Wunderkind- A person of remarkable talent or ability who achieves great success or acclaim at an early age.

Bourgeoisie- A woman belonging to the middle class. Raconteur-One who tells stories and anecdotes with skill and wit. Paparazzi- A freelance photographer who doggedly pursues celebrities to take candid pictures for sale to magazines and newspapers. Shibboleth- A word or pronunciation that distinguishes people of one group or class from those of another. Pariah- A social outcast: a member of a low caste in South India Apartheid- An official policy of racial segregation formerly practiced in the Republic of South Africa, involving political, legal, and economic discrimination against nonwhites. Glasnost- An official policy of the former Soviet government emphasizing candor with regard to discussion of social problems and shortcomings. Kamikaze- A Japanese pilot trained in World War II to make a suicidal crash attack, especially upon a ship. Blitz- a violent and sustained attack, esp with intensive aerial bombardment; any sudden intensive attack or concerted effort Kowtow- o kneel and touch the forehead to the ground in expression of deep respect, worship, or submission, as formerly done in China. Yoga- A system of exercises practiced as part of this discipline to promote control of the body and mind. Cumin- The seedlike fruit of this plant used for seasoning, as in curry and chili powders. Loofah- The dried, fibrous part of the loofa fruit, used as a washing sponge or as a filter. Also called dishcloth gourd, vegetable sponge. Parka- A coat or jacket with a hood and usually a warm lining for cold-weather wear. Sauna- A bathhouse or room for taking such a steam bath. Kibbutz- a collective agricultural settlement in modern Israel, owned and administered communally by its members and on which children are reared collectively Barangay- also known by its former Spanish adopted name, thebarrio, is the smallest administrative division in the Philippines and is the native Filipino term for avillage, district or ward. Gulag- A place or situation of great suffering and hardship, likened to the atmosphere in a prison system or a forced labor camp. Pampa- are the fertile South American lowlands Leotard- A snugly fitting, stretchable one-piece garment with or without sleeves that covers the torso, worn especially by dancers, gymnasts, acrobats, and those engaging in exercise workouts. Chador- is an outer garment or open cloak worn by many Iranian women in public spaces; it is one possible way in which a Muslim woman may follow the Islamic dress code known as ijb. Sarong- A garment consisting of a length of printed cloth wrapped about the waist that is worn by men and women in Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Pacific islands. Kurta- is a traditional item of clothing worn in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. It is a loose shirt falling either just above or somewhere below the knees of the wearer, and is worn by both men and women. Paprika- A mild powdered seasoning made from sweet red peppers. Charisma- is a trait found in individuals whose personalities are characterized by a powerful charm and magnetism (attractiveness Taipan- A foreign businessman or a trader in China. Oregano- It is native to warm-temperate western and southwestern Eurasia and the Mediterranean region. Caldera- A large crater formed by volcanic explosion or by collapse of a volcanic cone.

Lava- lava is a type of molten rock expelled by a volcano during an eruption. Lahar- A landslide or mudflow of volcanic fragments on the flanks of a volcano. Tabu- a Polynesian cultural concept, from which the word taboo derives Igloo- An Inuit or Eskimo dwelling, especially a dome-shaped winter dwelling built of blocks of packed snow. Creche- Day care center, an organization of adults who take care of children in place of their parents Nativity scene, a group of figures arranged to represent the birth of Jesus Christ Crche (zoology), care of other's young offspring provided by animals Anorak- A heavy jacket with a hood; a parka. Fiasco- traditional Italian straw-covered wine bottle Siesta- A rest or nap after the midday meal. Dacha- is a Russian word for seasonal or year-round second homes often located in the exurbs of Soviet and post-Soviet cities. Cottages or shacks serving as family's main or only home (or districts of such buildings) are not considered dachas, Detente- a relaxing of tension, esp. between nations. Blitzkreig- is an anglicized word describing all-mechanized force concentration of tanks, infantry, artillery and air power, concentrating overwhelming force at high speed to break through enemy lines, and, once the latter is broken, proceeding without regard to its flank Wanderlust- A very strong or irresistible impulse to travel. Valet- Valet and varlet are terms for male servants who serve as personal attendants to their employer. Entrepreneur- A person who organizes, operates, and assumes the risk for a business venture. Shish kebab- is a wide variety of meat dishes originating in Iran, and now found worldwide. In English, kebab with no qualification generally refers more specifically to shish kebab served on the skewer or dner kebabserved wrapped in bread with a salad and a dressing Dimsum- a Chinese light meal or brunch served with Chinese tea Crepes- A crpe (pronounced /krep/, French IPA: [kp]) is a type of very thin, cooked pancake usually made from wheat flour. Crescendo- Crescendo, in musical notation, refers to a passage of music during which the volume gradually increases Cuisine- is a specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a specific culture. It is often named after the region or place where its underlining culture is present. Imbroglio- A difficult or intricate situation; an entanglement.A confused or complicated disagreement. Misu- Misu is a kind of Korean traditional drink made of grain powder Phat thaySchwa- The symbol ( ) used to represent an unstressed neutral vowel and, in some systems of phonetic transcription, a stressed mid-central vowel, as in but. Kaizen- Kaizen (), Japanese for "improvement" or "change for the better", refers to philosophy or practices that focus upon continuous improvement of processes in manufacturing, engineering, supporting business processes, and management. Stamina- Physical or moral strength to resist or withstand illness, fatigue, or hardship; endurance Hara-kiriJunta- A group of military officers ruling a country after seizing power.
[1][2][3][Notes 1]

