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NAND FLASH TECHNOLOGY
1. INTRODUCTION
Flash memory has become a powerful and cost-effective solid-state storage technology widely used in mobile electronics devices and other consumer applications. Two major forms of Flash memory, NAND Flash and NOR Flash, have emerged as the dominant varieties of non-volatile semiconductor memories utilized in portable electronics devices. NAND Flash, which was designed with a very small cell size to enable a low cost-perbit of stored data, has been used primarily as a high-density data storage medium for consumer devices such as digital still cameras and USB solid-state disk drives. NOR Flash has typically been used for code storage and direct execution in portable electronics devices, such as cellular phones and PDAs. Recently, however, the distinction between the two types of Flash memory has become less clear. New cell phone controllers that support NAND Flash as an alternative to or an addition to NOR Flash have helped make NAND a viable alternative for a broader array of applications. In addition, data storage capacity and performance requirements in cell phones have increased significantly with the growth of feature-rich phones that incorporate camera, music, video, gaming and other functionality. NAND Flash has become an attractive alternative for the data storage aspects of todays cell phones because of its higher speed write and erase performance as well as its low cost-per-bit. As a result, designers of memory subsystems in portable electronics are now using NAND in some traditional NOR-based applications. For todays full-featured cell phones, many designers are utilizing memory architectures that combine NOR with NAND for data storage, or are using NAND as the primary Flash memory in combination with low power DRAM in which the program code can be shadowed and run. In either case, the different types of memory are frequently stacked in Multi-Chip Packages (MCP) to create a single component. This overview will briefly discuss the history of Flash memory development, compare and contrast NAND and NOR Flash memory, and discuss the ways in which the two technologies are used today.
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2. NAND FLASH MEMORY 2.1 What is NAND flash memory: A form of memory, NAND flash is one of two flash technologies (the other being NOR). Low power, low cost and extremely durable, NAND offers high capacity data storage and brings faster erase, write, and read capabilities over NOR architecture. Flash technology is non-volatile, meaning that it keeps stored information even when the power is off. It got the name flash because it only took a few seconds to erase the chip as compared to the main technology at the time, EPROMs, which took about 20 minutes to erase under an ultraviolet light NAND Flash is a type of memory device called nonvolatile memory. It is by far the most common nonvolatile memory used for mass storage.the following table classifies different types of silicon memories: Type Sub-type Example SRAM such asCPU cache
Volatile: Retain data only Static memory: Retain data when power is on. Loss data indefinitelyas long as power is when power is off on. Consumes none or very little power to retain data. Dynamic memory: Retain data for a small period of time whe power is on.require.periodoc refresh Consumes refresh Nonvolatile: Retains data Programmable memory: Data can be written into rhe device many times. one-tmie programmbale memory: to retain power data. during
SDRAM
NAND Flash, NOR Flash
regardless power
Mask programmable ROM
Table: Major difference between NAND and other memory:
From the system designers perspective, the biggest difference is that NAND Flash is a serial storage device while most other memories are random access memory. Random access device can be designed easily as the primary storage of a system. Typical instriction and data fetch the CPU involved an address phase and data phase on the CPU bus.Random access device ca retrive the required data easily.Subsequently and different address locations can also be accesses with little penalty. To the contracy, serial storage device requieres long access time for the initial data subsequent access to any nonconsecutive location also requires large penalty. As a result, serial storage device such as NAND Flash requires special NAND Flash controller to access data and is seldom used as the main memory of the system. 2.2 Difference between NAND and NOR: There are major differences between NAND and NOR highlighted in Table 1. It shows why NAND memories are ideal for high-capacity storages, while NOR memories are used for code storage and execution. NAND Capacity*1 Access method Interface Performance 32Gbit Sequential I/O interface Fast read (serial access cycle) Fast write Fast erase (approx. 2ms/block)*2 Life Span Price 100 000 1 000 000 Low NOR ~1Gbit Random Full memory interface Fast read (random access) Slow write Slow erase (approx. 1s/block)*3 10 000 100 000 High
Table: The major difference between NAND and NOR
The NAND Flash is a new flash configuration that reduces memory cell area so that a lower bit cost can be achieved. In 1987, Toshiba proposed the NAND Flash, and its NAND structured cell arranged as eight memory transistors in series. The NAND flash cell array, fabricated by using conventional self-aligned dual polysilicon gate technology, had only one memory transistor, one forth of a select transistor and one sixteenth of the contact hole area per bit. This technology realizes a small cell area without scaling down the device dimensions. The cell area per bit was half that of a DRAM using the same design rule of 1um (which was used for the 1M bit DRAM). As a result, Toshiba realized that it was possible for NAND Flash to be developed earlier than DRAM (for the same density) by one process generation. In comparison, conventional EEPROM was behind DRAM by one process generation at that time. The most important item regarding memories is the bit cost. In the case of a semiconductor memory, the bit cost is dependent on the memory cell area per bit. Since the cell area of NAND Flash is smaller than that of NOR Flash, NAND Flash always had the potential from the start to be less expensive than NOR Flash. However, it takes a rather long time for a NAND Flash to read out the first data byte compared to NOR Flash because of the resistance of the NAND cell array, although it is much faster than the seek time for a hard disc by several orders of magnitude. Therefore, the aim of NAND Flash is to replace hard disks.
