath to give you time to think. Dont think of such time as wasted: one of the keys to doing worthwhile, effective research is to allow yourself plenty of space in which to mull over what you are doing. However, sometimes getting involved in a research project, while we have other engagements such as work, studies, or family, doesnt seem like a good idea because its difficult to find time for it. In times like these its best if you just postpone your research project for some time in the future, when you will be able to dedicate more time to it. From the start, however, you will need to be realistic. You cannot undertake a research project and not expect it to impact upon other aspects of your life. At the very least, you can expect to enjoy rather less in the way of sleep and loafing about. You will probably also have less time for dinner parties, sport and holidays. But always remember that research has its own consolations! Mapping your project After identifying how much time you have and how will you manage it, you need to create a draft schedule which you will attend to follow for your project. This schedule should include the time you

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have available for your project as well as the time you will dedicate to other areas of your life. However, after creating a schedule you dont need to strictly stick to it. No one can plan a research project down to minutes. Some parts of the research will take longer than expected, whereas others will require less time. Some parts that you wanted to include you will drop, and some minor parts of your research may develop to be more interesting and useful than you thought. So even with a schedule, its a good idea to leave some spare time in between activities, so if you need more time for certain parts of your project you can use the spare time you left. Also, its very helpful if you go back to your schedule every once in a while and make adjustments. Look at Box 5.3 in page 136 Piloting Piloting is the process whereby you try out the research techniques and methods which you have in mind, see how well they work in practice, and, if necessary, modify your plans accordingly. It is advised that before you start your research you try out the methods you have planned to use, so in case some of them dont work you change your plans. It will take more time, but you will be more prepared, since your initial plan of data collection may turn different from what you thought, or even turn completely the opposite. However, almost all of the social research is piloting in one way or another. Dealing with key figures and institutions During the research, you will have to deal with many key figures and institutions that are relevant to your research in one way or another. These can be: At the individual level, your supervisor, tutor, mentor or manager; At the institutional level, your university, employer or sponsor. Their significance varies, but in this section we will look only at those who are more important in agreeing, progressing, reviewing and assessing your research. Key figures Two most important figures that are likely to be involved with your project are those who would have roles of: A supervisor has an academic responsibility for guiding and advising you on your research project; A manager has a responsibility for directing and overseeing your work in a more general sense. You may have both, neither, or only one of them, all this depending on the nature of your research. If youre doing research for academic purposes, you most certainly have one or more than one supervisors. Their importance and involvement in your project will depend on your topic, level of study, institutional practices and individual liking. On the other hand if youre doing research in your employment place, but also for academic credit, the level of presence of the manager will depend whether the research is relevant to the workplace and if it is sponsored by the employer or have they decided your research topic. Your relationship with your supervisor may be great and they may be very helpful in giving you advice and feedback. For this, consider yourself lucky, because other researchers may not have the same fate as you. If your supervisor or manager is not available and helpful than one of the reasons may be that they have their own obligations. The relationship you have with them may make or break your research in the long run. If you want to establish a formal relationship that clearly states their duties and what you expect from them, its good to make a contract and have your supervisor or manager sign it. Even if it wont define everything perfectly, it may serve as a guideline to your relationship. The most important thing is for you to ask yourself and know what you want from your relationship with your supervisor and include that in the contract. Box 5.4 Handling your supervisor or manager Investing too much authority or responsibility in key figures in your research life is likely to lead to disappointment. It is as important to develop your own sense of authority and responsibility. In supervisor/researcher and manager/researcher relationships, responsibility is two-way. Just as you may rightly have expectations of your supervisor and/or manager, in terms of support and advice, so may they rightly have expectations of you. These may cover aspects such as scheduling, regularity

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of work and reporting back. Where you are carrying out a research project as part of a group, the situation is inevitably rather more complicated. A whole web of relationships and attendant responsibilities will exist between you, the other members of your group, and your joint supervisor(s) or manager(s). Because of this complexity, it is important to be as clear as possible about the nature of the relationships involved. You should ideally aim to be in a position of sharing responsibility for, and authority over, your research. After all, it is you that are doing, and to a large extent managing, the research. If you ask for assistance or advice from your manager or supervisor, be prepared to have it refused, and still be able to move forward with your research. Box 5.4 What a research contract might include Responsibilities at university level maintaining the regulations for postgraduate students; admitting students and ensuring that admission standards are maintained; checking that departments are monitoring students and dealing with complaints and problems; approving recommendations for upgrading students from MPhil to PhD; appointing examiners . . . Responsibilities of supervisors To explore fully the students background at the outset, and identify areas where further training is needed; To give guidance on the nature of research and the standard expected the planning of the research program, attendance at appropriate courses, literature and sources . . . Check on the students progress at regular intervals; allocate a reasonable period of time for supervisory sessions; Deal with urgent problems as soon as possible . . . Responsibilities of research students to tackle the research with a positive commitment, taking full advantage of the resources and facilities offered by the academic environment and in particular contact with the supervisor, other staff and research students; To discuss with the supervisor the type of guidance and comment believed to be most helpful, the training which might be required, and agree a schedule of meetings; To attend supervision sessions, meetings, seminars, lectures and laboratory sessions as required by the supervisor or head of department . . . Box 5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of research contracts Advantages 1 They can help to specify your respective roles and responsibilities. 2 They can indicate the expectations held by both sides of the relationship, in terms, for example, of meetings or outputs. 3 They can help you to establish an initial working relationship, or to change an existing relationship. Disadvantages 1 They may become rigid if not reviewed or revisited at intervals. 2 They may commit you to certain things you would rather avoid or keep fluid. Key institutions As mentioned before, the key institutions in your research may be either the university or your workplace. Its important that if youre researching for academic credit, you know what exactly are the rules, facilities, and practices of the university. Its important to know these rules before you even start your project so you can plan and adjust to them properly. Box 5.7 What you need to know from your institution From your university or college In terms of facilities, you should know: what resources are available (e.g. libraries, computers, language laboratories, rooms, training), and when they are available; what research services are offered (e.g. questionnaire design, data input, tape transcription, statistical advice, writing workshops, language teaching);