Liaison- An instance or a means of communication between different groups or units of an organization, especially in the armed forces. A close relationship, connection, or link. Fauvism- Fauvism is the style of les Fauves (French for "the wild beasts"), a short-lived and loose group of early twentieth-century Modern artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities and strong colour over the representational or realistic values retained by Impressionism. Moshav- An Israeli cooperative settlement consisting of small separate farms. Perestroika- was a political movement within the Communist Party of Soviet Union widely associated with the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Its literal meaning is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system. Resume- To begin or take up again after interruption: Feng shui- is an ancient Chinese system of aesthetics believed to use the laws of both Heaven (astronomy) and Earth (geography) to help one improve life by receiving positive qi. Origami- The art or process, originating in Japan, of folding paper into shapes representing flowers and birds, for example. Ikebana- is the Japanese art of flower arrangement Bonsai- The art of growing dwarfed, ornamentally shaped trees or shrubs in small shallow pots or trays. Rendezvous- Rendezvous, a method of synchronizing two concurrent tasks for communicating data i Imams- In law and theology, the caliph who is successor to Muhammad as the lawful temporal leader of the Islamic community. The male prayer leader in a mosque. Gurus- A guru (Sanskrit: ) is one who is regarded as having great knowledge, wisdom and authority in a certain area, and who uses it to guide others (teacher). The PRESENT TENSE uses the verb's base form (write, work), or, for third-person singular subjects, the base form plus an -s ending (he writes, she works). The PRESENT TENSE indicates that an action is present, now, relative to the speaker or writer. Generally, it is used to describe actions that are factual or habitual -- things that occur in the present but that are not necessarily happening right now: "It rains a lot in Portland" is a kind of timeless statement. Compare that to the present progressive -- "It is raining in Portland" -- which means that something is, in fact, going on right now. "I use my bike to get around town." is in the present, but I'm not actually on my bike right now. An instantaneous sense of the present can be conveyed with either the simple present or the progressive: "Watch him now: he holds [is holding] down the control key at the same time that he presses [is pressing] the letter d." The present tense is used to describe events that are scheduled (by nature or by people): "High tide is at 3:15 p.m. The Super Bowl starts at 6:15 p.m." The present tense can be used to suggest the past with what is sometimes called the fictional (or historic) present: "We were watching the back door when, all of a sudden, in walks Dierdre." With verbs of communicating, the present tense can also suggest a past action: "Dierdre tells me that she took her brother to the dentist." Most oddly, the present tense can convey a sense of the future, especially with verbs such as arrive, come, and leave that suggest a kind of plan or schedule: "The train from Boston arrives this afternoon at two o'clock." Authority for this section: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. Used with permission. Present tense habitual activities are frequently signaled by time expressions such as the following: all the time always every class every day every holiday every hour Singular I walk you walk every month every semester every week every year most of the time never Plural we walk you walk often rarely sometimes usually

he/she/it walks

they walk

Singular I sleep you sleep he/she/it sleeps

Plural we sleep you sleep they sleep

Singular I am you are he/she/it is

Plural we are you are they are

I walk to work every day. The Chicago Bulls sometimes practice in this gymnasium. Dr. Espinoza operates according to her own schedule. Coach Calhoun recruits from countries outside the U.S.A. Tashonda tells me she has committed to UConn. We work really hard to make this a success, and then look what happens. Every time that kid finishes a sandcastle, the waves come in and wash it away. The shipment arrives tomorrow at 2 p.m. The PAST TENSE indicates that an action is in the past relative to the speaker or writer. when the time period has finished: "We went to Chicago last Christmas." when the time period is definite: "We visited Mom last week." with for, when the action is finished: "I worked with the FBI for two months." Regular verbs use the verb's base form (scream, work) plus the -ed ending (screamed, worked). Irregular verbs alter their form in some other way (slept, drank, drove). Students for whom English is a second language sometimes (quite understandably) have trouble distinguishing between the Simple Past and the Present Perfect tenses. There is more information about the difference between these two tenses available under the Present Perfect description.

Singular I walked you walked he/she/it walked

Plural we walked you walked they walked

Singular I slept you slept he/she/it slept

Plural we slept you slept they slept

Singular I was you were he/she/it was

Plural we were you were they were

When I was a girl, I walked five miles to school every day. Carmelita slept through the entire class. We worked really hard to make this a success, but then Chuck ruined it with his carelessness. Every time I finished a sandcastle, the waves came in and washed it away. Tarzan dove into the swamp and swam toward the alligator. The PRESENT PERFECT TENSE is formed with a present tense form of "to have" plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form). This tense indicates either that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the past or that the action extends to the present: I have walked two miles already [but I'm still walking]. I have run the Boston Marathon [but that was some time ago]. The critics have praised the film Saving Private Ryan since it came out [and they continue to do so]. The choice between Present Perfect and Simple Past is often determined by the adverbial accompanying the verb. With adverbs referring to a period gone by, we would use the simple past: I studied all night/yesterday/on Wednesday. With adverbs beginning in the past and going up to present, we would use the present perfect: I have studied up to now/lately/already. An adverbial time-marker such as "today, this month," or "for an hour" can take either the simple past or present perfect: I worked/have worked hard today. We tend to use the Present Perfect when reporting or announcing an event of the recent past: The company's current CEO has lied repeatedly to her employees. But we tend to use the Simple Past when reporting or announcing events of the finished, more distant past: Washington encouraged his troops.Because the time limits for Present Perfect are relatively elastic (stretching up to the present), it is somewhat less definite than the Simple Past: Brett has worked with some of the best chefs of Europe [in the course of his long and continuing career]. Brett worked with Chef Pierre LeGout [when he lived in Paris]. Singular I have walked you have walked he/she/it has walked Plural we have walked you have walked they have walked

Singular I have slept you have slept he/she/it has slept

Plural we have slept you have slept they have slept

Singular I have been you have been he/she/it has been For five generations, members of my family have been doctors. Vaughan has batted clean-up since he came to the Redsox. She has swum the English Channel every summer. How long has it been since the last time we met?

Plural we have been you have been they have been

The PAST PERFECT TENSE indicates that an action was completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the past before something else happened. This tense is formed with the past tense form of "to have" (HAD) plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form): I had walked two miles by lunchtime. I had run three other marathons before entering the Boston Marathon .

Singular I had walked you had walked he/she/it had walked

Plural we had walked you had walked they had walked

Singular I had slept you had slept he/she/it had slept

Plural we had slept you had slept they had slept

Singular I had been you had been he/she/it had been

Plural we had been you had been they had been

Prior to the Revolutionary War, Washington had been a surveyor and land speculator. Aunt Glad had invested heavily in the air-conditioning industry before the Great Crash of 1988. She had swum the English Channel every summer until 1997. How long had it been since you saw each other? The FUTURE PERFECT TENSE indicates that an action will have been completed (finished or "perfected") at some point in the future. This tense is formed with "will" plus "have" plus the past participle of the verb (which can be either regular or irregular in form): "I will have spent all my money by this time next year. I will have run successfully in three marathons if I can finish this one." Singular I will have walked you will have walked he/she/it will have walked Plural we will have walked you will have walked they will have walked

Singular I will have slept you will have slept he/she/it will have slept

Plural we will have slept you will have slept they will have slept

Singular I will have been you will have been he/she/it will have been

Plural we will have been you will have been they will have been

By this time next week, I will have worked on this project for twenty days. Before he sees his publisher, Charles will have finished four chapters in his new novel. A Democratic president will have been in the White House for nearly half of the twentieth century. How long will it have been since we were together?