Fig: NAND and NOR memory cell
Figure below provides a summary of how NAND and NOR Flash vary for a number of important design characteristics
Figure: NAND cell
Figure: NOR cell
The advantages of NAND Flash are that the erasing and programming times are short. The programming current is very small into the floating gate because NAND Flash uses FowlerNordheim tunneling for both erasing and programming. Therefore, the power consumption for programming does not significantly increase even as the number of memory cells being programmed is increased. As a result, many NAND Flash memory cells can be programmed simultaneously so that the programming time per byte becomes very short. Conversely, the NOR Flash can be programmed only by byte or word, and since it uses the hot electron injection mechanism for programming, it also consumes more power and the programming time per byte is longer. The programming time for NOR Flash is typically more than a order of agnitude greater than that of NAND Flash. The power consumption of NAND Flash or NOR Flash is about one tenth that of a hard disk drive. Also, the seek time for semiconductor emories is much faster than that of a hard disk. However, NAND Flash or NOR Flash must be erased before reprogramming while a hard disk requires no erasure. Therefore, in the case of continuous programming where the seek time is negligibly small, a hard disk drive can be programmed more quickly.
For both for NOR Flash and NAND Flash, the endurance (which means the number of cycles a block or chip can be reprogrammed) is limited. In order to replace the UV-EPROM with Flash, and endurance of 1000 cycles was sufficient. It is estimated that at least 1,000,000 cycles are required to replace a hard disk drive. NOR Flash is typically limited to around 100,000 cycles. Since the electron flow-path due to the hot electron injection for programming is different from the one due to tunneling from the floating gate to the source for erasing, degradation is enhanced. However, in NAND Flash, both the programming and erasing is achieved by uniform Fowler- Nordheim tunneling between the floating gate and the substrate. This uniform programming and uniform erasing technology guarantees a wide cell threshold window even after 1,000,000 cycles. Therefore, NAND Flash has better characteristics with respect to program/erase endurance. In some recent scaled NOR Flash memories, their erasing scheme has
been changed from source side erasing to uniform channel erasing, which is the same as the NAND Flash. From a practical standpoint, the biggest difference a designer will notice when comparing NAND Flash and NOR Flash is the interface. NOR Flash has a fully memory-mapped random access interface like an EPROM, with dedicated address lines and data lines. Because of this, it is easy to boot a system using NOR Flash. On the other hand, NAND Flash has no dedicated address lines. It is controlled using an indirect I/O-like interface and is controlled by sending commands and addresses through a 8 bit bus to an internal command and address register. For example, a typical read sequence consists of the following: writing to the command register the read command, writing to the address register 4 byte of address, waiting for the device to put the requested data in the output data register, and reading a page of data (typically 528 bytes) from the data register. The NAND Flashs operation is similar to other I/O devices like the disk drive it was originally intended to replace. But because of its indirect interface, it is generally not possible to boot from NAND without using a dedicated state machine or controller. However, the indirect interfaces advantage is that the pinout does not change with different device densities since the address register is internal. Because NAND Flash is optimized for solid-state mass storage (low cost, high write speed, high erase speed, high endurance), it is the memory of choice for memory cards such as the SmartMediaTM, SDTM card, CompactFlashTM, and MemoryStickTM
3. NAND FLASH CONTROLLER
The serial structure used in NAND Flash allows very high storage density but data from the memory block can only be read serially. The disadvantage, as compared to RAM, is that data cannot be randomly accessed. But once a page of memory is opened for read, data can be shifted out from the memory quickly. The NAND flash interface also requires that commands to the NAND flash be sent serially to the device as a command packet, instead of the parallel address and data signals in typical RAM. These are the major reason that make interfacing with NAND flash memory much more complicated than interfacing with typical SRAM or NOR flash devices. A NAND flash controller is design specifically to handle all required tasks of accessing NAND flash device efficiently.
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3.1 COMMANDS SUPPORTED BY NAND FLASH DEVICES: There are many commands, some manufacturer specific and supported only by a few devices while some commands are universal to all NAND flash manufacturers. The most common commands are Reset ERASE PROGRAM PROGRAM CONFIRMATION READ DATA READ STATUS READ ID RANDOM READ RANDOM WRITE PAGE CACHE WRITE PAGE CACHE READ INTERNAL DATA MOVE TWO-PLANES READ TWO-PLANE WRITE , and others based on the manufacturers
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4. SLC and MLC
Single-level cell (SLC) and multi-level cell (MLC) Flash memory are similar in their design. MLC Flash devices cost less and allow for higher storage density. SLC Flash devices provide faster write performance and greater reliability, even at temperatures above the operating range of MLC Flash devices. Table 1 provides a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of SLC Flash and MLC Flash.
SLC High Density Low Cost per Bit Endurance temperature range Low Power Consumption Write/Erase Speeds Write/Erase Endurance * * * * * Table: Qualities of SLC and MLC
MLC * *
These factors make SLC Flash a good fit in embedded systems, while MLC flash makes it possible to create affordable mobile devices with large amounts of data storage.
4.1 Flash Memory Explained CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