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what library services are offered (e.g. data bases, Internet, inter-library loans, photocopying), and on what basis; how these facilities are organized at university or departmental level. You will also need to be aware of both your universitys and departments written regulations and their unwritten, informal practices. These might include, for example: expectations of supervisors and/or tutors; rules about the roles of external supervisors and examiners; regulations about the time allowed to complete research, and regarding possible suspension or extension of registration; rules about the use of others materials (e.g. plagiarism); training requirements; internal and ethical approval procedures; pre-publication rules associated with the submission of your thesis. From your employer or sponsor If you are being given some time out or work release, find out if you are getting cover or will be expected to do five days work in four. Will your manager accept that every Thursday you are not at work, or will you have to forego your study day when a contract has to be completed or a colleague is off sick? Will your employer or sponsor help to buy your books or give you an allowance? Will you get access to computing facilities at work for research purposes? If so, find out whats available. In what format will they require you to report back (e.g. verbal and/or written presentation)? Will you be required to pay back fees and funding if you fail, the research is deemed unsatisfactory, or you leave within a certain period? Sharing responsibility Until now youve been encouraged to take responsibility for your own project. However, its also important to develop mutual relationship with fellow researchers. This relationship may be required, like in group research; implicit, or informal, when you develop personal relationships with fellow researchers. Group research Edhe pse po mduket qe nuk e kemi qit pjese, po e qes tabelen se po mduket qe osht enough of an explanation. Group research may be a matter of choice, but more often than not its a matter of being assigned to do a group research. Below are the roles that need to be filled for a group to work effectively Box 5.8 Team roles Organizer: Keeps meetings focused and in order, does his or her best to get through the agenda. Encourager: Brings good-humored appreciation to proceedings, able to defuse tensions and revive flagging morale. Facilitator: Ensures that the quieter members of the group are heard and everyones contribution acknowledged. Recorder: Keeps a note of decisions (especially decisions as to who will do what before the next meeting), ensures that everyone is aware of them. Time-keeper and progress-chaser: Keeps an eye on the calendar and ensures that everyone is aware of the state of play. Coordinator: Sees the big picture (the strategic overview), with an eye for gaps and overlaps, and presents this to the team. Lookout: Visualizes future scenarios, is alert to issues that may be looming over the horizon, keeps everyone informed. Informal relationships Even if youre not doing research as part of a group, you may want to establish relationship with those around you so you can have a circle of friends, colleagues, or fellow researchers who may be helpful to your research.

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Box 5.9 Managing informal relationships Find out what seminars, meetings and conferences you can attend, at your own institution and elsewhere. Attend a range of these, making contributions where possible. These will help you network, keep up to date, share anxieties and successes. Your university or employer may run a mentoring or buddy system, which will pair you, or put you in touch, with a student or colleague who has more experience and can show you the ropes. Get in touch with relevant research or professional organizations in the area in which you are working. These will have their own sets of meetings, will likely be interested in the research you are undertaking, and could provide useful contacts as well as a sounding board for your ideas. Talk about your research with interested relatives, neighbors, colleagues and others in your communities. You may be surprised at how useful some of them can be, particularly as research is partly about communicating your ideas and findings. Using Computers Attitudes to technology Some people refrain from using computers and continue using old methods of research, whereas some other people use computers to the core. Its good to lie somewhere in between these two extremes. Its important to use computers and the technology to conduct research. Below are some of the most important things about technology that you need to know: You should be able to type reasonably competently. You may be going to get your research report or dissertation typed out by somebody else, but you may have to type letters, drafts, notes and corrections yourself. It is probably also a good discipline to type up your own research: you are, after all, the person who knows most about it, and you can make changes and amendments as you go along. You should know of, and be able to access and use, the Internet and the various computer databases of relevance to your field of research. You will almost certainly need to make use of email. You should be aware in general terms of the kinds of packages and programs available for analyzing and presenting research data in your subject area. This awareness should extend to knowing how they work, what their requirements are, and what their advantages and disadvantages may be. Commonly available facilities Typing and word-processing: beyond basic typing, you may find a wide range of facilities available on your computer, many of which are likely to be of some use to you in carrying out, and particularly in writing up, your research (see Box 5.10). Databases and communications: an increasing variety of information databases and communications networks are available in libraries, educational and other institutions, and over the web. Analytical packages and programs: many package programs are available which can be invaluable to the social science researcher in storing, recording and analyzing their data If you dont intend to use a computer yourself Ask someone to input data for you and to use the internet for secondary research. Managing not to get demoralized when things dont go as planned Even if you plan carefully, chances are that your research wont go as you have planned. Some changes may be trivial in nature, while others may be changes that build up the pressure and assume importance in your work. When facing such changes, we need to keep in mind that research is a learning process and as we learn from our mistakes, we can learn from the changes that have occurred in our research plans. Research is really about getting misdirected, recognizing this as such, understanding why it happened, then revising our strategy and moving on. Box 5.11 Twenty things that can go wrong 1 You run out of time 2 Access is refused by a key institution or individual 3 A key contact in an organization you are studying leaves

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4 You discover that someone has already done your research 5 You lose your job 6 Your response rate is very low 7 Your manager or supervisor interferes with your plans 8 You fall ill 9 You change your job, making access to the site of your research difficult 10 You split up with your partner 11 You lose the citation for a key reference 12 You find that you have too much data to analyze, or too little 13 Your tape recorder doesnt work, or runs out of batteries 14 You run out of money 15 You cannot find key references in your library 16 You are absolutely fed up with your project 17 The dog eats your draft, and then dies 18 You have written too much, or too little 19 Your computer crashes 20 The margins on your text are not the right size for binding Box 5.12 Reponses to adversity Remind yourself that the purpose of carrying out a research project, particularly as a novice researcher, may be as much about developing your understanding of the research process, and/or the use of particular research methods, as about exploring substantive issues. Remember that it may be just as valid, and possibly a lot more helpful to other researchers, to write up your research in terms of, for example, the problems of gaining access to a particular group, or of getting an adequate response from that group once access has been gained. Make it part of your business in writing up to reflect upon your research strategy, explore what went wrong and why, and include recommendations for doing it better next time. View research as being about the skills you have learnt and developed on the way. As we have said already, few research projects are truly groundbreaking, or shocking in their conclusions. Part of doing research is about appreciating what is involved, and where it may be leading you. If you have time and resources you may, of course, choose to re-direct your research strategy when you are stymied in one direction. This is very common, not an admission of failure. Welcome to the club! All is not lost.