The PRESENT PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates continuing action, something going on now. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the present tense, plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I am buying all my family's Christmas gifts early this year. She is working through the holiday break. Dierdreis being a really good girl in these days before Christmas". The present progressive can suggest that an action is going to happen in the future, especially with verbs that convey the idea of a plan or of movement from one place or condition to another: "The team is arriving in two hours. He's moving to Portland this summer." Because the present progressive can suggest either the present or the future, it is usually modified by adverbs of time. Singular I am walking you are walking he/she/it is walking Plural we are walking you are walking they are walking

Singular I am sleeping you are sleeping he/she/it is sleeping

Plural we are sleeping you are sleeping they are sleeping

Singular I am being you are being he/she/it is being

Plural we are being you are being they are being

The summer is passing too quickly. Raoul is acting like his father. Some football players are not being good role models for youngsters. Is he being good to you? The PAST PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates continuing action, something that was happening, going on, at some point in the past. This tense is formed with the helping "to be" verb, in the past tense, plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending):

I was riding my bike all day yesterday. Joel was being a terrible role model for his younger brother.

The past progressive indicates a limited duration of time and is thus a convenient way to indicate that something took place (in the simple past) while something else was happening:

Carlos lost his watch while he was running.

The past progressive can express incomplete action.

I was sleeping on the couch when Bertie smashed through the door.

(as opposed to the simple past, which suggests a completed action:

I slept on the couch last night.

The past progressive is also used to poke fun at or criticize an action that is sporadic but habitual in nature:

Tashonda was always handing in late papers. My father was always lecturing my brother.

Singular

Plural we were walking you were walking they were walking

I was walking you were walking he/she/it was walking

Singular I was sleeping you were sleeping he/she/it was sleeping

Plural we were sleeping you were sleeping they were sleeping

Singular I was being you were being he/she/it was being

Plural we were being you were being they were being

Dad was working in his garden all morning. During the mid-50s, real estate speculators were buying all the swampland in Central Florida, and innocent people were investing all their money in bogus development projects. Was he being good to you? The FUTURE PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates continuing action, something that will be happening, going on, at some point in the future. This tense is formed with the modal "will" plus "be," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I will be running in next year's Boston Marathon. Our campaign plans suggest that the President will be winning the southern vote by November. " Generally, progressive forms occur only with what are called dynamic verbs and not with stative verbs. If you wish to review that concept now, click HERE.

Singular I will be walking you will be walking he/she/it will be walking

Plural we will be walking you will be walking they will be walking

Singular I will be sleeping you will be sleeping he/she/it will be sleeping

Plural we will be sleeping you will be sleeping they will be sleeping

Singular

Plural

There is no future progressive for the "to be" verb. "Will be being" is expressed simply as "will be": "We will be being happy." By this time tomorrow night, I will be sleeping in my own bed. Next fall, we will be enjoying all the vegetables we planted last spring. Will we be spending too much money if we buy that big-screen TV? The PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates a continuous action that has been finished at some point in the past or that was initiated in the past and continues to happen. The action is usually of limited duration and has some current relevance: "She has been running and her heart

is still beating fast." The present perfect progressive frequently is used to describe an event of the recent past; it is often accompanied by just in this usage: "It has just been raining." This tense is formed with the modal "HAVE" or "HAS" (for third-person singular subjects) plus "BEEN," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "Ihave been working in the garden all morning. George has been painting that house for as long as I can remember." Singular I have been walking you have been walking he/she/it has been walking Plural we have been walking you have been walking they have been walking

Singular I have been sleeping you have been sleeping he/she/it has been sleeping

Plural we have been sleeping you have been sleeping they have been sleeping

Singular

Plural

There is no present perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Have been being" is expressed simply as "have been": "We have been being successful in the past." Maria has been writing her dissertation for the last six years[, but she finished yesterday]. The Redsox have been losing games since the All-Star break [and they continue to do so]. Have we been telling the truth to consumers about tobacco? Haven't we been lying to teenagers about smoking? The PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates a continuous action that was completed at some point in the past. This tense is formed with the modal "HAD" plus "BEEN," plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "I had been working in the garden all morning. George had been painting his house for weeks, but he finally gave up." ingular I had been walking you had been walking he/she/it had been walking Plural we had been walking you had been walking they had been walking

Singular I had been sleeping you had been sleeping he/she/it had been sleeping

Plural we had been sleeping you had been sleeping they had been sleeping

Singular

Plural

There is no past perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Had been being" is expressed simply as "had been": "We had been being successful before, but we somehow lost our knack." Hemingway had been losing his self-confidence for years before the publication of Old Man and the Sea. Had they been cheating on the exams before the school put monitors in the classroom?

The FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE TENSE indicates a continuous action that will be completed at some point in the future. This tense is formed with the modal "WILL" plus the modal "HAVE" plus "BEEN" plus the present participle of the verb (with an -ing ending): "Next Thursday, I will have been working on this project for three years." Singular I will have been walking you will have been walking he/she/it will have been walking Plural we will have been walking you will have been walking they will have been walking

Singular I will have been sleeping you will have been sleeping he/she/it will have been sleeping

Plural we will have been sleeping you will have been sleeping they will have been sleeping

Singular

Plural

There is no future perfect progressive for the "to be" verb. "Will have been being" is expressed simply as "will have been": "By this time next year we will have been being on this committee for a decade." By the time he finishes this semester, Gesualdo will have been studying nothing but parasites for four years. Will they have been testing these materials in the lab before we even get there? Modal Verbs And Their Meaning

What are modal verbs? Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special verbs which behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like "work, play, visit..." They are used to indicate modality. They give additional information about thefunction of the main verb that follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions. Use of modal verbs: Modal verbs are used to express functions such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Remember Modal verbs are followed by an infinitive without "to" Permission Ability Obligation Prohibition Lack of necessity Advice possibility probability

Examples:

Exception:

You must stop when the traffic lights turn red You should see to the doctor There are a lot of tomatoes in the fridge. You need not buy any.

