During this tutorial you will be asked to perform calculations involving trigonometric functiions.

You will need a calulator to proceed. The purpose of this tutorial is to review with you the elementary properties of the trigonometric functions. Facility with this subject is essential to success in all branches of science, and you are strongly urged to review and practice the concepts presented here until they are mastered. Let us consider the right-angle triangle shown in Panel 1. The angle at C is a right angle and the angle at A we will call . The lengths of the sides of the triangle we will denote as p, q and r. From your elementary geometry, you know several things about this triangle. For example, you know the Pythagorean relation, q = p + r. That is, the square of the length of the side opposite the right angle, which we call the hypotenuse, is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the other two sides.

Panel 1

We know other things. For example, we know that if the lengths of the three sides of any triangle p, q and r are specified, then the whole triangle is determined, angles included. If you think about this for a moment, you will see it is correct. If I give you three sticks of fixed length and told you to lay them down in a triangle, there's only one triangle which you could make. What we would like to have is a way of relating the angles in the triangle, say , to the lengths of the sides. It turns out that there's no simple analytic way to do this. Even though the triangle is specified by the lengths of the three sides, there is not a simple formula that will allow you to calculate the angle . We must specify it in some new way. To do this, we define three ratios of the sides of the triangle. One ratio we call the sine of theta, written sin(), and it is defined as the ratio of the side opposite to the hypotenuse, that is r/q. Panel 1 The cosine of , written cos(), is the side adjacent to over the hypotenuse, that is, p/q. This is really enough, but because it simplifies our mathematics later on, we define the tangent of , written tan(), as the ratio of the opposite to the adjacent sides, that is r/p. This is not an independent definition since you can readily see that the tangent of is equal to the sine of divided by the cosine of . Verify for yourself that this is correct. In order to make these functions useful in calculations, we need numerical values of them for the different values of . All scientific calculators provide this information. The first thing to ensure is that your calculator is set to the anglular measure that you want. Angles are usually measured in either degrees or

radians (see tutorial on DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS). The angle 2 is a much different angle than 2 radians since 180 = radians = 3.1416... radians. Make sure that your calculator is set to degrees. Now suppose that we want the sine of 24. Simply press 24 followed by the [sin] key and the display should show the value 0.4067. Therefore, the sine of 24 is 0.4067. That is, in a triangle like panel 1 where = 24, the ratio of the sides r to q is 0.4067. Next set your calculator to radians and find the sine of 0.42 radians. To do this enter 0.42 followed by the [sin] key. You should obtain a value of 0.4078. This is nearly the same value as you obtained for the sine of 24. Using the relation above you should confirm that 24 is close to 0.42 radians Obviously, using your calculator to find values of sines is very simple. Now find sine of 42 24 minutes. The sine of 42 24 minutes is 0.6743. Did you get this result? If not, remember that 24 minutes corresponds to 24/60 or 0.4. The total angle is then 42.4 The determination of cosines and tangents on your calculator is similar. It is now possible for us to solve the simple problem concerning triangles. For example, in Panel 2, the length of the hypotenuse is 3 cm and the angle is 24. What is the length of the opposite side r? The sine of 24 as we saw is 0.4067 and it is also, by definition, r/3. So, sine of 24 = .4067 = r/3, and therefore, r = 3 x 0.4067 = 1.22 cm. Conversely, suppose you knew that the opposite side was 2 cm long and the hypotenuse was 3 cm long, as in panel 3, what is the angle ? First determine the sine of . You should find that the sine of is 2/3, which equals 0.6667. Now we need determine what angle has 0.6667 as its sine. If you want your answer to be in degrees, be sure that your calculator is set to degrees. Then enter 0.6667 followed by the [INV] key and then the [sin] key. You should obtain a value of 41.8. If your calculator doesn't have a [INV] key, it probably has a [2ndF] key and the inverse sine can be found using it. One use of these trigonometric functions which is very important is the calculation of components of vectors. In panel 4 is shown a vector OA in an xy reference frame. We would like to find the y component of this vector. That is, the projection OB of the vector on the y axis. Obviously, OB = CA and CA/OA = sin(), so CA = OA sin(). Similarly, the x-component of OA is OC. And OC/OA = cos() so OC = OA cos(). There are many relations among the trigonometric functions which are important, but one in particular you will find used quite often. Panel 1 has been repeated as Panel 5 for you. Let us look at the sum cos + sin. From the figure, this is (p/q) + (r/q), which is

Panel 2

Panel 3

Panel 4

Panel 5

[(p + r) / (q)]. The Pythagorean theorem tells us that p + r = q so we have [(p + r) / q] = (q/q) = 1. Therefore, we have; cos + sin = 1.