CHAPTER 6: COLLECTING DATA

1.
ACCESS Your research topic may necessitate your gaining, and maintaining, access to any or all of the following: 1. 2. 3. Documents, held in libraries or by institutions People, in their homes, places of work, over the internet Institutions, such as private companies, schools and government departments How to increase your chances of gaining access?! Begin by asking for advice on how would it be the most appropriate to negotiate access Be modest in your request-dont start asking for everything Make existing use of your existing contacts, colleagues, managers, and supervisors Base your research within the institutions to which you need access ( perhaps register yourself as a student) Ask at the right time. Holidays are not a good time. Be as clear as possible on what you are asking for. Offer something back to your research subjects: perhaps a report or a workshop.

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Explain the reasons for doing your research, why it would be of value, and what the outcomes might be Strategies to consider if access is denied are: Approach to other individuals Approach to other institutions Approach another individual in the same institution( a little risky because of their possible communication) Change your research strategy Focus your analysis and writing up and the process of undertaking research ,why you were unable to gain the access you wanted, and possible implications of this to your topic ETHICS The conduct of ethically informed social research should be the goal of all social researchers. All social research gives rise to a range of ethical issues around privacy, anonymity, secrecy, being truthful etc. It is important to be aware of this issues and being able to respond to them. Research ethics are about being clear about the nature of the argument you have entered into with your research subject and your contacts. The pursuit of truth and publics right to know are not held as absolute values by everyone. One should negotiate a viable route between these interests. Common ethical issues are: 1. 2. 3. 4. CONFIDENTIALITY it can be very tempting, in cases when confidentiality has been agreed to use the material collected in a certain way ( no confidentiality about the data sent by email, ANONIMITY is often linked to confidentiality. Assuring individuals for not identifying them in your report or thesis. LEGALITY-it is researchers responsibility to report any illegal activity on which you become aware in the course of your research. PROFESSIONALISM- being a member of a professional group, as many researchers are, imposes certain standards in your professional life. PARTICIPATION- are the people you are doing research about the same people you are doing research with? Ethical issues do not solely relate to protecting the rights and privacy of individuals or avoid harm. They can also relate to the methodological principles underpinning the research design. Three general conclusion regarding research ethics are: face A consideration of possible or actual ethical issues is an essential part of any research project Such a consideration need to take place throughout the research project In many cases there will be no easy answer to the ethical questions that one might have to

1.

5.

1. 1.

APPLYING TECHNIQUES FOR COLLECTING DATA 4 Main techniques for producing data are: Documents, Interviews, Observations, and Questionnaires. Documents-Researchers are expected to read, understand, and critically analyze the writings of others, whether fellow researchers, policy makers, or practitioners. Documents may be librarybased (aimed at producing a critical synopsis of an existing are of research writing), computer-based (analysis of previously collected data set), work-based (drawing on materials produced within an organization), have a policy focus (examining materials relevant to a particular set of policy decision), and have a historical orientation (making use of available archive and other surviving documentary evidence). Researchers who base their studies on documents may make considerable use of secondary data; which is data that has already been collected, and possibly analyzed, by somebody else (the most

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common sec. data are statistics collected from government or governmental agencies). Reasons for using secondary data are: Because collecting primary data is difficult, time-consuming, and expensive Because one can have never enough data Because it makes sense to use it if the data you want exists in some form Because it might shed light on, or complement, the primary data you have collected Because it may confirm, contradict, or modify your findings Because it focuses your attention on analysis and interpretation Because you cannot conduct a research study in isolation on what has already been done Interviews- the interview method involves questioning or discussion issues with people. Interviews may take place face to face, or at distance (telephone or email).They may take place at home, street, office, or on some natural ground. It might be structured with a set of questions requiring specific answers, or it may be very open-ended taking the form of discussion. Semi structured interviews lie between these two types. Interview may involve only two individuals or a group of interviewers who question many topics. The interviewee may or may not be given advanced warning about the issue or the topic. It may be taped or the interviewer may take notes. Using an audio or digital recorder means that you need to concentrate on the process of the interview, maintaining eye contact, and also non verbal communication. Recording may, however, make the responder anxious and less likely to reveal confidential information. Recording also takes time to transcribe and analyze. On the other hand, not taking gives you an instant record of the major points of the interview. However, note taking can be also distracting. Putting the pen to the paper may lead interviewees to thing that they said something significant or not writing anything may mean that you find those information unimportant.

1.

1. 2. 1.

Observations-how people see and understand their surroundings will no doubt play a significant role on the way they behave, act, and interact with each-other. The observation method involves the researcher in watching, recording and analyzing events of interests. Questionnaires the most widely used research technique. There are different ways of in which questions can be asked: quantity or information, category, multiple choice, scale, ranking, grid or table, and open ended. RECORDING YOUR PROGRESS There are two key aspects to recording the process of data collection: keeping notes on the progress of your paper, and chasing up. KEEPING NOTES- may deal with your plans, how they change in practice, your reactions, what you read, what you think, significant things that people say to you, and what you discover. Some alternative choices on keeping record during your research projects are:

Research Diaries- an ideal way of keeping a record of what you are doing, feeling, and thinking throughout you research project. Boxes or files- keeping all the material you are working with in separate boxes for each project or each chapter. Colored papers and sticky notes- people find it as a fun way of organizing their records. Computers- putting your thoughts, records, and references direct onto a computer. In this case one should keep back-up copies and print as often as possible. CHASING UP- Being realistic and flexible about your expectations is a very important. You dont need 100% response rate, perhaps it doesnt matter if you dont interview every member of the management team or observe every meeting. One can get a great deal of information without experiencing everything, and even then he/she might never have time to analyze it at all. On the other hand, one might use some strategies to increase the response rate:

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Sending reminder letters to potential survey respondents who have not replied by your initial deadline Telephoning unwilling interviewees on a number of occasions Making yourself amenable to the librarian or custodian of the documents which you wish to get access to Maintaining regular contacts with the key people for your research. THE UPS AND DOWNS OF DATA COLLECTION During your data collecting process, there may be days when you really enjoy yourself when you discover something interesting. There will also when you can barely force yourself to do the necessary work. The most common downs encountered when collecting data are loneliness and obsessiveness. Loneliness- how to deal with working alone? For some working alone may be enjoyable for some stressful. One way to combat loneliness is to compartmentalize your research, to give it s certain time and space in your life, and making sure that you leave opportunities for you to maintain and engage in some of your other interests. Obsessiveness- research may be a very demanding experience. It may come to take every spare moment that you have. You may want to talk about nothing else This is likely to cause to cause you problems with your family, friends, and colleagues. The phrase going native is used to describe the researcher who has become immersed in the subject of their research that they are unable to separate their interests from those of their research subjects. Three basic strategies to be taken are: Planning and scheduling your research from the beginning, and revising your plans regularly Instructing a friend, relative, or colleague to take on the responsibility for identifying when you become obsessive, telling you so and distracting you from your research. Developing and using a network of fellow researchers so that sharing your progress and concerns, and get support on this way.

1.

1.

HOW TO ENJOY DATA COLLECTION By focusing on the topic of your particular interest, and by combining the process of combining data with other activities that give you pleasure makes data collection process more enjoyable.

1.

WHEN TO STOP COLLECTING DATA Here are some suggestions: Make a schedule and allow yourself a specific time to collect data. Stick to your schedule. Collect only sufficient data, allowing particularly for the time and facilities which you will have available for analyzing it. Move on to analyzing your data as soon as possible as you have collected sufficient data. Analyzing Data After having finished collecting research data one can start analyzing them. Usually the data collected seem to be messy and overwhelming. However, there are 10 themes which are supposed to make the analyzing process easier:

1.

The shape of your data

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There are two basic issues discussed: the condition which the data are in and the way one can analyze them (where and with what). Whether collected data are ordered or chaotic is up to the person. What is chaotic for some may be ordered for some other people. It all depends upon preferences and perceptions. The most important thing is to have the data one needs, since there is no right strategy to go about analyzing them. During the process of analyzing them, one usually starts ordering them and selecting what is important and what is not by finding strengths and deficiencies. There are some restrictions in how, where, and when the data analysis can be carried out. Most of them are related to time and place. For example some prefer working at a desk, some other prefer armchairs; some like to spread the work over the floor or wall; some prefer computers while others use paper and pen; some need long periods of time in order to analyze the data, others can do it in smaller chunks, etc. The nature of data The collected data are likely to be in a number of forms: questionnaires, interviews, notes, measurements, internet materials, charts, diagrams, and photographs. The major distinction among all kinds of data is between qualitative (words) and quantitative (numbers). Even though at first sight it seems like there is a huge difference between these kinds of data since numbers are perceived as more precise and words as providing more detail, both give only a partial description of the reality. In addition, they are usually found together (reports include both number and words) and can substitute each other (qualitative data can be quantified and vice versa). Numbers- most common uses of numbers are: direct measurements (raw, real numbers), categories, percentages, averages, etc. Words- can be found in the form of directly written words and spoken words which have been transcribed, written notes, carefully considered written words (intended for publication), etc. All these forms involve a degree of subjectivity and every source should be interrogated as to its representativeness, reliability, and accuracy. 1. Managing your data The research process involves two closely related processes: -managing the data, by reducing their size and scope -analyzing the managed data, by abstracting from it and drawing attention to what is perceived of particular importance There are several techniques to manage the set of data collected: Coding -The process by which items or groups of data are assigned codes. These may be used to simplify and standardize the data for analytical purposes, as when characteristics like sex, marital status or occupation are replaced by numbers (e.g. replacing male by 1, female by 2). Or the process may involve some reduction in the quantity of the data, as when ages, locations or attitudes are categorized into a limited number of groups, with each group then assigned its own numerical identity (e.g. categorizing ages as under 21, 2164 and 65 and over, and then replacing these by 1, 2 and 3 respectively). Annotating- The process by which written (or perhaps audio or visual) material is altered by the addition of notes or comments. On books or papers, these may take the forms of marginal notes, or underlining or highlighting the text itself. The process may draw attention to what you consider to be the more significant sections, perhaps for later abstraction and quotation. Or it may serve as part of your continuing debate with your texts, a means to refine and progress your ideas further. Labeling -Where you have an analytical scheme in mind, or are developing one, you may go through materials such as interviews or policy documents and label passages or statements with significant words (e.g. mother, conservative, career break, introvert). These labels can then serve to direct your further analysis. A fine distinction might be drawn between the related processes of labeling and annotation, in that labeling smacks of stereotyping, of having your ideas or prejudices worked out in advance, whereas annotating seems more open or flexible.

1.

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Selection -A key process in the management of data, through which interesting, significant, unusual or representative items are chosen to illustrate your arguments. This may take the form, for example, of one member of a group, one institution, one answer to a survey, one particular quotation, one text, or a number of such selections. The point is that you are choosing, for a variety of reasons, which examples of your data collection to emphasize and discuss. There is always a good deal of subjectivity involved in such a process. Summary -The process where, rather than choose one or more examples from a larger body of data, you opt to produce a reduced version, prcis or synopsis of the whole data set. This would probably aim to retain something of the variability of the original data collected, while saying something about the generality and/or typical cases. (Note: All of these techniques may be carried out, for qualitative or quantitative data, using available software as well as manually. The names given here to the techniques are often used in interchangeable ways.) 1. Computer-based data management and analysis Some types of data, such as questionnaires, interviews, observations, are best analyzed through computer-based methods. There are many software packages designed to carry out both qualitative and quantitative data analysis. The choice depends upon the data and expected outcomes. 1. The process of analysis Analysis is about the search for explanation and understanding, in the course of which concepts and theories will likely be advanced, considered and developed. 1. Concepts are abstract or general ideas, which are important to how we think about particular subjects or issues Theories are suppositions which explain, or seek to explain something Explanations are statements which seek to make something intelligible (clear), about why things are the way they are Understanding is our perception of the meaning of something Analyzing documents Documentary analysis involves the careful consideration of a range of related questions: Who is the author? What is their position? What are their biases? Where and when was the document produced? Why was the document produced? How was it produced? Who for? In what context was the document produced? What are its underlying assumptions? What does the document say, and not say? How is the argument presented? How well supported and convincing is its argument? How does this document relate to previous ones? How does this document relate to later ones? What do other sources have to say about it? Main points: -Documents, whatever their nature, cannot be taken at face value (they should be critically assessed for research purposes) -the best way to find out whether the documents are significant is to compare them to each other (comparative analysis) One way to analyze documents that contain quantitative data is content analysis (this method comprises three stages: stating the research problem, retrieving the text and employing sampling