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It is important to understand what makes up a Flash cell before explaining the variation between SLC and MLC Flash. Each cell consists of a single transistor, with an additional floating gate that can store electrons. Figure 2 shows the architecture of an SLC cell.
Figure : floating gate
A large voltage difference between the drain and the source, Vd Vs, creates a large electric field between the drain and the source. The electric field converts the previously nonconductive poly-Si material to a conductive channel, which allows electrons to flow between the source to the drain. The electric field caused by a large gate voltage, Vg, is used to bump electrons up from the channel onto the floating gate. As an electron travels closer to the drain, it gains more momentum and thus, more energy. But, this amount of energy is not enough to push an electron onto the floating gate. Electrons with high momentum near the drain can sometimes bump into Si (Silicon) atoms. This bump gives the electron enough energy to be pushed onto the floating gate. The number of electrons on the floating gate affects the threshold voltage of the cell Vt. This effect is measured to determine the state of the cell.
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4.2 Single-Level Cell (SLC) Flash As the name suggests, SLC Flash stores one bit value per cell, which basically is a voltage level. The bit value is interpreted as a 0 or a 1.
Value 0 1 Table :SLC levels
State Programmed Erased
Since there are only two states, it represents only one bit value. As seen in Table 2, each bit can have a value of programmed or erased.
Figure: voltage reference for SLC
A 0 or 1 is determined by the threshold voltage Vt of the cell. The threshold voltage can be manipulated by the amount of charge put on the floating gate of the Flash cell. Placing charge on the floating gate will increase the threshold voltage of the cell. When the threshold voltage is high enough, around 4.0V, the cell will be read as programmed. No charge, or threshold voltage < 4.0V, will cause the cell to be sensed as erased.
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SLC Flash is used in commercial and industrial applications that require high performance and long-term reliability. Some applications include industrial grade Compact Flash cards or Solid State Drives (SSDs). 4.3 Multi-Level Cell (MLC) Flash As the name suggests, there are multiple values that an MLC cell can represent. The values can be interpreted as four distinct states: 00, 01, 10, or 11.
value 00 01 10 11
State Fully programmed Partially programmed Partially erased Fully erased Table: MLC Levels
These four states yield two bits of information. As seen in table 3, the value of the two bits range from fully programmed to fully erased.
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Figure :voltage reference for MLC As seen in figure 2, a Flash cells ability to store charge is why MLC technology works. Since the delta between each level has decreased, the sensitivity between each level increased. Thus, more rigidly controlled programming is needed to manipulate a more precise amount of charge stored on the floating gate. In order for a Flash cell to be considered MLC technology, the cell must exhibit two characteristics: 1. Precise charge placement 2. Precise charge sensing Thus, MLC Flash works the same way as SLC Flash. The threshold voltage Vt, is used to manipulate the state of the Flash. Once again, the amount of charge on the floating gate is what determines the threshold voltage. As seen in figure 4, current MLC technology uses two bits, or 4 levels. However, it is possible to hold more bits. Equation 1 is a generic equation to follow to determine how many states are needed for the desired bits.
Equation 1 States = 2N
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N is equal to the number of desired bits per cell. For example, for a cell to hold three bits, you need eight states equal to: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111 . MLC Flash is used in consumer applications that do not require long term reliability such as consumer grade USB Flash drives, portable media players, and Compact Flash cards. 4.4 SLC and MLC Compared
Now that the differences between SLC and MLC have been explained, lets compare their specifications to help further make a distinction between the two grades.
SLC Density Read Speed Block Size Architecture Endurance Operating Temperature 16Mbit 100ns 64Kbyte x8 100,000 cycles Industrial 32Mbit 120ns
MLC 64Mbit 150ns 128Kbyte x8 / x16 10,000 cycles Commercial
Table: specification comparison of SLC and MLC Lets compare each characteristic in table 4. Using the same wafer size, you can double the density of the MLC Flash by using the charge placement technology. Thus, MLC has greater densities.
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The read speeds between SLC and MLC are comparable. Reading the level of the Flash cell compares the threshold voltage using a voltage comparator. Thus, the architecture change does not affect sensing. In general, the read speeds of Flash are determined by which controller is used. The endurance of SLC Flash is 10* more than MLC Flash. The endurance of MLC Flash decreases due to enhanced degradation of Si. This is a main reason why SLC Flash is considered industrial grade Flash and MLC Flash is considered consumer grade Flash. Higher temperatures cause more leakage in the cells. Combined with the increased sensitivity required to differentiate between the levels, this leakage will cause the sensors to read the wrong level. As a result, the operating temperature of MLC spans only the commercial range. Leakage is not significant in SLC Flash and thus, it can operate in an industrial temperature range. 4.5 SPARE COLUMN NAND flash devices organize 512bytes or 2048 bytes of data into a page. There are also 16 or 64 bytes of extra data called the spare column associated with each page. The spare columns are fully addressable by the user and is typically used for storing error correction code (ECC) and other management information to improve data integrity.