Our discussion so far has been limited to angles between 0 and 90. One can, using the calculator, find the the sine of larger angles (eg 140 ) or negative angles (eg -32 ) directly. Sometimes, however, it is useful to find the corresponding angle betweeen 0 and 90. Panel 6 will help us here. In this xy reference frame, the angle is clearly between 90 and 180 , and clearly, the angle , which is 180 - ( is marked with a double arc) can be dealt with. In this case, we say that the magnitude of sine, cosine, and tangent of are those of the supplement and we only have to examine whether or not they are positive or negative.

Panel 6

We always assume that the hypotenuse q is positive, but r and p have the sign appropriate to their direction with respect to the origin. Clearly, in Panel 6, r is positive and p is negative. Therefore, we can write r/q = sin() = sin(180 - ) cos() = (-p/q) = -cos() = -cos(180 - ) tangent of = r/(-p) = -tan() = - tan(180 - ). Notice that only the sin is positive. For example, what is the sine, cosine and tangent of 140? The supplement is 180 - 140 = 40. Find the sine, the cosine and the tangent of 40. sin(40) = 0.6428 cos(40) = 0.7660 tan(40) = 0.8391 Now we know that sin(140) = 0.6428, cos(140) = -0.7660, and tan(140) = -0.8391. We should now investigate the rules for these functions in other quadrants as shown in panel 7. In the first case, we see that the angle to be dealt with is = - 180. Now both r and p are negative. So we have the sin() = (-r)/q = -sin() = -sin( - 180). Panel 7 Similarly cos() = (-p)/q = -cos() = -cos( - 180). And tan() = (-r)/(-p) = r/p = tan() = tan( 180). Notice in this case only the tangent is positive. Using your calculator determine the sine, cosine and tangent of 190. The angle we are concerned with is 190 - 180 = 10.

sin(10) = 0.1736 cos(10) = 0.9848 tan(10) = 0.1763. Therefore, sin(190) = -0.1736 cos(190) = -0.9848 tan(190) = 0.1763 Finally, in the right-hand side of Panel 7 is the last case. The angle of concern is now (360 - ), and p and q are positive while r is negative. As before, we get the following relations given in Panel 8. Notice only the cosine is positive.

Panel 8 There is a simple rule by which you can remember all of these results, summarized in Panel 9. Notice in the first quadrant, all the functions are positive; in the second quadrant, only the sine is positive; in the third, only the tangent is positive; and in the fourth quadrant, only the cosine is positive. The little mnemonic at the right, called the CAST Rule, tells you which function is positive in each quadrant. And the c, a, s and t stand for cosine, all, sine and tangent. Panel 9 Let us now look at a graph of these functions. But before we examine it in detail, let's see what we can learn just from inspection. Look at panel 10. From our definition, sin() = r/q, you can see that sine of 0 is 0 since r will be 0. The value of sine will rise as increases and reach a value of 1 when = 90, since then r will be equal to q. Obviously, then, the sine function is one which increases from 0 to a maximum value of 1 as increases from 0 to 90. You can see this plotted in panel 11a.

Panel 10

Panel 11 From 90 to 180, it decreases back to 0 but remains positive as we saw earlier. From 180 to 360, you remember, it was always negative, and you can readily see, it has a minimum value of -1 at 270. Beyond 360, of course, it just repeats. The function is what we call an oscillatory function, and in your studies in physics, you will find it most important to appreciate this property, particularly in the study of waves and alternating current in electricity and electronics. How does the cosine function behave? Panel 11 again shows you. At 0, q = p and so the value is 1. At 90, p = 0, and so cos(90 ) = 0. This is shown in Panel 11b. You can work out the rest of it for yourself. You see that the cosine function is exactly the same as the sine function if you slide the sine function graph back 90. This says that sin(90 + ) = cos().

Panel 12 The tangent curve looks quite different. Panel 12 shows that tan(0) = r/p = 0, but tan(90) = r/p = since r is finite but p has gone to 0. Panel 12 shows this function. The tangent function is a repeating one but not oscillatory. One last point which you will find used many times are the approximate values of these functions when is very small. Look at panel 13. This is like our other figures except that we have put the triangle into the sector of a circle of radius q. You can readily see that as gets very small, p and q become very nearly equal and so the cosine approaches the value 1 as we already know. But in this approximation,

Panel 13

r/q and r/p are very nearly equal. These, of course, are the sine and the tangent of . So we may say that for very small values of , sin() is very nearly equal to tan(). Indeed, if you look back below panel 7, you will see we looked up the functions for = 10. Even for an angle of this size, you can see that cos(10) is within 1.5% of 1; and sin(10) and tan(10) are equal to within about 2 parts in 170, or about 1.2%. We can even go further. You will remember the relation that the arc length s is equal to the radius q multiplied by the angle measured in radians ; that is, s = q . Now in the small angle limit I have been talking about, s and r are nearly equal. Therefore, for the ratio r/q, we can use s/q and we immediately see that, for small angles, the sine, the tangent, and the angle itself measured in radians are all nearly equal. We need to stress that this is only true if is measured in radians, where you will recall that 2 radians was equal to 360. You have now learned the simple rules of trigonometry which, with practice, should equip you for your introductory science courses. Why dont you try this little test to check your understanding?

