THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEMINTAMILNADU (SOUTHINDIA)

By C. J. Fuller ancient lunisolar calendar of the Hindus is still widely used in India, are lunar and the especially for ritual purposes. In most of India, months lunar and solar years (12 lunar months discrepancy between equal approxi mately 354 days) is resolved by the periodic addition of an intercalary month into the year. However, in Tamilnadu, Kerala and eastern India (Bengal, Orissa are solar, but because the lunar calendar is also used, and Assam), months arise which are absent in areas employing only the lunar calendar. complications The aim of this paper is to describe the calendrical system currently in use in Tamilnadu and to explain the basic principles of the Tamil almanacs. While conducting research in the Great Temple at Madurai, a &aivite temple dedicated to the goddess Mlnaksl and her husband Sundaresvara (a form of Siva),1 I found that a knowledge of the Tamil calendrical system was vital to an under standing of the temple's ritual cycle, and it seems clear that such a knowledge would be equally vital for almost any research into temple or domestic ritual in Tamilnadu. This paper is partly intended to save other researchers the difficulties encountered by the author in his attempts to grasp the Tamil calendrical system and learn how to read the almanacs. However, I hope itwill also prove useful to
others requiring a basic understanding of the astronomical and calendrical

The

systems, which is, for example, often useful in the study of Hindu mythology ? a and, of course, indispensable in the field of astrology topic which I do not, in discuss detail here. I the that however, paper may be relevant too for hope research elsewhere in India, particularly Kerala and the eastern states. Some of the information I provide is available in the outlines of classical Hindu astronomy and calendrical systems by Filliozat and Kane and the brief summary by Basham. Useful information is also to be found in the older, though inaccessible, works of Sewell and Dikshit, and Pillai. None of these sources, however, is sufficiently detailed to be directly useful to a researcher requiring a practical understanding of the Tamil system.2 In the paper, terms are given in their Tamil forms, as it is necessary to know these to consult the Tamil almanacs, although their Sanskrit equivalents are also supplied.3 The names of gods, however, are usually given in their more readily recognisable Sanskrit forms. All Hindu astronomical and calendrical systems are based on a geocentric universe. There are believed to be nine planets (navakkirakam; Skt. navagraha) orbiting the Earth, and the days of the week are named after the first seven of them (see Table 1). These days are considered to be "ruled" by their respective planets. rather

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM IN TAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA) TABLE 1: THE PLANETS AND THE DAYS OF THEWEEK
Plane 1. Sun: 2. Moon: 3. Mars: 4. Mercury: 5. Jupiter: 6. Venus: 7. 8. Saturn: rahu curiyan,ravi cantiran cevvay, putan (surya,ravi) (candra, soma) (marigala) Sunday: Monday: Tuesday: Wednesday: Thursday: Friday: t Day of week *

53

nayiru titikal cevvay

(ravi) (soma) (mangala) (budha)

kujan

(budha) viyajan, kuru (guru, brhaspati) (sukra) velli, cukkiran cani (sani)

putan

viyalan (brhaspati) velli (sukra) card (sani)

Saturday:

(rahu) (ketu) names not are in parentheses; in the Table. most *A of the planets meaning and days have alternative vara 'day' (Tarn.), kijamai to the rules of consonantal (according

9. ketu Sanskrit names (Skt.) -

included is added

suffix

to the names

in this column

combination).

Rahu and ketu, equivalent to the ascending and descending nodes of the Moon respectively, aremythical planets believed to cause eclipses by "swallowing" the Sun and the Moon as they move around the Earth in the opposite direction to the other planets (some of which, however, have occasional brief retro gressions). All the planets are regarded as divine and in all large Tamil temples there is a shrine containing their images. They are worshipped by individuals mainly to propitiate them, especially the malevolent Saturn. The ecliptical zone, through which the planets appear to move around the Earth, is segmented in two different ways. The first of these is the segmentation into twelve rdcis3 (Skt. rasi, "house"), by reference to the zodiacal constellations similarly employed inWestern astronomy. The second is the segmentation into
twenty-seven to a separate naksattirams set of (Skt.naksatra, constellations which "star" are or "lunar also by reference asterism"), to as naksattirams* referred

like
Moon.