A list of modals

You ought to go to the doctor

Here is a list of modals:

Modal Verb to have to must

Meaning

Expressing 100 % obligation logical conclusion (deduction) prohibition ability permission possibility ability in the past

Example I must stop when the traffic lights turn red. He must be very tired after such enormous work You must not smoke in the hospital. I can swim Can I use your phone please? Smoking can cause cancer ! When I was younger I could stay up all night and not get tired..

to be very probable must not not to be allowed to to be able to can to be allowed to it is possible to be able to could

to be allowed to it is possible to be allowed to

more polite permission possibility permission possibility, probability more polite permission weak possibility, probability

Excuse me, could I just say something? It could rain tomorrow! May I use your phone please? It may rain tomorrow! Might I use your phone please? I might come and visit you in America next year, if I can save enough money.

may it is possible, probable to be allowed to might it is possible, probable

need need not

necessary not necessary

necessity lack of necessity/absence of obligation

Need I say more? I need not buy any tomatoes. There are plenty in the fridge. I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.

used to say or ask what is the correct or best thing to do should/ought to to suggest an action or to show that it is necessary to be very probable

50 % obligation

advice

You should / ought to revise your lessons

logical conclusion (deduction)

He should / ought to be very tired after such enormous work

had better

to suggest an action or to show that it is

advice

You 'd better revise your lessons

necessary Wish and If only

Wish and If only Wish and If only are both used to talk about regrets things that we would like to change either about the past or the present. Talking about the present

If only I didnt have so much homework I could go to the concert tonight. She has a lot of homework and she cant go to the concert. I wish you didnt live so far away. I wish I knew what to do. When we talk about present regrets, both wish and if only are followed by the past simple tense. The past tense emphasises that we are talking about something unreal. Talking about the past

I wish Id studied harder when I was at school. He didnt study harder when he was at school. I wish I hadnt eaten all that chocolate. I feel sick. If only Id known you were coming. Both wish and if only are followed by the past perfect tense when we talk about past regrets. Wish/if only and would We use wish + would to talk about something in the present that we would like to change usually something that we find annoying.

I wish you wouldnt borrow my clothes without asking. I wish it would rain. The garden really needs some water. I wish youd give up smoking. its really bad for you. Use of I wish / if only: There are three distinct types of I wish / if only sentences: 1. 2. 3. Wish, wanting change for the present or future with the simple past. Regret with the past perfect. Complaints with would + verb.

Expressing a wish: Form: If only / I wish + simple past

Example: If only I knew how to use a computer. (I dont know how to use a computer and I would like to learn how to use it) Use:

To express a wish in the present or in the future. The simple past here is an unreal past. When you use the verb to be the form is were. Example: I wish I were a millionaire!

Expressing regret: Form: If only / I wish + past perfect

Example: If only I had woken up early. (I didn't wake up early and I missed my bus.) Use:

To express a regret. The action is past.

Complaining: Form: I wish / if only + would + verb

Example: I wish you wouldn't arrive so late all the time (I'm annoyed because you always come late and I want you to arrive on time) Use:

To complain about a behavior that you disapprove. Expressing impatience, annoyance or dissatisfaction with a present action.

ACTIVE / PASSIVE VOICE Active voice In most English sentences with an action verb, the subject performs the action denoted by the verb. These examples show that the subject is doing the verb's action.

Because the subject does or "acts upon" the verb in such sentences, the sentences are said to be in the active voice.

Passive voice One can change the normal word order of many active sentences (those with a direct object) so that the subject is no longer active, but is, instead, being acted upon by the verb - or passive. Note in these examples how the subject-verb relationship has changed.

Because the subject is being "acted upon" (or is passive), such sentences are said to be in the passive voice. NOTE: Colorful parrots live in the rainforests cannot be changed to passive voice because the sentence does not have a direct object. To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following: 1. Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot

2. Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the preposition by

3. Add a form of the auxiliary verb be to the main verb and change the main verb's form

Because passive voice sentences necessarily add words and change the normal doer-action-receiver of action direction, they may make the reader work harder to understand the intended meaning. As the examples below illustrate, a sentence in active voice flows more smoothly and is easier to understand than the same sentence in passive voice.

It is generally preferable to use the ACTIVE voice.

To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence, simply reverse the steps shown above. 1. Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence's direct object slot

2. Remove the auxiliary verb be from the main verb and change main verb's form if needed

3. Place the passive sentence's object of the preposition by into the subject slot.

Because it is more direct, most writers prefer to use the active voice whenever possible. The passive voice may be a better choice, however, when

the doer of the action is unknown, unwanted, or unneeded in the sentence Examples

the writer wishes to emphasize the action of the sentence rather than the doer of the action Examples

the writer wishes to use passive voice for sentence variety.

Reported Speech Examples Example:

Direct Speech: Sita said "I am not well" Reported Speech: Sita said that she was not well.

We must remember the following rules: 1) Inverted commas are not used in reported speech. 2) That is used when you are changing a statement into direct speech. Example: Back to Top

Direct Speech: Ram said, "I come to school everyday". Reported speech: Ram said that he came to school everyday.

3) When changing an interrogative sentence that is not used. If the question does not begin with an interrogative word (what, who) use of 'if' or 'whether' is required.

Example: Back to Top

Direct Speech: "Have you finished your physics notes?" Ram asked Shyam. Reported speech: Ram asked Shyam if/whether he had finished his physics notes. Direct Speech: "Will you listen to me?" asked his mother. Reported speech: His mother asked him if he would listen to her. Direct speech: "Should I go home?" wondered the boy. Reported speech: The boy wondered whether he should go home. Direct speech: "Can you come?" she asked. Reported speech: She asked if he could come.

Direct speech: "Is this yours?" she asked. Reported speech: She asked if that was hers.

Example:

4) Simple Past tense changes to past perfect when we change direct to indirect/reported speech.

Back to Top

Direct speech: Umang said, "I went to school yesterday". Reported speech: Umang said that he had gone to school the previous day. Direct speech: Meera asked him, "Can you come?" Reported speech: Meera asked him if he could come. Direct speech: "I drink water after every meal" said the man. Reported speech: The man said that he drank water after every meal.

5) Present perfect becomes past perfect in reported speech.

Direct speech: Arpitha said, "The bell has rung" Reported speech: Arpitha said that the ball had rung. Direct speech: The teacher said, " I have a headache." Reported speech: The teacher said that she had a headache.