Algeb ra

The first topic to be reviewed is fractions. A fraction is expressed as numerator and b, the denominator.

, where a is called the

The addition or subtraction of fractions can be expressed generally as . In order to carry out the operation indicated it is necessary that the expression have a common denominator, b x d. This is accomplished by multiplying both terms by bd, and dividing both terms by bd. That is, is equal to .

As an example, what is 1/2 + 1/3? Using the previous equation , where now a=1, b=2, c=1 and d=3, we obtain .

The product of two fractions is the product of their numerators divided by the product of their denominators. That is, .

Now we will investigate power laws. A number raised to a power is written as ax, where a is the base and x is the power or exponent.

When multiplying ax by ay the rule is to add the exponents, thus, ax times ay equals ax + y. This is obvious since ax times ay is (x+y) a's multiplied together. When dividing ax by ay, the rule is to subtract the exponents. Thus ax divided by ay is equal to ax - y. When raising a number to a power, to a further power, the exponents are multiplied. Thus (ax )y is equal to axy. How do we handle expressions like ax times by? Now the bases are different and the above rules no longer apply, however, if we can express b as a multiple or a power of a then the problem can be solved, as before. Suppose b can be expressed as a quantity n times a. Then ax times by equals ax x (na)y, which is equal to ny times ax times ay, which is equal to ny times ax + y. Alternatively it could be done this way, suppose that b could be written as an. Then we would write ax times by is equal to ax times (an)y which is equal to ax times any, which is equal to ax + ny. On the other hand, if b is neither a simple multiple nor a simple power of a, then the solution is best handled by resorting to the use of logarithms. It should be mentioned that the above rules for handling powers are valid for the exponent being an integer or a fraction. Note however that any base raised to the power of 0, is 1, and that 0 can not be used as a base. Now let's look at proportionality. Often in physical problems, one deals with parameters that vary as certain other parameters are varied. These parameters are called variables. Let's consider two cases. The case where the parameter , x , varies directly with y, or sometimes we say x is proportional to y, . And the case where x varies inversely

with y, or sometimes we say x is inversely proportional to y, . These expressions can be written as equalities by inserting constants of proportionality, for example x = ky and . Where k and k1 are unique constants, expressed in the appropriate units, that characterize the particular problem. As an example, Newton's Law of Gravitation states, that the force of attraction between two bodies varies directly as the product of their masses and inversely as the square of the distance between them. That is . Or written as an equality where G is the Universal Gravitation Constant. ,

We will now examine the solutions of a linear equation in one unknown, remember that an equation is simply a statement of equality. Let us suppose that we are confronted with an equation of the following form, ad = by + c. Where we know values for a, b, c, and d, and wish to solve for the unknown designated y. First put the expression involving the unknown y on the left hand side of the equation, and everything else on the right hand side. In other words, transpose terms from one side of the equation to the other, remembering that terms change signs when they change sides. Thus we obtain, by = ad - c. To obtain y alone on the left hand side, it is necessary to divide the left hand side by b, but to retain the equality, the right hand side must also be divided by b, giving .

The rule is that you can do anything you want to an equation in terms of adding and subtracting terms, multiplying and dividing by terms etc, as long as you do the same thing to both sides of the equation. One word of caution however, division by 0 is not allowed. Now how do we deal with common factors? Often the solution of an equation can be simplified by removing factors common to all terms. For example, suppose we wish to solve the following equation for x, x2-a2 = 2(x - a)2. Factor both sides of the equation, giving (x - a)(x + a) = 2(x - a)(x - a). Divide both sides of the equation by (x - a), and we get (x + a) = 2(x - a). Or finally, x = 3a. Let's now turn our attention to the dimensionality of the equations. All terms in an equation, connected by a plus or minus sign must have the same dimensions and be in the same system of units. Consider for example, the equation for uniform motion in a straight line, from kinematics, v = u + at, where v is the final, and u is the initial velocity, a is the acceleration and t is the time interval. There are three basic dimensions, M, L and T, for mass, length and time into which most physical quantities can be reduced. For example, velocities have the dimension L/T, acceleration has the dimensions L/T2, and time of course has the dimension of T. Thus, as shown, v has the dimensions L T-1 , u has the dimensions L T-1 and, a times t has the dimensions L T-2 times t, which is L T-1. Therefore the equation v = u + at is dimensionally correct. If you wish to substitute in numerical values for the parameters, first choose a system of units, for example the mks system (where mass is in kilograms, distance in metres and time in seconds), and then v and u have units of m/s, a has units of m/s2 and t, of course, has units of seconds. Now let's look at the solutions of two simultaneous equations. Two equations and two unknowns can be solved in a straight forward fashion using the techniques already developed.