the planets,

the naksattirams

are also regarded as divine ? the wives of the

The Tamil solar month begins when the Sun moves from one rdci to another (a passage termed cahkiranti; Skt. sahkranti). If this passage occurs before if after sunset, then the day of its occurrence is the first day of the month; sunset, the following day is the first of the month. In Table 2, the names of the rdcis and their equivalent Tamil months are given. (The meanings of the Latin zodiacal names and the rdcis are almost identical, except that makaram ? cf. is a mythical that Indian Capricorn fish.) It should be noted, however, astronomers have not accounted for the equinoctial precession in the same as moves a Western the and Sun into astronomers, way particular rdci in the three weeks after itmoves into the same Indian (sidereal) system approximately house in the Western (tropical) system.5 Tamil months last from 29 to 32 days and the same month may differ in length in different years.

54

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM IN TAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA) TABLE 2: THE RACIS AND THE TAMIL MONTHS
Raci 1. Aries: 2. Taurus: 3. Gemini: 4. Cancer: 5. Leo: 6. Virgo: 1. Libra: 8. 9. 10. Scorpio: Sagittarius: Capricorn: mesam (mesa) (vrsabha) (mithuna) (karka) April-May: May-June: June-July: July-August: August-September: September-October: October-November: (vrscika) (dhanus) (makara) November-December: December-January: January-February: February-March: March-April: pahkuni Month cittirai vaikdci ani ati avani purattaci aippaci karttikai mdrkali tai mdci

risapam mitunam simham kanni tuldm

karkkatakarh (sirnha) (kanya)

(tula) viruccikam tanucu makaram

11. Aquarius: (kumbhd) kumpam 12. Pisces: minam (mind) Sanskrit names of racis in parentheses.

TABLE 3: THENAKSATTIRAMS
1. acuvani 2. parani 4. 6. rohini (asvinl) (bharani) 14. 15. 16. 17. cittirai cuvati vicakam anusam (citra) (svati) (visakha) (anuradha) (muld) (purvasddha) (uttardsddhd) (sravand) (dhanistha) (satabhisaf) (piirva-bhadrapadd) (uttara-bhadrapadd)

3. kdrttikai (krttika)
(rohini) 5. mirukacirusam tiruvatirai, (mrgasiras) aruttirai (ardra)

18. kettai (jyestha)

19. mulam 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. puratam uttiratam tiruvonam avittam catayam purattati uttirattati revflri

1. punarpucam (punarvasu) 8. pucam (pusya) 9. dyilyam 10. makam 12. 13. 11. puram uttiram hastam (dslesa) (magha) (purva-phalguhi) (uttara-phalgunl) (hasta)

(revati) have alternative

Sanskrit names not

names

included

in parentheses; in the Table.

some

of

the naksattirams

the rdcis are the most important segments of the Sun's orbit, the Although naksattirams are the crucial segments of the Moon's orbit. The Moon remains one day.6 The 27 naksattirams are within each naksattiram for approximately in in 3. order Table given The two systems of segmenting the ecliptical zone are congruent, each raci being equivalent to 2\ naksattirams or 9 pdtams (Skt. pdda), as one pdtam equals one quarter of the span of a naksattiram. Thus mesam raci corresponds to the to the last naksattirams acuvani, parani and the first pdtam of kdrttikai,risapam etc. three pdtams of karttikai, rohini and the first two pdtams of mirukacirusam, The synodical revolution of the Moon around the Earth (from Full-moon to to New-moon) defines the lunar month. Although the Full-moon or New-moon

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM IN TAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