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5. MANAGING NAND FLASH In order to use NAND flash effectively, the NAND flash must be managed by some kind of a controller (either software or hardware). This is necessary in order to make the NAND flash appear to the system as ideal block device. 5.1 Bad Block Management In a brand new device, the standard NAND flash specification allows for the existence of initial bad blocks. Standard NOR flash devices have extra spare memory blocks that are used to replace bad blocks, but NAND flash devices have a minimal amount of redundant memory blocks because it was always expected that an intelligent controller would ignore the bad blocks. Since it was expected that NAND flash would be used for solid state mass storage, blocks would eventually wear out; therefore, it was expected that the system be able to handle bad blocks that would form during use. The standard factory location for the bad block byte is byte 517 (the 518th byte) of a NAND page. If this byte is FFh, the block is good, otherwise, the block is bad (typically indicated by 00h). This format for marking bad blocks is from SmartMedia card (NAND flash in a removable card package) and was standardized by the SSFDC Forum (Solid State Floppy Disk Card the former name of SmartMedia). If additional bad blocks form during use, the block is marked bad. Generally, this is possible even if the block that you are marking is considered bad. To distinguish between factory marked bad blocks and blocks that go bad during use, two flag values are defined in the SmartMedia format: 00h (for initial factory marked bad blocks) and F0h (for blocks that go bad during system use). An alternative approach to the in block method of keeping track of bad blocks is to maintain a bad block table. However, where to you store a bad block table since blocks could be bad? For NAND TSOP devices only, the first block of the NAND flash (block 0) is guaranteed to be good. Thus, block 0 could be used to hold a bad block table if desired. However, at power up, many systems simply scan the first page of each block to determine whether they are good or bad and build a bad block table in RAM.
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5.2 Error Correcting Code The use of an error correcting code is essential in order to maintain the integrity of stored code. Soft errors (especially during programming) occur at a rate of approximately 10-10 or about 1 bit per 10 billion bits programmed. Single bit correcting (two bit error detecting) Hamming code issufficient for NAND flash. Toshiba has developed C sample code for implementing Hamming code. It is available in a separate document entitled the SmartMediaTM ECC Reference Manual. 5.3 Wear Leveling If flash memory had infinite write/erase endurance, wear leveling would not be necessary. However, unlike magnetic media, flash memory eventually wears out and no longer programs or26 erases in the allotted amount of time. Because the design of typical file systems assumed the characteristics of magnetic media, certain physical locations may be repeatedly rewritten. For example, in the DOS FAT file system, the FAT and directory areas must be modified multiple times each time a file is written or appended. When multiplied by the thousands of files in a typical file system, the FAT and directory areas of the disk will experience vastly more writes than any other area of the disk. When flash memory is used to emulate a disk drive, the physical areas of the flash that contain the FAT and directory would be worn out first, leading to early failure of the file system stored on the flash. In order to spread out the writes across as much of the flash as possible, a wear levelling algorithm is implemented by the controller (software or firmware in a hardware controller) which translates a logical address to different physical addresses for each write. Generally, this logical to physical lookup table is implemented in RAM and is initialized at power up by reading each physical block in the NAND flash to determine its logical block value. Ideally, wear leveling is intrinsic to the file system itself. Several new file system exist which write new data sequentially rather than overwriting a fixed location. These file systems use a technique known as journaling. For flash memory, JFFS2 (Journaling Flash File System 2) and YAFFS (Yet Another Flash File System) exist which automatically spread of 2KB) is updated when writing a 10MB file to a NAND Flash memory with a physical erase out wear by writing sequentially to free flash space.
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5.4 Lifetime Without Wear Leveling For systems that have a file allocation table (FAT) based file system, the FAT table is always stored in the same virtual blocks. Frequent FAT table updates are required during data WRITE operations, which implies frequent erase cycles on the same physical blocks, hence a reduced NAND Flash lifetime. The following example calculates how many times a FAT table (FAT32 and a cluster size unit of 16KB (NAND small page device). To write a file of 10MB, 5KB entries in FAT and 5KB clusters in the file system are required. This corresponds to 640 physical NAND Flash blocks. This means that the file can be written at the same location 20 times: 20 5120 = 102400 This is greater than the maximum number of program/erase cycles. The expected NAND Flash lifetime can be calculated as follows: >Expected lifetime=size of nand flash*no of erase cycles*FAT overhead/bytes written per day This means that if the application writes at 3KB/s, the expected lifetime of the NAND blocks is: Expected lifetime = 10Mbyte 20 0.7 /(3Kbyte s) 24 60 60 = 0.55 days
In a NAND Flash, when virtual blocks are mapped to the same physical blocks, the lifetime of the device is significantly reduced, independently of its size. 5.5 Lifetime with Wear Leveling Wear leveling extends the lifetime of NAND Flash devices because it ensures that even if an application writes to the same virtual blocks over and over again, the PROGRAM/ ERASE cycles will be distributed evenly over the NAND Flash memory. For example, the expected lifetime of a 64MB (512Mb) NAND Flash device can be calculated as follows:
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Expected lifetime =64Mbyte*100Kcycles *0.7/3KBbyte/s*24*60 *60 = 18,124 days (about 49.7 years)
In this example, 0.7 is the file system overhead.