Let us consider the two equations x + y = 3 and 4x - y = 2. We wish to solve for both x and y. The first step is to eliminate one of the unknowns, this can be accomplished in several ways, I will demonstrate only one. Solve either one of the equations, for one of the unknowns in terms of the other. Consider the equation x + y = 3, which can be written, x = 3 - y, substitute this into 4x - y = 2 to get 4(3-y) - y = 2. Solve to get 12 -4y -y = 2 or 5y = 10 and finally y = 2. Now substitute this value into the previous equation (x=3-y) to get x = 3-2, which equals 1. Therefore the solutions to the equation is x = 1 and y = 2. Finally let us look at the binomial expansion. Often it is necessary to calculate expressions of the following form, (1 + x)n, where n may be an integer or a fraction. Let us write down the expression for several values of n, and expand. For n = 0, we would have (1 + x)0 = 1, for n = 1 we have (1 + x)1 = 1 + x, and for n = 2 we have (1 + x)2 = 1 + 2x + x2, for n = 3 we have (1 + x)3 = 1 + 3x + 3x2 + x3 and so on.

For n = 0, 1 is still 1, for n = 1, I have written the answer as written the answer as .

, for n = 2, I have

Let's do one more, for n = 3, I have written the answer as

. You will note that there is a general format becoming evident. The format that we saw emerging, we can write in a general way as follows, . This equation is called the binomial expansion, if x is a number less than 1 many of the higher order terms in the expansion can be deleted, because they become negligible. For example, suppose x = 0.01 and n = 7. If we substitute n = 7 into the binomial expansion, we'll find . And now with x as 0.01 these terms become 1 + .07 + (2 x .0001) and so on. If we were working to only three significant figures, only the first two terms in the expansion would contribute, and we could say that 1 + 7x = 1.07.

The binomial expansion can also be used if the exponent is negative, and then the general expression takes the following form ( the expansion converges for x2 < 1),

. And this

becomes, Again, n may be an integer or a fraction.

and so on.

Gravity

<!--[endif]-->The first force we will investigate is that due to gravity, and we'll call it the gravitational force. We know that the acceleration due to gravity (if on Earth) is approximately g = 9.8 m/s2. The force, by Newton's Second Law is Fg = m g where g is the acceleration due to gravity and m is the mass of the carriage. Let's add this to our diagram. Note that the force vector, labelled Fg, points downward, as this is the direction in which the gravitation force acts. Note also that this force is commonly called weight. This 'weight' (mg) is different from our everyday use of the word 'weight' (which is known in physics as 'mass').

Normal

The normal force is one which prevents objects from 'falling' into whatever it is they are sitting upon. It is always perpendicular to the surface with which an object is in contact. For example, if there is a crate on the floor, then we say that the crate experiences a normal force exerted by the floor; and because of this force, the crate does not fall into the floor. The normal force on the crate points upward perpendicular to the floor. It is called the normal force because normal and perpendicular mean the same thing.

The normal force is always perpendicular to the surface with which a body is in contact. For a body on a sloping surface (say a ramp) the normal force acting on that body is still perpendicular to the slope.

Let's add the normal force to our FBD and represent the normal force with the letter N.

Friction

Related to the normal force is the frictional force. The two are related because they are both due to the fact that the body is in contact with the surface. Whereas the normal force was perpendicular to the surface, the frictional force is parallel. Furthermore, friction opposes motion, and so its vector always points away from the direction of movement. Friction is divided into two types-static and kinetic. These are represented by Ff, with a further subscript 's' for static friction, and a subscript 'k' for kinetic friction, . As its name suggests, static friction occurs when the body is not moving with respect to the surface. It is the force which makes it difficult to start something moving. On the other hand, kinetic friction occurs when the body is sliding over the surface. (Of course rolling objects experience friction as well.) This is the force which causes objects to slow down and eventually stop. Friction is usually approximated as being proportional to the normal force. The proportionality constant is called the coefficient of (static or kinetic) friction. The coefficient is represented as s for static friction, and k for kinetic friction; the numerical value of depends on the nature of the surface with which the body is in contact.

We've added (kinetic) friction to our free body diagram.

LOGARITHMS
. The logarithm is perhaps the single, most useful arithmetic concept in all the sciences; and an understanding of them is essential to an understanding of many scientific ideas. Logarithms may be defined and introduced in several different ways. But for our purposes, let's adopt a simple approach. This approach originally arose out of a desire to simplify multiplication and division to the level of addition and subtraction. Of course, in this era of the cheap hand calculator, this is not necessary anymore but it still serves as a useful way to introduce logarithms. The question is, therefore: Is there any operation in mathematics which produces a multiplication by the performance of an addition? With not too much thought, the answer should come to you. What is 23 x 24. The answer is 2 7 which is obtained by adding the powers 3 and 4. This is correct, of course, since 23 x 24 is just seven 2s multiplied together. Note that this addition trick does not work for the case of 33 x 24. The base numbers must be the same, as in the first case, where we used 2. In general, this addition trick can be written as pa x pb = pa+b. This expression will do our job of multiplying any two numbers, say 1.3 and 6.9, if we can only express 1.3 as pa and 6.9 as pb. What number will we use for the base p? Any number will do, but traditionally, only two are in common use: Ten (10) and the transcendental number e (= 2.71828...), giving logarithms to the base 10 or common logarithms (log), and logarithms to the base e or natural logarithms (ln). If you would like to know why this strange number e is used click here. Let's first talk about logarithms to the base 10 or common logs. We thus choose to let our number 1.3 be equal to 10a. 1.3 = 10a