Auxiliary Verbs Exercises on Auxiliary Verbs Auxiliary Verbs are the verbs be, do, have, will when they are followed by another verb (the full verb) in order to form a question, a negative sentence, a compound tense or the passive. The verb "be" The verb be can be used as an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb for compound tenses and the passive voice. Note that be is an irregular verb: Simple Present: I am, he/she/it is, we/you/they are Simple Past: I/he/she/it was, we/you/they were Past Participle: been

You can tell that in the following sentences be is an auxiliary because it is followed by another verb (the full verb). (For progressive forms use the "-ing" form of the full verb; for passive voice, use the past participle of the full verb.) Progressive Forms Present Progressive: He is playing football. Past Progressive: He was playing football. Present Perfect Progressive: He has been playing football. Past Perfect Progressive: He had been playing football. Passive Simple Present/Past: The house is/was built. Present/Past Perfect: The house has/had been built. Future I: The house will be built. "be" as a full verb The verb be can also be a full verb. In this case, it's not followed by another verb. If be is used as a full verb, we do not need an auxiliary in negative sentences or questions. positive sentence: They are fifteen years old. negative sentence: They are not fifteen years old. question: Are they fifteen years old? The verb "have" The verb have, too, can be used both as an auxiliary and as a full verb. As an auxiliary we use this verb to form compound tenses in active and passive voice. (Use the past participle of the full verb.) Compound Tenses - Active Voice Present Perfect Simple: He has played football. Past Perfect Simple: He had played football. Present Perfect Progressive: He has been playing football. Past Perfect Progressive: He had been playing football. Compound Tenses - Passive Voice Present/Past Perfect: The house has/had been built.

Note that have is an irregular verb, too: Simple Present: I/we/you/they have, he/she/it has Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they had Past Participle: had "have" in positive sentences As a full verb have indicates possession. In British English, however, we usually use have got (have being the auxiliary, got the full verb). full verb: I have a car. auxiliary verb: I have got a car. "have" in negative sentences and questions When we use have as a full verb, we must use the auxiliary do in negative sentences and questions. If we use have got, however, we do not need another auxiliary. have as a full verb: I do not have a car. Do I have a car? have as an auxiliary verb: I have not got a car. Have I got a car? The verb "will" The verb will can only be used as an auxiliary. We use it to form the future tenses. The auxiliary verb "will" Future I: He will not play football. Future II: He will have played football. The verb will remains the same for all forms (no "s" for 3rd person singular). The short form for negative sentences is won't.' Examples: I will, he will I will not = I won't The verb "do" The verb do can be both an auxiliary and a full verb. As an auxiliary we use do in negative sentences and questions for most verbs (except not for be, will,have got and modal verbs) in Simple Present and Simple Past. (Use the infinitive of the full verb.) The auxiliary "do" in negative sentences Simple Present:

He does not play football. Simple Past: He did not play football. The auxiliary "do" in questions Simple Present: Does he play football? Simple Past: Did he play football? The verb do is irregular: Simple Present: I/we/you/they do, he/she/it does Simple Past: I/he/she/it/we/you/they did The full verb "do" As a full verb we use do in certain expressions. If we want to form negative sentences or questions using do as a full verb, we need another do as an auxiliary. positive sentence: She does her homework every day. negative sentence: She doesn't do her homework every day. question: Does she do her homework every day? Sentences without the auxiliary "do" In the following cases, the auxiliary do is not used in negative sentences/questions: the full verb is "be" Example: I am not angry. / Are you okay? the sentence already contains another auxiliary (e.g. have, be, will) Example: They are not sleeping. / Have you heard that? the sentence contains a modal verb (can, may, must, need, ought to, shall, should) Example: We need not wait. / Can you repeat that, please? the question asks for the subject of the sentence Example: Who sings that song Nouns and Articles

Nouns are words that are names of people, places, things, concepts,. In sentences, nouns are subjects of verbs, objects of verbs, subject complements, and objects of prepositions. Nouns are often preceded by determiners (see det in Correction Symbols Two). The articles (a, an, the) are important determiners. Note the noun teacher in the following sentences: The teacher is talking to the class. (subject of verb) The students are watching the teacher. (object of verb) John is a teacher. (subject complement) George gave his essay to the teacher. (object of preposition)

A. There are two types of nouns. 1. Proper nouns include names of particular people, countries, states, cities, schools, rivers, lakes, mountains, oceans, languages, months, days,. They always begin with capital letters. Here are some examples: John Fleming English De Anza College Cupertino California United States Tuesday July 2. All others are common nouns. Here are some examples: man language school city state country day month

B. There are two types of common nouns. 1. Count nouns have plural forms. Most count nouns have both singular and plural forms, but a few have plural forms only: people police clothes 2. Noncount nouns have singular forms only: advice furniture information

3. Note that many noncount nouns are often used as count nouns. This is especially true of nouns that refer to things we eat and drink: coffee food fruit meat When a noncount noun is used as a plural count noun, it usually means one of the following: a. Containers two coffees, for example, can mean two cups of coffee b. Kinds several fruits, for example, can mean several kinds of fruit 4. Here are some common noncount nouns: FOOD, DRINKS: beer, bread, butter, cereal, cheese, coffee, corn, cream, flour, food, fruit, honey, ice cream, juice, margarine, meat, milk, pasta, pepper, rice, salt, spaghetti, sugar, tea, vinegar, water, wheat ABSTRACT NOUNS, EMOTIONS: advice, beauty, behavior, crime, equality, experience, freedom, fun, happiness, hate, health, help, homework, honesty, ignorance, information, insanity, insurance, love, news, patience, peace, permission, progress, unemployment, work LANGUAGES, FIELDS OF STUDY: accounting, biology, Chinese, engineering, English, geography, history, Indonesian, linguistics, literature, mathematics, music, philosophy, physics, psychology, Russian, Spanish, Turkish CATEGORIES: baggage, cloth, clothing, equipment, food, fruit, furniture, homework, jewelry, junk, luggage, machinery, mail, money, stuff, transportation, trash WEATHER, NATURAL PHENOMENA: cold, darkness, electricity, fire, fog, hail, heat, humidity, ice, lightning, rain, sleet, snow, sunshine, thunder, weather, wind SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, GASES, POWDERS, GRAINS, CLOTH: air, beer, blood, cereal, chalk, coal, copper, corn, cotton, cream, detergent, dust, flour, fog, gasoline, glass, honey, hydrogen, ice, iron, juice, leather, lotion, milk, nylon, oil, oxygen, pepper, pollution , polyester, rice, rope, salt, shampoo, silk, smog, smoke, soap, steam, string, sugar, thread, vinegar, water, wheat, wine, wood, wool