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methods and interpretation and analysis. This focus considers the frequency with which certain words or particular phrases occur in the text as a means of identifying its characteristics . . . Words or phrases in the document are transformed into numbers. The number of times in which a word occurs in the text is taken as an indicator of its significance pg. 210) Analyzing interviews Interview transcripts may have multiple meanings and several different interpretations. Therefore, there are many approaches to analyzing them. One of them is to deal with each question separately by comparing the answers; the other is to analyze the notes taken, or input all the data into a computer database. Discourse analysis, another technique used to analyze interviews (and documents as well): Views a prevailing social order as historically situated and therefore relative, socially constructed and changeable. Views a prevailing social order and social processes as constituted and sustained less by the will of individuals than by the pervasiveness of particular constructions or versions of reality often referred to as discourses. Views discourse as colored by and productive of ideology. Views power in society not so much as imposed on individual subjects as an inevitable effect of a way particular discursive configurations or arrangements privilege the status and positions of some people over others. Views human subjectivity as at least in part constructed or inscribed by discourse, and discourse as manifested in the various ways people are and enact the sorts of people they are. Views reality as textually and intertextually mediated via verbal and nonverbal language systems, and texts as sites for both the inculcation and the contestation of discourses. Views the systematic analysis and interpretation of texts as potentially revelatory of ways in which discourses consolidate power and colonize human subjects through often covert position calls. (palidhje, apo jo?) 1. Analyzing observations Key points about the analysis of observations: Quantified forms of observation lend themselves to fairly routinized forms of data collection and analysis, which can be very powerful in getting across particular issues in tabular or diagrammatic form The collection and analysis of observation data occurs as much in parallel as in sequence Observation is very often used in conjunction with other methods, both to contextualize and extend the analysis being carried out. Analyzing questionnaires Even though data collected by questionnaires may be either qualitative or quantitative, the analysis is often more of a quantitative form. This is because they are designed to collect mainly discrete items of information, either numbers or words, which can be coded and represented as numbers. Levels of quantitative analysis: Descriptive statistics: variable frequencies, averages, ranges Inferential statistics: assessing the significance of your data and results Simple inter-relationships: cross tabulation or correlation between two variables Multivariate analysis: studying the linkages between two or more variables (see page 216, 217 for more stats I info-tables) One key point to be aware of is the question of causality. Just because two variables seem to be related based on measurements, it does not mean that they are.

1.

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1. Interpretation Interpretation is the process by which one puts its own meaning on the data collected and analyzed. It also includes comparing that meaning with those advanced by others. Your own perspective- a critical element of the data analysis is arriving at your own assessment of what the results mean, and how these relate to other relevant research and writing in your subject area. Distancing yourself from your data sources- one should not get too committed to the research project. It is healthy to stand back for some time and view the project from another perspective, that of an outsider. Shared understandings apart from developing a personal perspective on the research, it is advisable to review that perspective in the light of those of others. Do the perspectives agree or disagree with those developed by other authorities? How to handle different accounts it is important to recognize different views and explanations of others, since it is impossible for our views to be the same or similar to views of other people. One should not be concerned if his/her views differ from other researchers. Instead, one should look for reasons why is that so and argue the relevance of his/her own interpretation against those of others. The value of the data that doesnt fit those data should not be ignored, but accepted, reported and cherished, even if they are exceptions that prove the rule. It is not uncommon for certain views to be challenged by others. What does it all mean a general consideration of the relevance and usefulness of the research project involves considering these four concepts: Significance- The concept of significance has a specific, statistical meaning and a more general, common-sense interpretation. In statistical parlance, it refers to the likelihood that a result derived from a sample could have been found by chance. The more significant a result, the more likely that it represents something genuine. In more general terms, significance has to do with how important a particular finding is judged to be. Generalizability - The concept of generalizability, or representativeness, has particular relevance to small-scale research. It relates to whether your findings are likely to have broader applicability beyond the focus of your study. Thus, if you have carried out a detailed study of a specific institution, group or even individual, are your findings of any relevance beyond that institution, group or individual? Do they have anything to say about the behavior or experience of other institutions, groups or individuals, and, if so, how do you know that this is the case? Reliability - The concept of reliability has to do with how well you have carried out your research project. Have you carried it out in such a way that, if another researcher were to look into the same questions in the same setting, they would come up with essentially the same results (though not necessarily an identical interpretation). If so, then your work might be judged reliable. Validity - Validity has to do with whether your methods, approaches and techniques actually relate to, or measure, the issues you have been exploring.