5.6 Wear Leveling Algorithms Wear leveling is associated with a block aging table (BAT) to store information about which blocks have been erased in a selected period of time. There are two kinds of wear leveling that can be implemented in the FTL: Dynamic wear leveling Static wear leveling Dynamic Wear Leveling When applying the dynamic wear leveling, new data is programmed to the free blocks (among blocks used to store user data) that have had the fewest WRITE/ERASE cycles. Static Wear Leveling With static wear leveling, the content of blocks storing static data (such as code) is copied to another block so that the original block can be used for data that is changed more frequently. Static wear leveling is triggered when the difference between the maximum and the minimum number of WRITE/ERASE cycles per block reaches a specific threshold. With this particular technique, the mean age of physical NAND blocks is maintained constant.
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6. APPLICATIONS Consumer: Smartphones, tablets, readers, GPS systems, MP3 players, digital still cameras, digital video cameras, ultra books, USB memory sticks, SD and uSD cards, set top boxes, digital voice recorders
Enterprise: Servers, printers, cloud computing
Industrial: Robots, vending machines, security systems, factory automation, automotive audio
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Figure: NAND applications growth
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7. CONCLUSON
The NAND Flash memories are suitable for using in applications where a large amount of data has to be stored in memory, in other words, where it is desired to use a file system for stored data. Due to specific characteristics of NAND Flash architecture, there is need to implement the invalid block management system, ECC coding, and eventually requested file system to the target device. In most cases an embedded memory must contain data in requested format before assembling in production (e.g. Boot data, pre-formated file system) with selected invalid block management method and ECC coding. These data has to be programmed into NAND Flash memory using the device programmer.
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8. REFERENCE
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e weather. When I draw a magnifying glass, show me the map. You might want to use other gestures that you use in everyday life. This system is very customizable. The technology is mainly based on hand gesture recognition, image capturing, processing, and manipulation, etc. The map application lets the user navigate a map displayed on a nearby surface using hand gestures, similar to gestures supported by multi-touch based systems, letting the user zoom in, zoom out or pan using intuitive hand movements. The drawing application lets the user draw on any surface by tracking the fingertip movements of the users index finger.
1. RELATED TECHNOLOGIES
SixthSense technology takes a different approach to computing and tries to make the digital aspect of our lives more intuitive, interactive and, above all, more natural. We shouldnt have to think about it separately. Its a lot of complex technology squeezed into a simple portable device. When we bring in connectivity, we can get instant, relevant visual information projected on any object we pick up or interact with the technology is mainly based on hand augmented reality, gesture recognition, computer vision based algorithm etc.
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4.1 Augmented reality Augmented reality (AR) is a term for a live direct or indirect view of a physical realworld environment whose elements are augmented by virtual computer-generated imagery. It is related to a more general concept called mediated reality in which a view of reality is modified (possibly even diminished rather than augmented) by a computer. The augmentation is conventionally in real-time and in semantic context with environmental elements. Sixth sense technology which uses Augmented Reality concept to super imposes digital information on the physical world. With the help of advanced AR technology (e.g. adding computer vision and object recognition) the information about the surrounding real world of the user becomes interactive and digitally usable. Artificial information about the environment and the objects in it can be stored and retrieved as an information layer on top of the real world view. The main hardware components for augmented reality are: display, tracking, input devices, and computer. Combination of powerful CPU, camera, accelerometers, GPS and solid state compass are often present in modern Smartphone, which make them prospective platforms. There are three major display techniques for Augmented Reality: Head Mounted Displays Handheld Displays Spatial Displays
Head Mounted Displays A Head Mounted Display (HMD) places images of both the physical world and registered virtual graphical objects over the user's view of the world. The HMD's are either optical see-through or video see-through in nature. Handheld Displays Handheld Augment Reality employs a small computing device with a display that fits in a user's hand. All handheld AR solutions to date have employed video see-through techniques to CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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overlay the graphical information to the physical world. Initially handheld AR employed sensors such as digital compasses and GPS units for its six degree of freedom tracking sensors. Spatial Displays Instead of the user wearing or carrying the display such as with head mounted displays or handheld devices; Spatial Augmented Reality (SAR) makes use of digital projectors to display graphical information onto physical objects. Modern mobile augmented reality systems use one or more of the following tracking technologies: digital cameras and/or other optical sensors, RFID, wireless sensors etc. Each of these technologies have different levels of accuracy and precision. Most important is the tracking of the pose and position of the user's head for the augmentation of the user's view. For users with disabilities of varying kinds, AR has real potential to help people with a variety of disabilities. Only some of the current and future AR applications make use of a Smartphone as a mobile computing platform.