C. Nouns can have three kinds of meaning. 1. Definite. A noun is definite when the writer and reader share information about the noun. Nouns can be definite for the following reasons: The noun has been mentioned before: An old man lived in a big house. The old man had three grandchildren who came to the big house every Saturday morning. A noun can be followed by a phrase or clause that makes it definite: the president of De Anza College the book that I bought yesterday The noun refers to something unique: the sun the moon The noun is definite because of its setting. In a classroom, for example, everyone will understand the same meaning for these nouns: the blackboard the teacher the clock

Nouns can be definite for members of groups. A group of classmates will understand the same meaning for the following nouns: the teacher the exam the textbook The noun phrase includes a superlative or ordinal number: the slowest writer the most difficult assignment the first page 2. Indefinite. A noun is indefinite when the writer and reader dont share information about the noun. 3. Generic. A noun is generic when it represents a whole class (not an individual or individuals). Generic meaning can be expressed in different ways (in D. below, the three sentences in which the noun bicycle is used generically all have the same meaning).

D. Uses of a, an, the, and no article 1. The definite article the is used with: A few proper nouns (names of canals, deserts, forests, oceans, rivers, seas; plural names of islands, lakes, and mountains; a few countries; ) The Mississippi River is the longest in the United States. Singular or plural count nouns (definite) The old man in the big house loved to see the children who came to visit. Noncount nouns (definite) Bicycles are excellent transportation. The coffee that I had this morning was not very good. Noncount nouns (generic) Singular count nouns (generic) Coffee is served in nearly all restaurants. The bicycle is excellent transportation. Plural count nouns (indefinite) 2. The indefinite articles a and an are used with: I talk to students every day. Singular count nouns (indefinite) Noncount nouns (indefinite) A man is sitting on the bench at the bus stop. I need information. Singular count nouns (generic) A bicycle is excellent transportation. 3. No Article (and no other determiner) is used with: Most proper nouns (definite) George and Fred both speak English. Plural count nouns (generic)

Gerunds and Infinitives

Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. They can follow adjectives and other verbs. Gerunds can also follow prepositions.

A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun formed from a verb by adding -ing. See also Nouns/Gerund. Not all words formed with -ing are gerunds.

An infinitive is to + the verb.

When a verb follows a verb it either takes the gerund or infinitive form.

Some verbs can take either the gerund or the infinitive with no loss of meaning.

For example:

With the verb start - "It started to rain." or "It started raining." Both sentences have the same meaning.

Sometimes the use of the gerund or infinitive changes the meaning of the sentence.

For example:

With the verb remember - "I remembered to do my homework". or "I remembered doing my homework."

In the first sentence (I remembered to do my homework), the person speaking remembered they had some homework first and then carried out the action and did it. In the second sentence (I remembered doing my homework.), the person speaking carried out the action (their homework) first and then remembered doing it.

Other verbs only take one or the other, unfortunately there is no rule as to which form the verb takes. The same is true when the verb follows an adjective.

The best way to learn their correct use is with practice - these lists may help:-

List of verbs which are normally followed by the gerund - with some examples.

List of verbs which are normally followed by the infinitive - with some examples.

List of verbs which can be followed by the gerund or infinitive - with some examples.

Gerunds after Prepositions

When a verb is used after a preposition the verb takes the -ing form.

For example:-

You can't make an omelette without breaking eggs. DETERMINERS PAGE 2/3

Pronouns and Determiners

There is considerable overlap between the determiner class and the subclass of pronouns. Many words can be both:

Pronoun

Determiner

This is a very boring book This book is very boring That's an excellent film That film is excellent

As this table shows, determiners always come before a noun, but pronouns are more independent than this. They function in much the same way as nouns, and they can be replaced by nouns in the sentences above:

This is a very boring book ~Ivanhoe is a very boring book That's an excellent film ~Witness is an excellent film

On the other hand, when these words are determiners, they cannot be replaced by nouns:

This book is very boring ~*Ivanhoe book is very boring That film is excellent ~*Witness film is excellent

The personal pronouns (I, you, he, etc) cannot be determiners. This is also true of the possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his/hers, ours, andtheirs). However, these pronouns do have corresponding forms which are determiners:

Possessive Pronoun The white car is mine Yours is the blue coat The car in the garage is his/hers David's house is big, but ours is bigger Theirs is the house on the left My car is white

Determiner

Your coat is blue His/her car is in the garage Our house is bigger than David's Their house is on the left

The definite and the indefinite articles can never be pronouns. They are always determiners. T h e R e l a t i v e C l a u s e

Recognize a relative clause when you see one. A relative clausealso called an adjective or adjectival clausewill meet three requirements.

First, it will contain a subject and verb. Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or arelative adverb [when, where, or why]. Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? orWhich one?

The relative clause will follow one of these two patterns:

RELATIVE PRONOUN OR ADVERB

SUBJECT

VERB

RELATIVE PRONOUN AS SUBJECT

VERB

Here are some examples:

Which Francine did not accept Which = relative pronoun; Francine = subject; did accept = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb].

Where George found Amazing Spider-Man #96 in fair condition Where = relative adverb; George = subject; found = verb.

That dangled from the one clean bathroom towel That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; dangled = verb.

Who continued to play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; played = verb.

Avoid creating a sentence fragment. A relative clause does not express a complete thought, so it cannot stand alone as a sentence. To avoid writing a fragment, you must connect each relative clause to a main clause. Read the examples below. Notice that the relative clause follows the word that it describes.

To calm his angry girlfriend, Joey offered an apology which Francine did not accept .

We tried our luck at the same flea market where George found Amazing Spider -Man #96 in fair condition .

Michelle screamed when she saw the spid er that dangled from the one clean bathroom towel .

Brian said goodnight to his roommate Justin, who continued to play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue .

Punctuate a relative clause correctly. Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. For each sentence, you will have to decide if the relative clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly. Essential clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example:

The children who skateboard in the street are especially noisy in the early evening. Children is nonspecific. To know which ones we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas. If, however, we eliminate children and choose more specific nouns instead, the relative clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision:

Matthew and his sister Loretta , who skateboard in the street, are especially noisy i n the early evening.