CHAPTER 8: WRITING UP

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The research report, thesis or dissertation, the journal article, academic text and conference paper remain the major means by which researchers communicate with each other, and with other interested parties, across space and time. Researchers, both novice (new) and experienced, are extremely reluctant of committing their ideas to paper. Inexperienced researchers hesitate because they have little idea on what is expected from them, whereas experienced researchers seem to indicate distaste for the writing experience, due to preferences for other aspects of research, as well as continuing lack of confidence in their abilities. Writing begins as soon as you start thinking about and reading around your research. Drafting and re-drafting Format reveals the whole philosophy of the research paper: Organization- necessary for the efficient allocation of ones time and effort and for the organization of paper whose internal structure is balanced and sound, and argument proceed along logical lines. Discipline- central to the long labour of sifting authorities, and adding ones own critical comments only when these authorities have been fully assimilated. Conventions- vital in a context where one writes not for oneself, but for a critical public. Writing up becomes a regular and continuing activity, even iterative or cyclical process which is drafting a section, then moving to another activity, and then return on or more times to re draft the original version. Two key skills are: 1. knowing when you need to redraft and 2. knowing when you have done enough. Sometimes, starting to write is hard and we find different reasons to procrastinate it. Some of the reasons are in page 229, box 8.1 (palidhje!) that can be overcome by some of the suggestions in box 8.2. However, the main idea to start writing anything no matter how unhelpful , because no matter how experienced the researcher is the first version is never good enough and always needs polishing. Whenever you write something the writing up process becomes in fact re-writing of what you have written before. We use this because it brings in new ideas, material, reduces the length of whats written, revises the old version, alters the structure, responds to suggestions made by readers, and removes any advert repetitions. The main question is : How many drafts are enough?...and it all depends on your own preferences and the length of the paper. The longer the paper and the more stages the project has the more draft will be needed. However, its always a good idea to make notes along the drafts. Drafting helps reduce or increase the length of your paper. However, writing the appropriate length is not easy. Sometimes, we have specific limitations, but sometimes we have to rely on our judgment and set our own limit and then as a good practice, check this with your likely readers. 2 basic approaches for writing to a given length: Planned approach- you sketch out the contents of the report in some detail, allocate a given number of words or pages, and then endeavor to keep to those lengths of the draft. Slash and burn approach- you initially draft without references of any length and then cut down or extend the draft as necessary. Page 232 Know box 8.3 and box. 8.4. Interruptions are part of the writing process. One way of dealing with them is to write in a time or place where youre unlikely to be interrupted (lunch time, after working hourslibrary, quiet room etc). If that is not possible then a detailed outline is advisable. By doing so you can remind yourself step by step where you stand. How to argue? In organizational terms, your research is likely to include a minimum:

1. 2. 3.

1. 2.

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. An introduction (beginning) and set of conclusions (end) which can be replaced by a summary and a series of recommendations, respectively. A set of different chapters or sections which can be further divided into sub-chapters or subsections. Each chapter or section can have introductory and concluding passages. References to existing research and publications, possibly by quotations. Also a list of materials referred usually in the form of bibliography. Tables, diagrams, charts and other illustrations. A number of prefatory sections like preface, abstract, dedications, and acknowledgements, and/or supplementary sections like appendixes. The above organizational elements are bare bones of any research paper that can be put together effectively through: Context- consists of your broader understanding of the area within which youre researching and it can operate in three levels: In terms of your disciplinary background: If sociologist there will be sociology writings In terms of your field of study: i.e. transport economics, sociology of a family In terms of the methodology youre employing: questionnaire surveys or participant observations. Themes- key issues, concepts, or questions, you identify as being of relevance and interest. This will inform the research you undertake and help to structure your analysis and findings. Themes are introduced early in the report, and continue throughout the main body of your discussion as linkages that hold the overall report together. I.e. of themes: development theory, gender relations at work, measures of money supply, etc. Ordering- how you set out your argument in stages, and how you break it down into manageable chunks for the reader. Linkages- how you aid the reader in finding their way through your report. It can be done by identifying with the theme all along or by cross-referencing between chapters or sections. The main aim is to present a coherent whole to the reader, no matter how the report is structured. The differences between academic theses and work reports are : (See box 8.5 and 8.6) Work reports are briefer and focus more clearly on practical applications of the undertaken research Work reports are less likely to include a separate section of references. Work report is quite likely to be presented in terms of numbered sections or paragraphs, not chapters. It may contain an executive summary in the beginning. How to criticize? Since writing within the contest of existing research and understanding, your research also constitutes your evaluation of others work and beliefs. The essence of criticism is: placing your work within the context of others, acknowledging the deficiencies of that work, both yours and theirs, and then moving the debate further. Criticizing others is not rubbishing them or accepting others data just because theyve been published. It is evaluation, in which you recognize yourself as capable of error, and may change mind in time. It is about joining a wider research debate with others you may never meet. Your sources should include your broader engagement with ideas through discussion with others, as well as your own research data and your interpretation of this. You will probably uses selected sources: To build up the context for your own research, demonstrating existing thinking and practice

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7.

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To exemplify and justify the methodology you adopted To compliment, or contrast with, your findings and interpretations. (You will have a mixture of positive and negative comments about your sources). Even if your aim is to provide synopsis of the literature, it is your argument and your interpretation that should be at the forefront of your writing. So, you control your argument and make sure that you establish your argument and your voice. Who am I writing for? Two issues of writing : Style- relates to how you write your research, which may be determined by the requirements of your audience, by your own preferences, or by a mixture of the two. Voice- how you express yourself and tell the story of your research, and it is something likely to develop further as you write and research. You can write impersonally in the third person (i.e. it appears) or in the first person (i.e. I found). Writing in the third person is used more as it gives the impression of being more distant and objective, whereas writing in the first person is more immediate, committed, and personal which implies subjectivity. .The choice depends on your discipline, politics, purpose, and audience. (See Box 8.8) No matter the amount of data found, their evaluation and interpretation, you will most likely not be the one to write the last word on that topic as research continues. For that reason you should be aware of the incomplete information, its deficiencies, and strengths. There are safer and riskier strategies of writing up. Novice (new) researchers might want to use safer ways as they are unsure of what theyre really doing. Experiences researchers might want to use challenges and try riskier ways such as: write in a form of a dialogue or play, use the first person etc. Nonetheless, risks shouldnt be taken unless you really have the freedom to do so and know what youre doing. Writing should strive to be non-discriminatory. Otherwise it will offend the reader, at the very least. No discriminations based on sex, age, ethnic group, religion, sexual orientation etc. Remain constant with the style that you use. In case you choose to change styles along the report you should write it in the prefatory sections such as preface or acknowledgements . Most common failures of written up research are: errors in grammar, punctuation, and spelling and mistakes in referencing or in the bibliography. Also, you must avoid the sin of plagiarism, which presenting other peoples work as if it was your own, knowingly or unknowingly. Grammar, punctuation, and spelling errors happen to everyone but should be avoided as much as possible because they detract the reader and even irritate him/her, to the extent of being put off by errors. For that reason spell checks and other means of improving in not making the same mistakes again should be used. (See Box 8.9) The difference between bibliography and set of references is: A set of references contains details of all the books, articles, reports and other works you have directly referred to in your thesis or report. (veq qa ke perdor) A bibliography contains details of all, or a selection of, the books, articles, reports, and other works or relevance you have consulted during your research, not all of which may be directly referred to in your text. ( krejt qa ke lexu per temen edhe nese se ke perdor direct) Whether you use one or another depends on the space you have or on the request made to you. Still, it should provide full details of the works you refer to, so the reader can track them down and even examine them if he/she wants to. (See 8.10 edhe pse ishalla se qet!!!) Plagiarism is usually done accidentally, when writers are unaware of ways of referencing. Either way, if found guilty of plagiarism, especially if the paper is for school credit or publishing, the person will be severely penalized. (See Box 8.11)