4.2 Gesture Recognition Gesture recognition is a topic in computer science and language technology with the goal of interpreting human gestures via mathematical algorithms. Gestures can originate from any bodily motion or state but commonly originate from the face or hand. Current focuses in the field include emotion recognition from the face and hand gesture recognition. Many approaches have been made using cameras and computer vision algorithms to interpret sign language.
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Gestures can exist in isolation or involve external objects. Free of any object, we wave, beckon, fend off, and to a greater or lesser degree (depending on training) make use of more formal sign languages. With respect to objects, we have a broad range of gestures that are almost universal, including pointing at objects, touching or moving objects, changing object shape, activating objects such as controls, or handing objects to others. Gesture recognition can be seen as a way for computers to begin to understand human body language, thus building a richer bridge between machines and humans than primitive text user interfaces or even GUIs (graphical user interfaces), which still limit the majority of input to keyboard and mouse. Gesture recognition enables humans to interface with the machine (HMI) and interact naturally without any mechanical devices. Gestures can be used to communicate with a computer so we will be mostly concerned with empty handed semiotic gestures. These can further be categorized according to their functionality.
Symbolic gestures These are gestures that, within each culture, have come to a single meaning. An Emblem such as the OK gesture is one such example, however American Sign Language gestures also fall into this category.
Deictic gestures These are the types of gestures most generally seen in HCI and are the gestures of pointing, or otherwise directing the listeners attention to specific event or objects in the environment. Iconic gestures
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As the name suggests, these gestures are used to convey information about the size, shape or orientation of the object of discourse. They are the gestures made when someone says The plane flew like this, while moving their hand through the air like the flight path of the aircraft. Pantomimic gestures: These are the gestures typically used in showing the use of movement of some invisible tool or object in the speakers hand. When a speaker says I turned the steering wheel hard to the left, while mimicking the action of turning a wheel with both hands, they are making a pantomimic gesture. Using the concept of gesture recognition, it is possible to point a finger at the computer screen so that the cursor will move accordingly. This could potentially make conventional input devices such as mouse, keyboards and even touch-screens redundant. Gesture recognition can be conducted with techniques from computer vision and image processing. The literature includes ongoing work in the computer vision field on capturing gestures or more general human pose and movements by cameras connected to a computer.
4.3 Computer vision based algorithm Computer vision is the science and technology of machines that see. As a scientific discipline, computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial systems that extract information from images. The image data can take many forms, such as video sequences, views from multiple cameras, or multi-dimensional data from a medical scanner. Computer vision, on the other hand, studies and describes the processes implemented in software and hardware behind artificial vision systems. The software tracks the users gestures using computer-vision based algorithms. Computer vision is, in some ways, the inverse of computer graphics. While computer graphics produces image data from 3D models, computer vision often produces 3D models from image data. There is also a trend towards a combination of the two disciplines, e.g., as explored in augmented reality.
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The fields most closely related to computer vision are image processing, image analysis and machine vision. Image processing and image analysis tend to focus on 2D images, how to transform one image to another. His characterization implies that image processing/analysis neither require assumptions nor produce interpretations about the image content. Computer vision tends to focus on the 3D scene projected onto one or several images, e.g., how to reconstruct structure or other information about the 3D scene from one or several images. Machine vision tends to focus on applications, mainly in manufacturing, e.g., vision based autonomous robots and systems for vision based inspection or measurement.
The Recognition Algorithms The computer vision system for tracking and recognizing the hand postures that control the menus is based on a combination of multi-scale color feature detection, view based hierarchical hand models and particle filtering. The hand postures or states are represented in terms of hierarchies of multi-scale color image features at different scales, with qualitative interrelations in terms of scale, position and orientation. In each image, detection of multiscale color features is performed. The hand postures are then simultaneously detected and tracked using particle filtering, with an extension of layered sampling referred to as hierarchical layered sampling. To improve the performance of the system, a prior on skin color is included in the particle filtering.
4.4 Technologies that uses Sixth Sense as Platform SixthSense technology takes a different approach to computing and tries to make the digital aspect of our lives more intuitive, interactive and, above all, more natural. When you