`a' is called "the logarithm of 1.3". How large is `a'? Well, it's not 0 since 100 = 1 and it's less than 1 since 101 = 10. Therefore, we see that all numbers between 1 and 10 have logarithms between 0 and 1. If you look at the table below you'll see a summary of this. Number range 1 - 10 or 100 - 101 10 - 100 or 101 - 102 100 -1000 or 102 - 103 etc. Logarithm Range 0 -1 1-2 2-3 etc.

You see, we have the number range listed on the left and the logarithm range listed on the right. For numbers between 1 and 10, that is between 100 and 101, the logarithm lies in the range 0 to 1. For numbers between 10 and 100, that is between 101 and 102, the logarithm lies in the range 1 to 2, and so on. Now in the bad old days before calculators, you would have to learn to use a set of logarithm tables to find the logarithm of our number, 1.3, that we asked for earlier. But nowadays, you can get it at the press of a button on your calculator. I'm going to take a moment to discuss your calculator. If you don't have a calculator with scientific functions on it, you should get one before proceeding in this tutorial since the rest depends on it. Most calculators are very straightforward in obtaining the logarithm. They either have two logarithm keys or a dual function key. In any case, the labels will be `log' and `ln' which is often pronounced `lon'. Log is the key for logs to the base 10 and ln is for natural logs. We want logs to the base 10 in our example so we use `log'. Enter 1.3 on your calculator, and then press the log key. Do you have 0.113943? You should have. This number then is `a' back in our previous expression and therefore the logarithm of 1.3. Pause now and determine `b' in that expression, the logarithm of 6.9. You should have 0.838849 for the log of 6.9. If not, review what we have done and try again. Now we are going to do something silly in view of the fact that you have a calculator. We're going to use the two logarithms you have evaluated to find the product of 1.3 and 6.9. Of course, you can do it quickly with your calculator, but this will show that logarithms do what they are supposed to do. According to our original idea, the sum of the two logarithms was supposed to be the logarithm of the answer. Now add the two logarithms. The sum is 0.952792. This is the logarithm of the answer. If we only knew what number had 0.952792 as its logarithm, we would know the value of 1.3 x 6.9. The problem of finding a number when you know its logarithm is called finding the "antilogarithm" or sometimes "exponentiation". Again, lets look at your calculator. Here is where calculators differ a lot and I hope I mention one that is something like yours. You should look for a key on your calculator that says something like 10x or 10y. If so, then pressing that key will take the antilog of the number in the display. Alternatively, your calculator may have an "inverse" key. If so, then pressing inverse and then log will take the antilog of the number in the display. Enter 0.952792 into your calculator and find the antilog.

Did you get 8.97? If not, try again. Of course, you might have got something like 8.96999 but of course that really is 8.97. Now, multiply 1.3 x 6.9 on your calculator and you'll see that 8.97 is indeed the correct answer. The whole operation could be done with natural logarithms as well as shown below. 1.3 x 6.9 = ? ln 1.3 = 0.262364 i.e. 1.3 = e0.262364 ln 6.9 = 1.931521 i.e. 6.9 = e1.931521 total = 2.193885 i.e. 1.3 x 6.9 = e2.193885 antiln 2.193885 = 8.97 If the sum of logarithms gives the product of two numbers, then the difference gives the quotient. In the table below, I've taken the difference between the ln of 1.3 and the ln of 6.9. Check it on your calculator. 1.3/6.9 = ? ln 1.3 = 0.262364 ln 6.9 = 1.931521 ln 1.3/6.9 = -1.669157 antiln (-1.669157) = 0.1884 Don't be afraid of the negative sign. It simply means that the answer is less than 1. Enter -1.669157 on your calculator, then find its antiln. Note we are working with natural logs in this example. If you didn't get 0.1884, try again. Of course, this is just 1.3 divided by 6.9. In the table below, I have done the whole problem over again using common logs. Pause here and check it. log 1.3 = 0.113943 log 6.9 = 0.838849 log(1.3/6.9) = -0.724906 antilog (-0.724906) = 0.1884 The logarithmic and exponential functions are very important since many physical and biological processes can be described by them. For example, suppose you have a certain number of radioactive atoms at time t = 0. Let's let this number be N0. Radioactivity behaves in such a way that the number N of radioactive atoms remaining at a later time t is given by a linear variation of the logarithm of N with t.