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Using tables, diagrams, and other illustrations It is a good idea to include tables, diagrams, and other illustrations in your research report, providing that these are both permitted and relevant. Sometimes, tables summarize information better than lengthier textual explanation. Maps, graphs, photos, line drawings are also recommended to be used when appropriate and having them in color is even better. (See8.12) Panics The 4 common reasons for panic are: If its new to me, is it original? The answer to this is yes unless youre using the exact same work research used by someone before. If the methodology or even just sample differ, your research will somewhat be original. However, unless you invent something, originality in research is unlikely to be important. Furthermore, highly original research is very unusual.

1.

1.

Ive just discovered someone has written this before Even if you come across a book or article that makes almost the same points as the ones your research has raised, it doesnt mean that youre research is worthless. What you can do is include that book or article in your research, present its arguments, and compare them to yours or just evaluate them. It is common occurrence in research to find something similar to your research already talked about and/or published.

1.

Its all a load of rubbish It is common to think this way when writing up and it comes because 1. Youre bored, 2. Your writing is not going as good as you thought it might, 3. You have become so familiar with a group of ideas and theories that they appear like common sense to you. Usually, you must find your own way to deal with these problems. Nonetheless, its a good idea to take a break, ask someone elses opinion etc.

1.

Conflicting advice This will come sooner or later, most probably sooner. Furthermore, one good strategy of getting ahead and being noticed as a researcher is to disagree with the findings of existing research. But, it should not be a reason to panic since people have different perspectives and even if one person reads your draft, theres likelihood to have conflicting ideas. For that reason, it is better to us this as a strength. If you take into account all the different points, then your research will turn out more credible as it will answer more questions. Conflicting advice is, therefore, to be welcomed, challenged, and responded to.

CHAPTER 9: FINISHING OFF

For researchers finishing off is as difficult as getting started. Planning to finish? There are many reasons for not finishing off. A good researcher should be able to recognize that: Some reasons are simply unavoidable: they are connected with life events over which you have no control; Some reasons could have been avoided: if you had planned ahead, allowed yourself sufficient time and been strict with yourself; Some reasons lie in between the avoidable and the unavoidable: perhaps its your bad luck that they cropped up, but you might also have anticipated something of this sort. Twenty reasons for no handing your report or thesis on time: 1. 2. My computer crashed My car broke down

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. My funder has refused to allow publication My mother has jus died Ive won the lottery My information want to talk to me some more My supervisor wont talk to e I forgot the deadline I have too many other things to do It isnt finished yet There was a terrorist attack Ive lost it It must have for lost in the post I got a (different) job O decided to get married/have a baby I havent got enough data It isnt food enough Ive not been very well The other members of my research group havent finished their bits yet. The penultimate and final drafts Below are the penultimate (one before the last) checkpoints: 1. page? 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Are all the pages there? Are they all numbered consecutively? Are all of your chapters and/or sections numbered consecutively? Have you checked for spelling and grammatical errors? Have you allowed adequate margins, and double-spaced if required? Are all the materials referred to in the text listed in the references or bibliography Have you provided full details for all of your references? Have you checked your text against the regulations? Checking the title page What have you called your research paper? Does this title accurately reflect the contents? Is your title heavy? Does it engage the reader? If your title is very long you might consider short it up and use sub-titles. However, the title is a matter of taste and style. Despite the title there are other things to go on the title page: name, date, institution, job title, table of contents, etc. Checking the contents Are they all there? Are any pages or anything else missing? Are they of appropriate length? Are they consecutively numbered? Have you checked for spelling and grammatical errors? Checking the references Are they all there? Are they in alphabetical order? At this stage you should check two things: Have you provided all the details required for each individual reference, so that you readers can themselves trace them and read them if they so wish? (Be aware of plagiarism) Are all the materials referred to in your text included in your references of bibliography? If you are listing just references rather than a wider bibliography, check also that there are no references listed which are not referred to in you text. Have you put the title, your name, the date and any other information required on the title

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Checking the regulations It is wise to check the regulations of writing before finishing off. In addition you should think about the expectations of those people who are going to read your thesis or report, and perhaps make a few amendments if this seems advisable. Added extras In addition to the basic components the title page, a contents page, a series of chapters or sections etc. there are some other extras that you should think carefully before adding them. You should think carefully because they add the length to your report or thesis; also think of your readers who often avoid reading them, and so on. Acknowledgements The purpose of acknowledgements is to give credit to people or organizations that were helpful to you in carrying out your research. It might be a pleasant way of paying your dues. And you might of course wish to five copies of your report or dissertation to some of those you mention. Prefaces A preface is a form of writing which falls outside of the conventions of the main body of your text, and for that reason should not say anything which adds materially to the content of the main text. They are used to say something about the authors personal experience of carrying out the research and writing it up. Dedications They are largely a matter of personal taste. They can be a nice way to ritualize the ending of a significant piece of work, and, at the same time, to link this to someone you respect or love. You might want to dedicate your paper to your lover, children, or parents; or maybe to someone who has been influential carrying out the research alive or dead. Abstracts This is the most useful. It may also be a mandatory requirement. The function of the abstract is to summarize the nature of your research project, its context, how it was carried out, and what its major findings were. It should require no more than one page of text, and will typically be restricted to 200 300 words or less. They are extremely useful to the potential reader and for this reason are published in journals. However, they are difficult to write well. Appendices Researchers are often tempted to include all kinds of material in the form of appendices at the end of their paper. These may include questionnaires, transcripts, interviews, summaries, case studies, and so forth. They can be very irritating to the reader. The process of assessment (evaluation) Once you have completed what you consider to be the final draft, you of course need to print it out. Check again that everything is there and in the right order. Make the required number of copies. There are several common issues that arise during this process: How will your work be received? What are the roles of your supervisor, examiner, manager, mentor, colleagues, funders, or prospective publishers? What specific events are associated with the process of assessment? How do you cope with criticism, referral, or rejection? How will your work be received? The process of assessment may take months. You may never receive any comments for your work. It can feel that you have worked hard for a long time to no purpose, as if no one is interested in what you have done. However, doing research is a risky business, writing up that research for assessment makes these risks visible. It is natural for such things to happen. There is little you can do, however, to hurry up this process; so you need to exercise a considerable amount of patience and self restraint. There are, though, plenty of things you can do once an initial assessment has been reached, and