55

Tamil calendar is not based on lunar months, many festivals are nonetheless fixed by these months and their units, the titis (Skt. tithi, "lunar day"). The lunar in South and Central India end on New-moon months day (amdnta system), whereas in North India they end on Full-moon day (pitrnimanta system).7 The names of the lunar months (Skt. names in parentheses) are: 1. caittiram (caitra), 2.vaicakam (va&dkha), Z.jesta (dsddhd), 5.cirdvanam (jyaistha), A.dsdtam l.dcuvTjam (dsvina), S.kdrttikam (iravana), 6.pattirapatam (bhddrapada), (karttika), 9. mdrkkaciram (margasTrsa), 10. pusyam (pausa), 11. mdkam (mdgha) and 12. pdlkunam (phdlguna). Within the year, they approximately correspond to the solar months cittirai to pahkuni. is made up of the "bright" fortnight, cukkilapaksam Each month (Skt. suklapaksa), which ends at Full-moon and the "dark" fortnight, kirusnapaksam (Skt. krsnapaksa), which ends at New-moon. Each fortnight is divided into 15 titis. The names of the first fourteen titis are forms of the Sanskrit words for "first", "second", etc.; Table 4 gives their names. TABLE 4: THE 77775
1. piratamai 2. tuvitiyai 3. 4. tiritiyai caturtti (pratipad) (dvitiya) (trtiya) (caturthi) 9. navami 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. tacami ekataci tuvataci tiriyotaci caturttaci (navami) (dasami) (ekddasi) (dvadasl) (trayodasi) (caturdasi) (purnimd) (amdvasya) titis have Full-moon New-moon names

5. pancami (pancami) 6. sasti (sasthi) 7. captami (saptami) 8. astami (astami) names in parentheses; in the Table.

15. paurnami amdvacai some of the

Sanskrit not

alternative

included

Two other units in the calendrical system are the yokam (Skt. yoga) and the karanam (Skt. karana). There are 27 yokams to the 27 corresponding naksattirams. The yokam is defined as the time during which the sum of the of the Sun and the Moon is equal to the angle subtended by angular movements
the "arc" of a naksattiram; it is thus an arithmetical, rather than an astronomical,

concept. There are 11 karanams, four "fixed" and seven "moveable". Each titi is divided into two karanams and thus a lunar month equals 60 karanams; the four "fixed" ones plus eight cycles of the seven "moveable" ones. I found neither of these units to be of great importance inmy research and further details of them are placed in a footnote.8 In the almanacs, times are recorded in traditional Hindu units, which Imust now outline. The day begins at sunrise and is divided into 60 ndlikai (Skt. nalika, nddikd, ghatt), themselves divided into 60 vindti (Skt. vinadT, paid). Thus 1 ndlikai = 24 minutes and 1 vindti = 24 seconds. Times recorded in the almanacs may be translated into standard time by converting the ndlikai and vindti into

56

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM IN TAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

hours, minutes and seconds and adding them to the time of sunrise. (A brief table of sunrise, midday and sunset in Indian Standard Time, i.e. 5^ hours ahead of G.M.T., is provided in the almanacs.) Unlike the Tamil almanacs, however, the Rashtriya Panchang records times in Indian Standard Time. The period of daylight (ahacu; Skt. ahas), i.e. sunrise to sunset, is also given for
each day.

The almanacs, known in Tamil as pancdhkam (Skt. pancdhga), derive their name from the "five items" which are recorded for each day. In order, these are the day of the week (tinam or ndl; Skt. vara), the titi, the naksattiram, the yokam and the karanam. The basic information in the almanacs is also printed on the Tamil wall calendars, and both of them emply a host of often inconsistent
abbreviations.9

The almanacs contain one page for each month, and these twelve pages contain most of the information to be discussed below. On the monthly pages, there is one entry for each day which records the day of the week, followed by the titi, naksattiram, yokam and karanam current at sunrise on that day, together with the times at which these phenomena end on that day. These data are crucial for the fixing of festivals, as I explain briefly below.10 On each monthly page is printed a cakkiram (Skt. cakra) on which is indi cated the position of the planets in the rdcis during the month. These cakkirams are drawn as squares, as in Diagram 1 which shows the rdcis in their invariable positions. In Diagram 2,1 show the cakkiram in a circular form with the Earth at the centre ? perhaps a more logical design to the Western eye. Each rdci, it will
be seen, subtends an angle of 30? and each naksattiram an angle of 13^?.

Diagram 3 reproduces the cakkiram for the month of cittirai in 1977. The Sun, is in mesam in cittirai, while the Moon is omitted because it will obviously, describe the entire orbit within the month. At the beginning of the month, the other seven planets were distributed between the rdcis as shown. In the centre of the cakkiram are given the dates on which these seven planets move from one rdci to another, although in any one month most of them will remain within the same rdci. At the foot of each monthly page are printed tables exact at dates and times which all the planets (except the Moon) showing the move from one pdtam to another during the month; they thus supply more detailed information than that in the cakkiram. The position of the planets in the rdcis is important in connection with determining auspicious times within the day (see below) and with predicting the fate of individuals from their
personal horoscopes.