Adjectives and Adverbs

More Grammar Rules:

Definitions: Adjectives are words that describe nouns or pronouns. They may come before the word they describe (That is a cute puppy.) or they may follow the word they describe (That puppy is cute.). Adverbs are words that modify everything but nouns and pronouns. They modify adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs. A word is an adverb if it answers how, when, or where. The only adverbs that cause grammatical problems are those that answer the question how, so focus on these. Rule 1 Generally, if a word answers the question how, it is an adverb. If it can have an -ly added to it, place it there. Examples: She thinks slow/slowly. She thinks how? slowly. She is a slow/slowly thinker. Slow does not answer how, so no -ly is attached. Slow is an adjective here. She thinks fast/fastly. Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fast never has an -ly attached to it. We performed bad/badly. Badly describes how we performed. Rule 2 A special -ly rule applies when four of the senses - taste, smell, look, feel - are the verbs. Do not ask if these senses answer the question how to determine if -ly should be attached. Instead, ask if the sense verb is being used actively. If so, use the -ly. Examples: Roses smell sweet/sweetly. Do the roses actively smell with noses? No, so no -ly. The woman looked angry/angrily. Did the woman actively look with eyes or are we describing her appearance? We are only describing appearance, so no -ly. The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches. Here the woman did actively look with eyes, so the -ly is added. She feels bad/badly about the news. She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly. Good vs. Well Rule 3 The word good is an adjective, while well is an adverb. Examples: You did a good job. Good describes the job. You did the job well. Well answers how. You smell good today. Describes your odor, not how you smell with your nose, so follow with the adjective. You smell well for someone with a cold. You are actively smelling with a nose here, so follow with the adverb. Rule 4 When referring to health, use well rather than good. Example: I do not feel well. You do not look well today. Note: You may use good with feel when you are not referring to health. Example: I feel good about my decision to learn Spanish. Rule 5 A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form for comparison. For instance, to describe one thing we would say poor, as in, "She is poor." To compare two things, we should say poorer, as in, "She is the poorer of the two women." To compare more than two things, we should say poorest, as in, "She is the poorest of them all." Examples: One sweet bad Two sweeter worse Three or More sweetest worst

efficient*

more efficient*

most efficient*

*Usually with words of three or more syllables, don't add -er or -est. Use more or most in front of the words. Rule 6 Never drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparison form. Correct: She spoke quickly. She spoke more quickly than he did. Incorrect: She spoke quicker than he did. Correct: Talk quietly. Talk more quietly. Incorrect: Talk quieter. Rule 7 When this, that, these, and those are followed by nouns, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns. Examples: This house is for sale. This is an adjective here. This is for sale. This is a pronoun here. Rule 8 This and that are singular, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns. Thispoints to something nearby while that points to something "over there." Examples: This dog is mine. That dog is hers. This is mine. That is hers. Rule 9 These and those are plural, whether they are being used as adjectives or as pronouns.These points to something nearby while those points to something "over there." Examples: These babies have been smiling for a long time. These are mine. Those babies have been crying for hours. Those are yours. Rule 10 Use than to show comparison. Use then to answer the question when. Examples: I would rather go skiing than rock climbing. First we went skiing; then we went rock climbing. CONJUNCTIONS and PREPOSITIONS Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, or clauses and Prepositions are those connecting words that show the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words in a sentence. 1) CONJUNCTIONS - used in connecting words, phrases, or clauses: a) Coordinate Conjunctions such as and and but are placed next to the words and ideas they connect. Examples: He was strong in body and mind. She was strong mentally but not physically. b) Subordinate Conjunctions are used when one idea in a sentence is dependent upon another idea. The subordinate conjunction is used to connect the dependent with the main thought. Examples: to indicate concession (i.e. although, even if, though) Though some of the volunteers never showed, we still packed a great number of boxes. to show cause (i.e. now that, because, as, since) He was terminated because of his excessive absenteeism. to express a condition (i.e. if only, provided that, except that, unless) The whole project will be delayed unless that shipment arrives today. to indicate purpose (i.e. in order that, so that) He called in a replacement so that she could go home and get some rest.

c)

to fix a time (i.e. as long as, ever since, until, after, when, now that, before) Ever since we installed that new software, tracking our shipments is easier. Correlative Conjunctions are those used in pairs (i.e. neither/nor, either/or, not only/but also) and should be placed next to the words they connect. Examples: Either we meet the budget or downsizing will be the alternative. She is respected by neither her clients nor her colleagues. They not only finished the project on time but also came in below budget.

2)

PREPOSITIONS are used to show the relation of a noun or pronoun to another word in the sentence: Examples: The defendant was shocked by the verdict from the jury. (preposition by shows the relation of the noun verdict to the verb shocked.

Care must be taken with the use of prepositions. Often there is confusion using the following prepositions: at, with My colleagues were angry with me. (not at me) He was angry at the decisions being made. (not with the decisions) The contractor was impatient at the delays. (not with the delays) She was impatient with her children. (not at her children) among, between The proceeds were divided among the team members. (not between the team members) The proceeds were divided between the two participants. (not among the two participants) in, into Tommy ran in the gym. (within its walls) Tommy ran into the gym. (entered the gym) agreed to, on, with He agreed to the terms of the contract. (not agreed with the terms) The board members agreed on implementing a hiring freeze. (not agreed with implementing) She agreed with Tom to share in the responsibilities.

PREPOSITIONS: LOCATORS IN TIME AND PLACE

A preposition describes a relationship between other words in a sentence. In itself, a word like "in" or "after" is rather meaningless and hard to define in mere words. For instance, when you do try to define a preposition like "in" or "between" or "on," you invariably use your hands to show how something is situated in relationship to something else. Prepositions are nearly always combined with other words in structures called prepositional phrases. Prepositional phrases can be made up of a million different words, but they tend to be built the same: a preposition followed by a determiner and an adjective or two, followed by a pronoun or noun (called the object of the preposition). This whole phrase, in turn, takes on a modifying role, acting as an adjective or an adverb, locating something in time and space, modifying a noun, or telling when or where or under what conditions something happened. Consider the professor's desk and all the prepositional phrases we can use while talking about it. You can sit before the desk (or in front of the desk). The professor can sit on the desk (when he's being informal) or behind the desk, and then his feet are under the desk orbeneath the desk. He can stand beside the desk (meaning next to the desk), before the desk, between the desk and you, or even on the desk (if he's really strange). If he's clumsy, he can bump into the desk or try to walk through the desk (and stuff would fall off the desk). Passing his hands over the desk or resting his elbows upon the desk, he often looks across the desk and speaks of the desk or concerning the desk as if there were nothing else like the desk. Because he thinks of nothing except the desk, sometimes you wonder about the desk, what's in the desk, what he paid for the