That is, a graph of ln N vs t is a straight line. You know that the equation of such a straight line is given by y = mx+b where m is the slope and b is the y intercept. Therefore, the equation of radioactivity is ln N = -kt + ln N0 where ln N0 is the y intercept and the slope of the line is -k.

Let's now examine the equation we derived for radioactivity, ln N = ln N0 -kt. Here is where it is important to be able to do algebra with logarithms. Lets get the logarithms on one side so that we get ln N - ln N0 = -kt. But we know that the difference of logarithms is the logarithm of the quotient so the left-hand side becomes ln N/N0. Now let's take antilogarithms and do the right side first. The antiln of any quantity is the number e to the power of that quantity so the right-hand side becomes e-kt. The left-hand side is the antiln of the ln and so it just becomes N divided by N0. Finally, we can rearrange to put the final equation in the form N = N0 e-kt which is called the equation of "exponential decay", so you can see why taking an antiln is often called "exponentiation". Quiz Try the following questions: 1. ln (7.42) = ? 2. log (7.42) = ? 3. ln (ekt) = ? 4. log (ekt) = ? 5. antilog 0.8704 = ? 6. antiln 2.0042 = ? 7. 100.8704 = ? 8. e2.0042 = ?

Vectors
Department of Physics, University of Guelph

This Vector tutorial has been selected by PSIgate as a recommended teaching tool. Click the PSIgate logo to access their large inventory of Science Tutorials. In this tutorial we will examine some of the elementary ideas concerning vectors. The reason for this introduction to vectors is that many concepts in science, for example, displacement, velocity, force, acceleration, have a size or magnitude, but also they have associated with them the idea of a direction. And it is obviously more convenient to represent both quantities by just one symbol. That is the vector. Graphically, a vector is represented by an arrow, defining the direction, and the length of the arrow defines the vector's magnitude. This is shown in Panel 1. . If we denote one end of the arrow by the origin O and the tip of the arrow by Q. Then the vector may be represented algebraically by OQ. Panel 1 This is often simplified to just . The line and arrow above the Q are there to indicate that the symbol represents a vector. Another notation is boldface type as: Q. Note, that since a direction is implied, . Even though their lengths are identical, their directions are exactly opposite, in fact OQ = -QO. The magnitude of a vector is denoted by absolute value signs around the vector symbol: magnitude of Q = |Q|. The operation of addition, subtraction and multiplication of ordinary algebra can be extended to vectors with some new definitions and a few new rules. There are two fundamental definitions. #1 Two vectors, A and B are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction, regardless of whether they have the same initial points, as shown in Panel 2.

Panel 2

#2 A vector having the same magnitude as A but in the opposite direction to A is denoted by -A , as shown in Panel 3.

Panel 3 We can now define vector addition. The sum of two vectors, A and B, is a vector C, which is obtained by placing the initial point of B on the final point of A, and then drawing a line from the initial point of A to the final point of B , as illustrated in Panel 4. This is sometines referred to as the "Tip-to-Tail" method. Panel 4 The operation of vector addition as described here can be written as C = A + B This would be a good place to try this simulation on the graphical addition of vectors. Use the "BACK" buttion to return to this point. Vector subtraction is defined in the following way. The difference of two vectors, A - B , is a vector C that is, C = A - B or C = A + (-B).Thus vector subtraction can be represented as a vector addition. The graphical representation is shown in Panel 5. Inspection of the graphical representation shows that we place the initial point of the vector -B on the final point the vector A , and then draw a line from the initial point of A to the final point of -B to give the difference C.

Panel 5 Any quantity which has a magnitude but no direction associated with it is called a "scalar". For example, speed, mass and temperature. The product of a scalar, m say, times a vector A , is another vector, B, where B has the same direction as A but the magnitude is changed, that is, |B| = m|A|.

Many of the laws of ordinary algebra hold also for vector algebra. These laws are: Commutative Law for Addition: A + B = B + A Associative Law for Addition: A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C The verification of the Associative law is shown in Panel 6. If we add A and B we get a vector E. And similarly if B is added to C , we get F . Now D = E + C = A + F. Panel 6 Replacing E with (A + B) and F with (B + C), we get (A +B) + C = A + (B + C) and we see that the law is verified. Stop now and make sure that you follow the above proof. Commutative Law for Multiplication: mA = Am Associative Law for Multiplication: (m + n)A = mA + nA, where m and n are two different scalars. Distributive Law: m(A + B) = mA + mB These laws allow the manipulation of vector quantities in much the same way as ordinary algebraic equations. Vectors can be related to the basic coordinate systems which we use by the introduction of what we call "unit vectors." A unit vector is one which has a magnitude of 1 and is often indicated by putting a hat (or circumflex) on top of the vector symbol, for example quantity is read as "a hat" or "a unit". Let us consider the two-dimensional (or x, y)Cartesian Coordinate System, as shown in Panel 7. .The