The majority of festivals in Tamilnadu are fixed by the days on which par ticular titis or naksattirams are current, although a small number are fixed by the day of the week or date in the month. Most temple festivals, which are fixed by the temple's own tradition, and all purely Tamil festivals, whether in temples or homes, are fixed with reference to Tamil solar months. However,

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM INTAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

57

minam

mesam

nsapam

mitunam

/ _/

/A \/ \ mTnam ^n.

mesam \ \ ^s.

nsapam / /

/X mitunam \ \ karkkatakam

kumpam katakam /
simham \ makaram . ^^

kark-

I I

\. ,

kumpam

^s^ \

/ / ^

^s^

\'
,

, makaram /

^^

\\. \

^. /

simham

X
tanacu viruccikam , m --' X /\ \ /

tanacu /
/ n. \/ \ /

kanni
>/

jf

/ tulam \ viruccikam\s

1: The Diagram (as in pancdnkam)

racis

in

the

cakkiram (in

2: The Diagram circular form)

racis

in

the

cakkiram

non-Tamil festivals, including all-India festivals such asNavardtri orMahdsivardtri, are fixed by the lunar calendar, as they are throughout India. The Tamils them selves are mostly unaware that these latter festivals are fixed by lunar months. They explain their fixing with reference to their own months; for example, most Tamils state that Mahdsivardtri falls on caturttaci titi preceding New-moon day in mdci, whereas it correctly falls on caturttaci titi in the "dark" fortnight of the lunar month of mdka, in the amdnta system. In most years, the two formulae will give the same date, but occasionally the Tamil formula will supply the
wrong date.11

In the case of festivals fixed by the titi, determination of the correct day is not always simple. For many festivals, the correct day is the day on which the appropriate titi is current at the prescribed time for the ritual. For example, Krsna's birthday should be celebrated at midnight; hence the correct day in the "dark" fortnight of the lunar month of cirdvana is the one on which astami titi is current at midnight. However, unlike the &aivites and the Vaikhanasa sect of
Vaisnavites, always the determine Pancaratra the correct sect day of Vaisnavites, by the titi according current at to my sunrise. information, Hence Krsna's

birthday, for example, is frequently celebrated by the Vaikhanasas one day before the Pancaratras. This occurred in 1977; the relevant astami titi began during the morning of 20th dvani and ended during the morning of 21st dvani. The Vaikhanasas thus celebrated the birthday on the 20th and the Pancaratras on the 21st. For rituals for which there is no prescribed time, the correct day is the day on which the correct titi is current at a specified time during the afternoon; this titi is separately indicated in the almanacs. They also record days on which two

58

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM INTAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA) Skt. tithidvaya) and also the various titis which

titis are current (titituvayam;

are inauspicious.12

the correct day for a festival fixed by the naksattiram rarely Determining causes any problem, for this is always the one on which the relevant naksattiram is current at sunrise. From time to time, two naksattirams may end within one day, in which case the names of both and their ending times are given; some times one naksattiram is current throughout a whole day, in which case its name is followed by "60", i.e. 60 nalikai equal to one day. The naksattiram which determines the timing of many of the most important festivals, especially in the temples, is the one which, in any particular month, falls on or near to Full-moon day. To elucidate this further, we must consider briefly the relation between the rdci, titi and naksattiram. At the conjunction of the Sun and Moon at Full-moon, the two bodies must be in rdcis diametrically opposite to each other, as shown in Diagram 4. For example, in the month of the Sun is in mesam rdci and thus at Full-moon, the Moon must be in tuldm rdci, which is equivalent to the naksattirams cittirai (last two pdtams), cuvdti and vicdkam (first three pdtams). By tradition, however, one of the naksattirams which may coincide with Full-moon (paurnami titi) is specified as the significant one. Eight are specially significant: cittirai naksattiram in the month of cittirai, vicdkam in vaikdci, avittam in dvani, karttikai in kdrttikai, tiruvdtirai in mdrkali, pucam in tai, makam in maci and uttiram in pahkuni. All of these eight are important festival days for some or all Tamil possible Hindus.
are not