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these are discussed in the sections which follow. What are the roles of your supervisor, examiner, manager, mentor, colleagues, funders, or prospective publishers? Understanding the roles of those who may be involved in the process of assessment is an important part of being a researcher. Two key aspects of these roles are not that widely appreciated: The process of assessment can be as much an assessment of those doing the assessing as it is of the person(s) being assessed. So the process can be stressful one for all concerned. Remember, research can be very threatening. The assessments of your report or thesis made y your assessors may not be consistent. They may be quiet at liberty to disagree with each other, so the process for assessment may be largely about resolving those disagreements. As a researcher you should be aware of common academic assessment. Below are common academic assessment practices: The higher the level of qualification involved, the more likely it is that: Your assessment will no longer be large a matter for the members of the department you have been studying in (internal examiners), but will involve a substantial input b y academics from one or more other institutions (external examiners); Your academic supervisor will have less direct involvement in these processes; You will be assessed on your own, rather than at the same time as others who have been studying for the same qualification; The assessment will involve you in making a presentation to, and answering questions from, your examiners (this Is considered further in the next sub-section); Your work will be referred back for some further work, probably relatively minor in the nature (this slightly worrying, but common, experience is considered further in the next but one sub-section). Nevertheless, for your research as beginner or student you need to consider more work assessments. Below are common work assessment practices: A simple report in writing to your immediate superior, or a substantial, glossy and widely circulated (at least internally) publication; A brief meeting with your immediate superior, a seminar to a section or group of managers, or a presentation to the board or to the leader of the whole organization; Little or no follow up of the work itself, or a large-scale dissemination and re-training exercise. What specific events are associated with the process of assessment? The event most likely to e associated with the process of assessing a research report or thesis is some kind of presentation, perhaps a seminar if the research has been carried out in a work setting. In many cases if you have not been studying for a research degree there is unlikely to be a formal presentation involved. Research presentation may have a number of related purposes. They are about having the opportunity to present your work to an audience in summary form, focusing in particular upon your findings and conclusions, opportunity to discuss your work together with someone, and so on. One common characteristic of most presentations, whether in academic or work settings, is that you are likely to be, and feel on your own. If you decide to do a presentation of your work for the purpose of assessment you need to consider the following tips: Find out who is going to be there, what their interest and backgrounds are Practice presenting the results for your research, using audio-visual aids if these are available and allowed Keep up-to-date with what has happened in your research area in the period between finishing your report or thesis and its presentation

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Read and re-read your thesis or report so that you know if backwards, and can instantly find and respond to specific queries Practice with a friend or colleague responding to questions of a friendly or unfriendly nature Work out some question which would like to ask as part of the process Be prepared to enjoy and get something out of your presentation, though you may also find it a draining and stressful procedure Remember that you do have some measure of control: you know more about your particular piece of research than anyone else Be prepared to defend and promote your work, while recognizing its limitations and deficiencies How do you cope with criticism, referral, or rejection? If your research project has been challenging you are likely to meet with some criticism. You may also meet with referral, if you have carried out the work for academic purposes, and possibly outright rejection. Criticism is part of the process of doing research. This means that you have to be able to handle and respond to criticism of your work. Responding to criticism has a number of stages: Initially welcome and accept the criticism; Evaluate the validity and implications of the criticism for your research; Compare each criticism with the other responses your work has engendered; Possibly modify your research findings or strategies; Make a considered response to the criticism. Referral is a common response to research work carried out for academic credit. It means that your work is not judged to be quite up to scratch for the qualification you are seeking but that you are being given a further opportunity to bring it up to scratch. Referral can make you feel like giving up. It is best to think of as it is common part of the academic assessment process which will have some benefits for you and your research. If your research is rejected you may want to appeal if you believe your assessors have not reached their decision fairly. In work setting this is likely to be difficult. How you respond to rejection comes down to how committed you feel personally to the research you have carried out. What do I do now? After your research project has been completed, written up, submitted, and assessed the question is what to do now. You are likely to feel at least two things: a great sense of relief and release or a sense of loss which will need replacing way for the gap you feel. Twenty things to do now that youve finished your research: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Take a holiday Go to bed Stay in the sauna until you have forgotten it Celebrate with close family and friends Take the dog for more walks Try for promotion Organize seminars to disseminate your findings Plan what you are going to wear to your graduation Collect information about other courses of study or sources of research funding Read a good book Burn your books

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12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Go on a diet Give some time to your family Write up and publish your research Write to us about how you used this book Get another job Implement your findings Have another drink Get yourself a life Do some more research Three of these suggestions can be seen as part of the research process itself, namely: Presentation; Publication; and Further research Presentation You might think about presenting your work: Within your organization; To meetings where people from similar organizations gather; To your union branch; To professional associations; To a local adult education group; At national or international conferences. Publication Publication takes a variety of forms. It may be restricted to internal, and perhaps confidential, circulation within your organization or kindred bodies. There are some general points to bear in mind when thinking about publishing your research: Think carefully about the audience for your research If you are looking to publish in a journal or magazine of some kind, examine a number of recent issues carefully to get a better idea of the kind of material they publish If you are thinking of writing a book contact possible publishers before you do much work. Further Research The final option suggested is that of engaging in further research. This is characteristic of any research project that it almost always generates more questions than answers. This is the best suggested option.