Panel 7 We can define a unit vector in the x-direction by it is sometimes denoted by . Similarly in the ydirection we use or sometimes . Any twodimensional vector can now be represented by employing multiples of the unit vectors, illustrated in Panel 8. and , as or

Panel 8 The vector A can be represented algebraically by A = Ax + Ay. Where Ax and Ay are vectors in the x and y directions. If Ax and Ay are the magnitudes of Ax and Ay, then Ax vector components of A in the x and y directions respectively. The actual operation implied by this is shown in Panel 9. Remember (or ) and (or ) have a magnitude of 1 so they do not alter the length of the vector, they only give it its direction. Panel 9 The breaking up of a vector into it's component parts is known as resolving a vector. Notice that the representation of A by it's components, Ax and Ay is not unique. Depending on the orientation of the coordinate system with respect to the vector in question, it is possible to have more than one set of components. It is perhaps easier to understand this by having a look at an example. and Ay are the

Consider an object of mass, M, placed on a smooth inclined plane, as shown in Panel 10. The gravitational force acting on the object is F = mg where g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Panel 10 In the unprimed coordinate system, the vector F can be written as F = -Fy , but in the primed coordinate system F = -Fx' + Fy' . Which representation to use will depend on the particular problem that you are faced with. For example, if you wish to determine the acceleration of the block down the plane, then you will need the component of the force which acts down the plane. That is, -Fx' equal to the mass times the acceleration. which would be

The breaking up of a vector into it's components, makes the determination of the length of the vector quite simple and straight forward. Since A = Ax For example . The resolution of a vector into it's components can be used in the addition and subtraction of vectors. To illustrate this let us consider an example, what is the sum of the following three vectors? + Ay then using Pythagorus' Theorem .

By resolving each of these three vectors into their components we see that the result is Panel 11. D x = A x + B x + Cx D y = A y + B y + Cy

Panel 11 Now you should use this simulation to study the very important topic of the algebraic addition of vectors. Use the "BACK" buttion to return to this point. Very often in vector problems you will know the length, that is, the magnitude of the vector and you will also know the direction of the vector. From these you will need to calculate the Cartesian components, that is, the x and y components. The situation is illustrated in Panel 12. Let us assume that the magnitude of A and the angle are given; what we wish to know is, what are Ax and Ay?

Panel 12 From elementary trigonometry we have, that cos = Ax/|A| therefore Ax = |A| cos , and similarly Ay = |A| cos(90 - ) = |A| sin. Until now, we have discussed vectors in terms of a Cartesian, that is, an x-y coordinate system. Any of the vectors used in this frame of reference were directed along, or referred to, the coordinate axes. However there is another coordinate system which is very often encountered and that is the Polar Coordinate System.

In Polar coordinates one specifies the length of the line and it's orientation with respect to some fixed line. In Panel 13, the position of the dot is specified by it's distance from the origin, that is r, and the position of the line is at some angle , from a fixed line as indicated. The quantities r and are known as the Polar Coordinates of the Panel 13 point. It is possible to define fundamental unit vectors in the Polar Coordinate system in much the same way as for Cartesian coordinates. We require that the unit vectors be perpendicular to one another, and that one unit vector be in the direction of increasing r, and that the other is in the direction of increasing . In Panel 14, we have drawn these two unit vectors with the symbols and . It is clear that there must be a relation between these unit vectors and those of the Cartesian system.

Panel 14 These relationships are given in Panel 15.

Panel 15 The multiplication of two vectors, is not uniquely defined, in the sense that there is a question as to whether the product will be a vector or not. For this reason there are two types of vector multiplication. First, the scalar or dot product of two vectors, which results in a scalar. And secondly, the vector or cross product of two vectors, which results in a vector.

In this tutorial we shall discuss only the scalar or dot product. The scalar product of two vectors, A and B denoted by AB, is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the vectors times the cosine of the angle between them, as illustrated in Panel 16.

Panel 16 Note that the result of a dot product is a scalar, not a vector. The rules for scalar products are given in the following

list, And in particular we have and the cosine of 0 is 1. Alternatively, we have 90 is 0.

. , since the angle between a vector and itself is 0

, since the angle between

and is 90 and the cosine of

In general then, if AB = 0 and neither the magnitude of A nor B is 0, then A and B must be perpendicular. The definition of the scalar product given earlier, required a knowledge of the magnitude of A and B , as well as the angle between the two vectors. If we are given the vectors in terms of a Cartesian representation, that is, in terms of and , we can use the information to work out the scalar product, without having to determine the angle between the vectors.

If,

then Because the other terms involved, Let us do an example. Consider two vectors, the angle between these two vectors?

. , as we saw earlier. and . Now what is

From the definition of scalar products we have

But

This concludes our survey of the elementary properties of vectors, we have concentrated on fundamentals and have restricted ourselves to the discussion of vectors in just two dimensions. Nevertheless, a sound grasp of the ideas presented in this tutorial are absolutely essential for further progress in vector analysis.