cittirai

The naksattirams
so important, and

coinciding with
there is confusion

Full-moon
about their

in the other four months

identity. My information,

which

might be correct, is that they are mulam purattdti in purattdci and acuvani in aippaci.13
I-.-1-.-, Venus Sun ketu Mercury Jupiter / S\. \

in ani,

tiruvonam

in dti,

SU*S#^---^ me?am >. \ j^.-^^

Saturn / / V\ \ Mars rahu \ \

EARTH
\\ / /

\^^
\

VMOON
tuldm Jy

Diagram

3: The

cakkiram

for month

of cittirai

Diagram 4: Conjunction at Full-moon (in cittirai) (1977)

of Sun and Moon

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM IN TAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

59

In each solar year, there are normally thirteen Full-moons and twelve New moons, or vice versa. If two Full-moons fall within one Tamil month, then a decision must be made about which is the more auspicious for holding a ritual fixed by the Full-moon or its corresponding naksattiram. A similar decision has to be taken about any other ritual for which there are two possible dates. In Vaisnavite temples, the rule is normally that the second of two possible dates is to be chosen, whereas in Saivite temples the astrologers decide which is the more auspicious by considering other astrological factors present on the two
days.

The almanac daily entry also indicates the yokams for the day in a second sense of this word. This yokam is defined by the combination of the day of the week and the naksattiram; there are three such yokams: amirtam (Skt. amrta), cittam (Skt. siddha) and maranam If, for example, acuvani (Skt. marana). naksattiram falls on a Sunday, it is cittam; on a Wednesday maranam; on a
Thursday amirtam. Amirtam and cittam are auspicious, but maranam is in

auspicious and a venture begun while it is current may be expected to fail. Also indicated is the tiyajiyam (Skt. tydjya), a fixed part of the period of a naksattiram which is inauspicious. Separate tables give the times of the rdhu kdlams (Skt. kdla) and the ema kantam (Skt. yama ghanta) ? periods deemed inauspicious by their associations with the planet rdhu and the "god of death", Yama. On each day, there are two rdhu kdlams (one in the daytime and one at night) and one ema kantam; the three periods always occur at the same time on the same day of the week, and each lasts l-? hours. No important ritual will begin during the highly inauspicious rdhu kdlams and very important rituals will also avoid the ema kantam. Other days deemed inauspicious for one reason or another are also indicated in the daily entry. So too are most of the important
domestic festivals to be celebrated throughout the year.

The final major item in the daily entry that Imust discuss is the data on the lakkinam (Skt. lagna). During each solar day, all the planets appear to complete one ecliptical revolution; this is, of course, the geocentric conception of the effect caused by the Earth's daily revolution on its axis. The Sun's daily revolu tion defines the units of time known as lakkinams, of which there are twelve corresponding to the racis and known by the same names. The Sun rises in the to the raci it occupies during that month; i.e. it is the lakkinam corresponding constellation of this raci which appears to lie on the eastern horizon at sunrise. After rising, the Sun then moves through the other eleven lakkinams in order and re-enters the original lakkinam shortly before sunrise on the next day. At the beginning of the month, the Sun rises at or very close to the start of the to the raci of the month, and thus moves through all lakkinam corresponding or almost all of this lakkinam after sunrise. The proportion of this lakkinam through which the Sun moves after rising decreases daily, until on the last day of the month, it rises at or very close to the end of this lakkinam, moving almost

60

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM INTAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