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bring in connectivity, you can get instant, relevant visual information projected on any object you pick up or interact with. So, pick up a box of cereal and your device will project whether it suits your preferences. Some of the technologies that uses this are Radio Frequency Identification, gesture gaming, washing machine. 4.4.1 Radio Frequency Identification SixthSense is a platform for Radio Frequency Identification based enterprise intelligence that combines Radio Frequency Identification events with information from other enterprise systems and sensors to automatically make inferences about people, objects, workspaces, and their interactions. Radio Frequency Identification is basically an electronic tagging technology that allows the detection and tracking of tags and consequently the objects that they are affixed to. This ability to do remote detection and tracking coupled with the low cost of passive tags has led to the widespread adoption of RFID in supply chains worldwide. Pranav Mistry, a researcher at the media lab of the Massachusetts Institute Technology, has developed a 'sixth sense' device a gadget worn on the wrist that can function as a 'touch screen' device for many modern applications. The gadget is capable of selecting a product either by image recognition or radio frequency identification (RFID) tags and project information, like an Amazon rating. The idea of SixthSense is to use Radio Frequency Identification technology in conjunction with a bunch of other enterprise systems such as the calendar system or online presence that can track user activity. Here, we consider an enterprise setting of the future where people (or rather their employee badges) and their personal objects such as books, laptops, and mobile phones are tagged with cheap, passive RFID tags, and there is good coverage of RFID readers in the workplace. SixthSense incorporates algorithms that start with a mass of undifferentiated tags and automatically infer a range of information based on an accumulation of observations. The technology is able to automatically differentiate between people tags and object tags, learn the
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identities of people, infer the ownership of objects by people, learn the nature of different zones in a workspace (e.g., private office versus conference room), and perform other such inferences. By combining information from these diverse sources, SixthSense records all tag-level events in a raw database. The inference algorithms consume these raw events to infer events at the level of people, objects, and workspace zones, which are then recorded in a separate processed database. Applications can either poll these databases by running SQL queries or set up triggers to be notified of specific events of interest. SixthSense infers when a user has interacted with an object, for example, when you pick up your mobile phone. It is a platform in that its programming model makes the inferences made automatically available to applications via a rich set of APIs. To demonstrate the capabilities of the platform, the researchers have prototyped a few applications using these APIs, including a misplaced object alert service, an enhanced calendar service, and rich annotation of video with physical events. 4.4.2 Sixth Sense Washing Machine Whirlpool AWOE 8758 White Washing Machine is a remarkable front loader that incorporates the unparalleled Sixth Sense technology. Whirlpools 2009 range of washing machines comes integrated with enhanced 6th sense technology that gives more optimisation of resources and also increased saving in terms of energy, water and time. Ideal washing machine for thorough washing that requires sixth sense to detect stubborn stains and adjust wash impact. It is a feature packed washing ally with Sixth Sense Technology and several customized programs to enhance the washing performance and dexterously assist you in heavy washing loads. The New Generation 6th Sense appliances from Whirlpool are helping to protect the environment and to reduce your energy bills. Whirlpool 6th Sense appliances are designed to be intelligent and energy efficient appliances that adapt their performance to better suit your needs. All Whirlpool appliances with intelligent 6th Sense technology work on three key principles; Sense, Adaption and Control, to ensure that they achieve optimal performance each and every time that they are used. CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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Whirlpool 6th Sense washing machines can save you up to 50% less water, energy and time during the cycle. These intelligent machines sense the size of the load and adjust and control the cycle dependent on the load inside in order to optimise the use of water, energy and time. Some models also contain a detergent overdosing monitor to make sure that you do not use too much washing detergent. Tumble dryers use 6th Sense technology to minimise energy and time wastage by monitoring the humidity inside your laundry and adjusting the drying time accordingly.
2. APPLICATIONS
The SixthSense prototype implements several applications that demonstrate the usefulness,
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viability and flexibility of the system. The SixthSense device has a huge number of applications. The following are few of the applications of Sixth Sense Technology. Make a call Call up a map Check the time Create multimedia reading experience Drawing application Zooming features Get product information Get book information Get flight updates Feed information on people Take pictures Check the email
5.1 Make a call
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Figure 5.1: Make a call You can use the Sixth Sense to project a keypad onto your hand, and then use that virtual keypad to make a call. Calling a number also will not be a great task with the introduction of Sixth Sense Technology. No mobile device will be required, just type in the number with your palm acting as the virtual keypad. The keys will come up on the fingers. The fingers of the other hand will then be used to key in the number and call. 5.2 Call up a map
Figure 5.2: Map The sixth sense also implements map which lets the user display the map on any physical CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
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surface and find his destination and he can use his thumbs and index fingers to navigate the map, for example, to zoom in and out and do other controls. 5.3 Check the time
Figure 5.3: Wrist Watch Sense all we have to do is draw a circle on our wrist with our index finger to get a virtual watch that gives us the correct time. The computer tracks the red marker cap or piece of tape, recognizes the gesture, and instructs the projector to flash the image of a watch onto his wrist.
5.4 Create multimedia reading experiences CVR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