desk, and if he could live without the desk. You can walk toward the desk, to the desk,around the desk, by the desk, and even past the desk while he sits at the desk or leans against the desk. All of this happens, of course, in time: during the class, before the class, until the class, throughout the class, after the class, etc. And the professor can sit there in a bad mood [another adverbial construction]. Those words in bold blue font are all prepositions. Some prepositions do other things besides locate in space or time "My brother is like my father." "Everyone in the class except me got the answer." but nearly all of them modify in one way or another. It is possible for a preposition phrase to act as a noun "During a church service is not a good time to discuss picnic plans" or "In the South Pacific is where I long to be" but this is seldom appropriate in formal or academic writing. Is it any wonder that prepositions create such troubles for students for whom English is a second language? We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital. We lie in bed but on the couch. We watch a film at the theater but on television. For native speakers, these little words present little difficulty, but try to learn another language, any other language, and you will quickly discover that prepositions are troublesome wherever you live and learn. This page contains some interesting (sometimes troublesome) prepositions with brief usage notes. To address all the potential difficulties with prepositions in idiomatic usage would require volumes, and the only way English language learners can begin to master the intricacies of preposition usage is through practice and paying close attention to speech and the written word. Keeping a good dictionary close at hand ( to hand?) is an important first step. Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in We use at for specific addresses. We use at to designate specific times. The train is due at 12:15 p.m. We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc. We use on to designate days and dates. My brother is coming on Monday. We're having a party on the Fourth of July. We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year. She likes to jog in the morning. It's too cold in winter to run outside. He started the job in 1971. He's going to quit in August. And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents). She lives in Durham. Durham is in Windham County. Windham County is in Connecticut. Her house is on Boretz Road. Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No Preposition IN (the) bed* the bedroom the car (the) class* the library* school* AT class* home the library* the office school* work ON the bed* the ceiling the floor the horse the plane the train NO PREPOSITION downstairs downtown inside outside upstairs uptown

* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition

We use to in order to express movement toward a place. They were driving to work together. She's going to the dentist's office this morning. Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use whichever sounds better to you. We're moving toward the light. This is a big step towards the project's completion. With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition. Grandma went upstairs Grandpa went home. They both went outside. Prepositions of Time: for and since We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years). He held his breath for seven minutes. She's lived there for seven years. The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries. We use since with a specific date or time. He's worked here since 1970. She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty. Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs. Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS approval of awareness of belief in concern for confusion about desire for fondness for grasp of hatred of hope for interest in love of need for participation in reason for respect for success in understanding of

ask about ask for belong to bring up care for find out

grow up look for look forward to look up make up pay for

study for talk about think about trust in work for worry about

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS afraid of angry at aware of capable of careless about familiar with fond of happy about interested in jealous of made of married to proud of similar to sorry for sure of tired of worried about

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS apologize for give up prepare for

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation. In everyday speech, we fall into some bad habits, using prepositions where they are not necessary. It would be a good idea to eliminate these words altogether, but we must be especially careful not to use them in formal, academic prose.

Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions

agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition compare to to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities) correspond to a thing, with a person differ from an unlike thing, with a person live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people

She met up with the new coach in the hallway. The book fell off of the desk. He threw the book out of the window. She wouldn't let the cat inside of the house. [or use "in"] Where did they go to? Put the lamp in back of the couch. [use "behind" instead] Where is your college at?

Unnecessary Prepositions Prepositions in Parallel Form

(Click HERE for a definition and discussion of parallelism.) When two words or phrases are used in parallel and require the same preposition to be idiomatically correct, the preposition does not have to be used twice. You can wear that outfit in summer and in winter. The female was both attracted by and distracted by the male's dance. However, when the idiomatic use of phrases calls for different prepositions, we must be careful not to omit one of them. The children were interested in and disgusted by the movie. It was clear that this player could both contribute to and learn from every game he played. He was fascinated by and enamored of this beguiling woman.

Phrasal Verbs List Phrasal verbs are usually two-word phrases consisting of verb + adverb or verb + preposition. Think of them as you would any other English vocabulary. Study them as you come across them, rather than trying to memorize many at once. Use the list below as a reference guide when you find an expression that you don't recognize. The examples will help you understand the meanings. If you think of each phrasal verb as a separate verb with a specific meaning, you will be able to remember it more easily. Like many other verbs, phrasal verbs often have more than one meaning. This list shows about 200 common phrasal verbs, with meanings and examples. Only the most usual meanings are given. Some phrasal verbs may have additional meanings. As well as learning their meanings, you need to learn how to use phrasal verbs properly. Some phrasal verbs require a direct object (someone/something), while others do not. Some phrasal verbs can be separated by the object, while others cannot. Review this phrasal verbs grammar from time to time so that you don't forget the rules!

Verb

Meaning

Example

ask someone out

invite on a date

Brian asked Judy out to dinner and a movie.

ask around

ask many people the same question

I asked around but nobody has seen my wallet.

add up to something

equal

Your purchases add up to $205.32.

back something up

reverse

You'll have to back up your car so that I can get out.

back someone up

support

My wife backed me up over my decision to quit my job.

blow up

explode

The racing car blew up after it crashed into the fence.

blow something up

add air

We have to blow 50 balloons up for the party.

break down

stop functioning (vehicle, machine)

Our car broke down at the side of the highway in the snowstorm.

break down

get upset

The woman broke down when the police told her that her son had died.

break somethingdown

divide into smaller parts

Our teacher broke the final project downinto three separate parts.

break in

force entry to a building

Somebody broke in last night and stole our stereo.

break into something

enter forcibly

The firemen had to break into the room to rescue the children.

break something in

wear something a few times so that it doesn't look/feel new

I need to break these shoes in before we run next week.

break in

interrupt

The TV station broke in to report the news of the president's death.

break up

end a relationship

My boyfriend and I broke up before I moved to America.

break up

start laughing (informal)

The kids just broke up as soon as the clown started talking.

break out

escape

The prisoners broke out of jail when the guards weren't looking.

break out insomething

develop a skin condition

I broke out in a rash after our camping trip.

bring someone down

make unhappy

This sad music is bringing me down.

bring someone up

raise a child

My grandparents brought me up after my parents died.

bring something up

start talking about a subject

My mother walks out of the room when my father brings up sports.