immediately into the lakkinam corresponding to the rdci of the subsequent month. In each daily entry is indicated the length of time from sunrise during which the Sun ismoving through the lakkinam corresponding to the rdci of the month. The twelve lakkinams are of unequal length, ranging from approximately to S\ndlikai The exact duration of 4\ndlikai (lhr42mins) (2hrl2mins). each lakkinam varies from place to place; the almanac I have used gives the data for Ramesvaram, the holy city on the south coast of Tamilnadu.14 lakkinam on an Certain rituals should take place during an auspicious a at for the tali auspicious day: wedding. (The tali is an emblem example, tying tied around the bride's neck by the groom; tying it is the crucial rite in the Tamil wedding.) The day having been chosen, the auspicious lakkinams are determined by reference to the cakkiram of the month; this is done by elimi nating all inauspicious lakkinams according to a set of rules, which define the auspicious or inauspicious effects of all the planets on the various lakkinams. Having determined the most auspicious lakkinam, the time at which the ritual should take place can be calculated, given that it is known how long the Sun remains in its original lakkinam after sunrise and the lengths of all the lakkinams. I have now considered all the most important data contained in the monthly pages of the almanacs, but will briefly review the other information in them which I also found useful.15 The Tamil New Year begins on 1st cittirai. In different regions of India, the New Year begins on different dates, which are given in the Rashtriya Panchang. The Tamils do not number their years in an ? to name them ? at least for era, but continue by the religious purposes of named of the brhaspati years years forming Jupiter" (Skt. sixty "cycle samvatsara cakra; Tarn, perdntu). In the South Indian system, 1977?8 was the 51st year in the cycle.16 The Tamil almanacs, pihkala (Skt. pihgala), the in the other main eras used in India as well. They also record year however, state, at the head of each monthly page, whether the month is in the uttarayanam ? or in ? the more auspicious six months beginning on 1st tai (Skt. uttardyana) ? the more six months the taksindyanam inauspicious (Skt. daksindyana) on as are on the winter two 1st dti. The starting regarded periods beginning and summer solstices respectively, but owing to the equinoctial precession (see three weeks before the above), the tropical solstices now occur approximately dates 1st tai and 1st dti. Also indicated are the two-monthly seasons (rutu; Skt. rtu); from the start of the Tamil year, these are (Sanskrit names in parentheses): l.vasantam (vasanta), 2. kirismam (grisma), 3. varusam (varsa), 4. carat (sarad), S.hemantam (sisira). Elsewhere in the almanacs are (hemanta) and 6.ciciram occur of will details which during the year, abbreviated ritual given eclipses calendars of the major temples in Tamilnadu, lists of auspicious days on which domestic rituals (such as marriages) should be held, an explanation of how to of possible marriage partners,17 and a host of other compare the horoscopes and astrological predictive information which need not be discussed here.

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM IN TAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

61

The Government of India's Rashtriya Panchang is not arranged like the Tamil It contains an entry for each day and, because it eschews the endless abbreviations used in the Tamil almanacs and gives times in Indian Standard Time, is much easier to consult. This almanac also contains an introduction almanacs. explaining its arrangement and it omits any references to horoscopes and predic tion. However, although it does list festivals celebrated throughout India, which is useful for comparative purposes, it does not mention many of the lesser festivals which are nonetheless important to Hindus in Tamilnadu. As a guide to ritual activity in Tamilnadu, therefore, the Rashtriya Panchang is no substitute for the local Tamil almanacs. I should imagine that this is likely to be true for research work in any other local area as well. In the pages above, I have mainly concentrated on the technical aspects of the Tamil calendrical system. However, the reason why the system is so important in the ritual context is, of course, precisely because the Hindus do not regard it purely technically. In this paper, I cannot discuss this question in detail. Briefly, it is the case that all units of time may themselves be regarded as however, divine, but in general it is the various ritual attributes and connotations of units of time and astronomical phenomena which are most significant. Many of these units and phenomena are, in one context or another, specially associated with different deities and hence with rituals of worship for these deities. information about inauspicious periods of time has been given above, must emphasise that the problem is not simply one of times at which should be held. The ritual cycle embodies the much more complex and Some but I events

subtle is linked not only to the forces of malevolence idea that inauspiciousness and danger, but also to the forces of creation and fertility, which are particularly in the goddesses. For example, it is in the most inauspicious months manifested during the inauspicious half of the year (taksindyanam) that in the temples and homes of Madurai, the most important rituals for the goddesses and fertility are celebrated. Any analysis of the ritual cycle in Tamilnadu must go far beyond the rather narrow focus I have adopted in this paper, but it cannot even be begun satisfactorily unless it rests on an adequate understanding of the basic calendrical system on which this cycle depends.18 NOTES
1 Research in Madurai was carried out in 1976-7 for a period of 12 months, and was financed Science I would Research whom grant from the Social by a research Council, like to thank. I also thank Ms Penny for supplying most of my data on domestic Logan on this paper. ritual and for her comments 2 Filliozat in L. Renou and J. Filliozat, L'Inde vol. 2, Hanoi, 1953, 720-38; classique, P. V. Kane, History section of Dharmasastra, 1, Poona V, Part 2; A. L. Basham, 1962, The wonder that was India, third edition, R. Sewell and S. B. London, 491-7; 1971, Dikshit, Madras, The 1911 Indian 1896; L. D. Swamikannu calendar, London, Pillai, Indian chronology, and Panchang and horoscope, 1925. Pillai is particularly on useful Madras,