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Figure 5.4: Video in Newspaper The SixthSense system also augments physical objects the user is interacting with by projecting more information about these objects projected on them. For example, a newspaper can show live video news or dynamic information can be provided on a regular piece of paper. Thus a piece of paper turns into a video display. 5.5 Drawing application
Figure 5.5: Drawing The drawing application lets the user draw on any surface by tracking the fingertip movements of the users index finger.
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5.6 Zooming features
Figure 5.6: Zoom in and Zoom out
The user can zoom in or zoom out using intuitive hand movements. 5.7 Get product information
Figure 5.7: Product information Maes says Sixth Sense uses image recognition or marker technology to recognize products you pick up, and then feeds you information on those products. For example, if you're trying to shop "green" and are looking for paper towels with the least amount of bleach in them, the system will scan the product you pick up off the shelf and give you guidance on whether this product is a good choice for you.
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5.8 Get book information
Figure 5.8: Book information Maes says Sixth Sense uses image recognition or marker technology to recognize products you pick up, then feeds you information on books. The system can project Amazon ratings on that book, as well as reviews and other relevant information 5.9 Take pictures
Figure 5.9: Take Pictures If we fashion our index fingers and thumbs into a square (the typical "framing" gesture), the system will snap a photo. After taking the desired number of photos, we can project them onto a surface, and use gestures to sort through the photos, and organize and resize them.
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5.10 Get flight updates
Figure 5.10: Flight updates The system will recognize your boarding pass and let you know whether your flight is on time and if the gate has changed.
5.11 Feed information on people
Figure 5.11: Information on people Sixth Sense also is capable of "a more controversial use. When you go out and meet someone, projecting relevant information such as what they do, where they work, and also m it
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could display tags about the person floating on their shirt. It could be handy if it displayed their facebook relationship status so that you knew not to waste your time.
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3. ADVANTAGES
6.1 Advantages SixthSense is a user friendly interface which integrates digital information into the physical world and its objects, making the entire world your computer. SixthSense does not change human habits but causes computer and other machines to adapt to human needs. It uses hand gestures to interact with digital information. Supports multi-touch and multi-user interaction Data access directly from machine in real time It is an open source and cost effective and we can mind map the idea anywhere It is gesture-controlled wearable computing device that feeds our relevant information and turns any surface into an interactive display. It is portable and easy to carry as we can wear it in our neck. The device could be used by anyone without even a basic knowledge of a keyboard or mouse. There is no need to carry a camera anymore. If we are going for a holiday, then from now on wards it will be easy to capture photos by using mere fingers
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7. FUTURE SCOPE
7.1 Future Enhancements To get rid of colour markers To incorporate camera and projector inside mobile computing device. Whenever we place pendant- style wearable device on table, it should allow us to use the table as multi touch user interface. Applying this technology in various interest like gaming, education systems etc. To have 3D gesture tracking. To make sixth sense work as sixth sense for disabled person.
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8. CONCLUSION
The key here is that Sixth Sense recognizes the objects around you, displaying information automatically and letting you access it in any way you want, in the simplest way possible. Clearly, this has the potential of becoming the ultimate "transparent" user interface for accessing information about everything around us. If they can get rid of the colored finger caps and it ever goes beyond the initial development phase, that is. But as it is now, it may change the way we interact with the real world and truly give everyone complete awareness of the environment around us.
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9. REFERENCES
1. www.blendernation.com/sixth-sense-technology/ 2. http://boingboing.net/2009/11/12/sixth-sense-technolo.html 3. http://gizmodo.com/5167790/sixth-sense-technology-may-change-how-we-look-atthe-world-forever 4. http://theviewspaper.net/sixth-sense-technology-will-revolutionize-the-world/ 5. http://lucasrichter.wordpress.com/2009/03/13/pattie-maes-sixth-sense-technologywhats-stopping-this/

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NAND Flash, NOR Flash

Mask programmable ROM

Table: Major difference between NAND and other memory:

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Table: The major difference between NAND and NOR

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Fig: NAND and NOR memory cell

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Figure: NAND cell

Figure: NOR cell

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3. NAND FLASH CONTROLLER

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4. SLC and MLC

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Figure : floating gate

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Value 0 1 Table :SLC levels

State Programmed Erased

Figure: voltage reference for SLC

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MLC 64Mbit 150ns 128Kbyte x8 / x16 10,000 cycles Commercial

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