Algebra Review
The material in this tutorial is reprinted with permission of the authors and publisher of How to Ace Calculus by Colin Adams, Abigail Franklin, and Joel Hass. Here we will list some of the most common mistakes that we see on exams. If you can avoid these, then at least your mistakes will be uncommon. Most of the mistakes that occur repeatedly involve algebra, rather than calculus. They can be avoided by being careful and checking your work. Others involve common misunderstandings about various aspects of calculus. 1.

(x+y)2=x2+y2 .

MISTAKE!

Powers don't behave this way. The correct way to expand this expression gives

(x+y)2=x2+2xy+y2
2.

1x+y=x1+y1.

MISTAKE!

The rule for adding fractions gives x1+y1=xyx+y 3.

1x+y=x1+y.

MISTAKE!

This very common error comes from carelessness about what's in the denominator. It can be avoided by careful handwriting or frequent use of parentheses. 4.

x+y= x+ y .

MISTAKE!

There is no simplified way to write 5.

x+y . You just have to live with it as is.

MISTAKE!

x y so kx ky where k is a constant.

This is true when k is a POSITIVE constant. If k is negative you need to reverse the inequality. If k is zero all bets are off. For example, if x y then x y. 6. Forgetting to simplify fractions in limits: MISTAKE!

It is not correct to say limx 1x1x21=00 and therefore the limit is undefined. Even worse would be to cancel the zeroes and say the limit equals one. Any time you get 00 for a limit, it is a BIG WARNING SIGN that says YOU HAVE MORE WORK TO DO! In this case, limx 1x1x21=limx 1x1(x+1)

(x1)=limx
7.

1x+1=2

sin2x x=sin2.

MISTAKE!

You can only cancel terms in the numerator and denominator of a fraction if they are not inside anything else and are just multiplying the rest of the numerator and denominator. The function sin2x is NOT sin2 multiplied by x. If the fraction had been written as xsin(2x) it would be harder to make such an error. 8.

ax=bx therefore a=b.

MISTAKE!

This is a more subtle mistake. The cancellation is correct IF x is not 0. For example 2x=3x forces x=0. You cannot cancel the x=0 and conclude that 2=3. Not in this universe, anyway. 9. ddx

2x =x2x1 .

MISTAKE!

The correct answer is 2xln2. The power rule only applies if the base is a variable and the exponent is a constant, as in x3. 10. ddx

sin(x2+1) =cos(2x) .

MISTAKE!

This is a typical example of the kind of mistakes made when applying the chain rule. The correct answer is ddx 11. ddx

sin(x2+1) =cos(x2+1) 2x
MISTAKE!

sin(x2+1) =cos(x2+1)+sin(2x) .

Another common way in which the chain rule is misapplied. This time the product rule has been used in a setting where the chain rule was the way to go. 12. ddx

cosx =sinx .

MISTAKE!

The answer should be sinx. Extremely common error costing students over 10 million points a year on exams around the world.

13. ddx

fg =g2fg gf .

MISTAKE!

This is backwards! It should be ddx 14. ddx

fg =g2gf fg

ln3 =31 .

MISTAKE!

The quantity ln3 is a constant, so ddx

ddx

ln3 =0 . The same is true for ALL constants. So

e =0 and ddx sin

=0 as well.

15.

xdx=2x2 .

MISTAKE!

The correct answer is

xdx=2x2+C . Picky profs penalize points pedantically.

MISTAKE!

16.

x1dx=0x0+C .

The power rule for integration does not apply to x1. Instead, 17.

x1dx=ln x +C

tanxdx=sec2x+C .

MISTAKE!

It's the other way around. ddx tanx =sec2x . The correct answer is +C as can be found by u-substitution with u=cosx. 18. Forgetting to simplify: MISTAKE!

tanxdx=ln secx

For example x xdx is easy if you notice that x x=x3 2 and then apply the power rule for integration. But if you try to do it using integration by parts or substitution, you will find your self in outer space without a space suit. 19. Not substituting back to the original variable: MISTAKE!

2xex2dx does not equal eu+C. It equals ex2+C.

20. Misreading the problem: MISTAKE! If asked to find an area, don't find a volume. If asked to find a derivative, don't find an integral. If asked to use calculus to solve a problem, don't do it in your head using algebra. Although it seemes silly to include this item in our list, billions of points have been taken off exams for mistakes of this type. After you finish a problem on the exam, go back and read the question again. Check to make sure you answered the question that was asked. 21. Thinking you're prepared when you're not. MISTAKE!

This mistake is perhaps the most important, so we'll put it in even though it pushes us over the 20 mistakes limit. The worst mistake many students make is to think they know the material better than they really do. It's easy to fool yourself into thinking you can solve a problem when you're looking at the answer book or at a worked out solution. Test your knowledge by trying problems under exam conditions. If you can do them under that restriction, the exam should be a breeze.