62

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM INTAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

A by A. H. Arden, C. G. 316-9. 1969, to consult them in

Lund, 1956, India, of a North Indian the calendrical have discussed Two system anthropologists in a North Indian village: and festivals ceremonies "Calendars, village: R. S. and S. A. Freed, calendrical for fieldwork", information Journal Southwestern necessary of Anthropology, XX, 1964,67-90. 3 them hard but Tamil orthography all these terms are Sanskrit words, makes Nearly as far as possible, I have sometimes To reduce deviated from to recognise. this difficulty the grantha letters often used in modern and employed Tamil "strict" Tamil; e.g. spelling rdci for irdci, naksattiram for natcattiram. 4 are in Renou names of these constellations and Filliozat, The Western astronomical and Basham, op. cit., 492. op. cit., 729-30 5 see Sewell and Dikshit, of this problem, For detailed discussion op. cit. and R. Sewell, 200-11. 1912. London, chronology, 27 days and a twenty-eighth exceeds The sidereal lunar month intercalary slightly to correct and Filliozat, the error (see Renou has been used by the astronomers naksattiram does modern astronomy 185, 721 and Basham, op. cit., 492). However, op. cit., practical named Skt. abhijit. not use this extra naksattiram, 7 of India See Renou and Filliozat, op. cit., 722; Basham, op. cit., 494; Government in English and almanac the official annually government Rashtriya published Panchang, 6 names are (Sanskrit to the naksattirams corresponding (dyusmant), 3.dyusmdn (viskambha), l.piriti (prlti), l.cukarumam 6.atikantam (sobhana), (atiganda), S.copanam (saubhdgya), 4.saupakyam 11. virutti 10. kantam S.tiruti 9.culam (vrddhi), (ganda), (sula), (dhrti), (sukarman), 15. vajram 14.harsanam 13. viydkdtam 12. turuvam (harsana), (vydghdta), (dhruva), 18. variydn (variyas), 19. parlkam 17. viyati (vyatipdta), (vajra), 16. citti (siddhi), (parigha), 22. cdttiyam 23. cupam (subha), 24. cuppiram 20. civam (siva), 21. cittam (siddha), (sddhya), The 11 ll.vaitiruti 25. piramyam 26. mahentiram (vaidhrti). (brahman), (indra), (sukla), names are (Sanskrit in parentheses): 1. kimstukkinam karanams (kimstughna), l.pavam 5. taitulam 6. karacai 4. kaulavam 3. pdlavam (taitila), (gara), (kaulava), (bdlava), (bava), 10. catuspdtam 8. pattirai 9. cakuni 7. vanacai (sakuni), (visti), (catuspada), (vanij), of the lunar month 11. ndkavam day start ending on New-moon (ndga). The 60 karanams to pattirai, and closing of the seven pavam followed with by eight cycles kimstukkinam, the karanam with records only the last three karanams. The almanac daily entry normally will also end at sunrise its ending current one, which (with time) and not the subsequent is of the highly I understand that only the same day. within (visti) pattirai inauspicious are incomprehensible; I have relied of the karanams much Many significance. explanations on Renou and Filliozat, op. cit., 722, 734. 9 I have used are the Vdkkiya Pancdhkams The Tamil almanacs by K. Muttukkirus Other and 1978-9. for the years in Madurai, 1977-8 1976-7, nayyankar, published the same information. Sewell and Dikshit, contain almost almanacs op. cit., 14-15, exactly a modern resembles a (translated) almanac, which closely page from a Bombay reproduce one. and Indian National date in the Gregorian Each day's equivalent (Western Christian), life in used in daily is generally calendar is also given. The Gregorian calendars Muslim calendar The Tamils call it the "English" Tamilnadu; (inkiUs) calendar. The Indian National is only used by government of India in 1957, by the Government (Saka era), introduced of is based on this latter calendar. in Tamilnadu. The Rashtriya offices Hindus, Panchang calendar. course, never use the Muslim 11 See H. Brunner-Lachaux, 1968, 6, 8, on pt. 2, Pondicherry, Somasambhupaddhati, as ritual texts known in the ancient lunar dates as solar dates caused by reading confusions in Tamil explain in some of the books also occur These confusions the Agamas. published festivals. the rituals at domestic ing how to conduct Tamil 10 Indian languages. all the major 8 In order, the 27 yokams in parentheses): l.viskampam Indian

the Tamil which is summarised terms only) system, (using Tamil fifth grammar progressive of the Tamil language, Madras, edition, Diehl discusses not the almanacs but does how clearly explain on Instrument and purpose; studies rites and rituals in South

THE CALENDRICAL SYSTEM INTAMILNADU (SOUTH INDIA)

of of the complexities If the same titi of chron., Pillai, titi on it is a cunniya solar month, (Skt. sunya) two iitis end or no titi ends. is a day on which For further Ind. details 46. 12 tins, see Sewell and the same fortnight its first occurrence, Various other titis,

63

and

(see P. V. Kane, History II, Poona, of Dharma'sastra, prescribed as well. are inauspicious, are marked in the almanacs 13 are named to their from the naksattirams linked The lunar months traditionally in the Tamil tradition. differ from those specified but some of these naksattirams Full-moons, It may have names similar to their approximate lunar equivalents. Some Tamil solar months here lunar months last almost also be noted that 13 sidereal (i.e. cycles of naksattirams) lunar months the same time as 12 synodical (i.e. cycles of titis). 14 of India, where The Rashtriya Station local Panchang gives these data for the Central centres mean times for all major in India time is Indian Standard Time; a table of correction is provided. 15 Some 200-11. 16 of this information, including the predictive data, is discussed by Diehl, op. cit.,

op. cit., 17-18 Dikshit, one occurs twice within as and it is inauspicious, on which Vedic study is and which 395-6) 1941,

names of these 60 years are printed in some almanacs; The Tamil they are also in are in Renou and Filliozat, For a op. cit., 735-6. Arden, op. cit., 318. The Sanskrit names for then he has wife is alive, the 60th birthday is specially Tamil man whose important, lived through the entire the cumulative cycle and also half-way cycle of all the through believed to total 120 years and to be the allotted span of life. On the 60th birthday, planets, in pots of water of all the years - regarded as divine like the ritual includes the invocation before all units of time may be. The years are then worshipped in the water it is used to and his wife. bathe the celebrant 17 tinahkal The is headed list of auspicious cupa muhurtta "days with days good To the best of my knowledge, the auspicious days are determined periods". (auspicious) I lack complete in data on these periods; all inauspicious periods. simply by eliminating ones are: ati, purattaci, mdrkali the more and (for Non-Brahmans Madurai, important and Saturday; amavacai and (for Non astami, navami, Tuesday only) maci; piratamai, and kettai naksattirams. Brahmans Some kdrttikai, titis; parani, only) ayilyam paurnami to above. of the other inauspicious periods have been referred 18 of the Tamil Modern ritual cycle are contained in B. E. F. Beck, Peasant discussions society Murukan: in Konku, F. W. Clothey, The many Vancouver, 282-3; 1972, 52-6, faces of the history and meaning Indian 131-48; god, The Hague, of a South 1978, L. Dumont, Une sous-caste de VInde du sud, Paris, 158-97 and passim; Diehl, op. cit., But none of them deals with are the problem 372?403. There 1957, comprehensively. sources several older ethnographic but few of them contain much worthwhile discussion. of ritual cycles features of the Tamil in other also features are, of course, Many cycle ? a I cannot discuss fact which considerably parts of India analysis, but which complicates of the cycle here. Some are discussed in the Madurai in my forthcoming aspects temple in a South Indian temple: Minaksi and Sundaresvara paper, "The Divine Couple's relationship at Madurai", History of Religions, XIX, May 1980.