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redirects here. For other uses, see Mandela (disambiguation). Page semi-protected His Excellency Nelson Mandela OM AC CC OJ GCStJ QC GColIH RSerafO NPk BR MRCSI Nelson Mandela on his 90th birthday in Johannesburg, South Africa, in May 2008. Mandela in May 2008 President of South Africa In office 10 May 1994 14 June 1999 Deputy Thabo Mbeki F. W. de Klerk Preceded by F. W. de Klerk Succeeded by Thabo Mbeki Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement In office 2 September 1998 14 June 1999 Preceded by Andrs Pastrana Arango Succeeded by Thabo Mbeki Personal details Born Rolihlahla Mandela 18 July 1918 (age 94) Mvezo, South Africa Nationality South African Political party African National Congress Spouse(s) Evelyn Ntoko Mase (1944 1957) Winnie Madikizela (1957 1996) Graa Machel (1998 present) Children Madiba Thembekile Makgatho Lewanika Makaziwe Maki Zenani Zindziswa Residence Houghton Estate, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Alma mater University of Fort Hare University of London External System University of South Africa University of the Witwatersrand Religion Christianity (Methodism) Signature Signature of Nelson Mandela Website www.nelsonmandela.org Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (Xhosa pronunciation: [xo'li??a?a man'de?la]; born 18 July 1918) is a South African anti-apartheid activist, revolutionary and politic ian who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, the first to be e lected in a fully representative, multiracial election. His administration focus ed on dismantling apartheid's legacy, and cutting racism, poverty and inequality . Politically a democratic socialist, he served as president of the African Nati onal Congress (ANC) political party from 1991 to 1997. Internationally, Mandela was the Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. A Xhosa born to the Thembu royal family, Mandela attended Fort Hare University a nd the University of Witwatersrand, studying law. Living in Johannesburg townshi ps and becoming involved in anti-colonial politics, he joined the ANC, becoming a founding member of its Youth League. When the white supremacist National Party

government implemented apartheid in 1948, he rose to prominence in the ANC's 19 52 Defiance Campaign, being elected president of the Transvaal ANC branch and ov erseeing the 1955 Congress of the People. Working as a lawyer, he was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and with the ANC leadership stood on the Trea son Trial from 1956 to 1961. Although initially committed to non-violent protest , in association with the South African Communist Party he co-founded the milita nt Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) in 1961, leading a bombing campaign against government targets. In 1962 he was arrested and convicted of sabotage and conspiracy to ov erthrow the government, being sentenced to life imprisonment. Mandela served time in Robben Island, Pollsmoor Prison, and then Victor Verster Prison while an international campaign lobbied for his release, which was grante d after 27 years in 1990. Becoming ANC president, Mandela wrote his autobiograph y, and led negotiations with President F.W. de Klerk to abolish apartheid and es tablish multi-racial elections in 1994, in which he led the ANC to a landslide v ictory. As president, he created a new constitution and initiated the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses, while introdu cing policies aimed at land reform, combating poverty and expanding healthcare. Internationally, he acted as mediator between Libya and the United Kingdom in th e Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial, and oversaw a military intervention in Lesoth o. Refusing to run for a second term and succeeded by his deputy Thabo Mbeki, Ma ndela became an elder statesman focusing on charitable work in combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the Nelson Mandela Foundation. Mandela has received international acclaim for his anti-colonial and anti-aparth eid stance, having received over 250 awards, including the 1993 Nobel Peace Priz e, the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Soviet Order of Lenin. He is h eld in deep respect within South Africa as the "Father of the Nation", where he is often known under his Xhosa clan name of Madiba. Controversial for much of hi s life, critics denounced him as a terrorist and communist sympathiser. Contents 1 Early life 1.1 Childhood: 1918 1936 1.2 Clarkebury, Healdtown and Fort Hare: 1936 1940 1.3 Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941 1943 2 Revolutionary activity 2.1 Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943 1949 2.2 Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950 1954 2.3 Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955 1961 2.4 Umkhonto we Sizwe and African tour: 1961 1962 3 Imprisonment 3.1 Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962 3.2 Robben Island: 1962 1982 3.3 Pollsmoor Prison: 1982 1988 3.4 Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988 1990 4 The end of apartheid 4.1 Early negotiations: 1990 1991 4.2 The CODESA talks: 1991 1992 4.3 General election: 1994 5 Presidency of South Africa 5.1 National reconciliation 5.2 Domestic programs 5.3 Foreign affairs 6 Retirement 6.1 Post-retirement health 6.2 The Elders 6.3 AIDS engagement 6.4 Criticism of US and UK foreign policy 6.5 Ismail Ayob court action

6.6 Zimbabwe and Robert Mugabe 7 Acclaim 7.1 Orders and decorations 7.2 Musical tributes 7.3 Published biographies 7.4 Cinema and television 7.5 Statues and civic tributes 8 Political ideology 9 Personal life 9.1 First marriage 9.2 Second marriage 9.3 Third marriage 10 References 10.1 Footnotes 10.2 Bibliography 11 Further reading 12 External links Early life Childhood: 1918 1936 Mandela was born on 18 July 1918 in the village of Mvezo in Umtatu, a part of So uth Africa's Eastern Cape.[1] Given the forename Rolihlahla, a Xhosa term colloq uially meaning "troublemaker",[1] in later years he became known by his clan nam e, Madiba.[2] A member of the Thembu royal family which ruled the Transkei regio n, he belonged to the Left-Hand House of the Ixhiba clan, a cadet branch who pro vided court councillors to the Thembu king.[3] His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyi swa, was a local chief and councillor to the monarch; he had been appointed to t he position in 1915, after his predecessor was accused of corruption by a govern ing white magistrate.[4] In 1926, Gadla too was sacked for corruption, but Nelso n would be told that he had lost his job for standing up to the magistrate's unr easonable demands.[5] A devotee of the god Qamata,[6] Gadla was a polygamist, ha ving four wives, four sons and nine daughters, who lived in different villages. Nelson's mother was Gadla's third wife, Nosekeni Fanny, who was daughter of Nked ama of the Right Hand House and a member of the amaMpemvu clan of Xhosa.[7] "No one in my family had ever attended school [...] On the y teacher, Miss Mdingane, gave each of us an English name. mong Africans in those days and was undoubtedly due to the ducation. That day, Miss Mdingane told me that my new name particular name I have no idea." Mandela, 1994.[8] first day of school m This was the custom a British bias of our e was Nelson. Why this

Later stating that his early life was dominated by "custom, ritual and taboo",[9 ] Mandela grew up with two sisters in his mother's kraal in the village of Qunu, where he tended herds as a cattle-boy, spending much time outside with other bo ys.[10] Both his parents were illiterate, but being a devout Christian, his moth er sent him to a local Methodist school when he was about seven. Baptised a Meth odist, Mandela was given the English forename of "Nelson" by his teacher.[11] Wh en Mandela was about nine, his father came to stay at Qufu, where he died of an undiagnosed ailment which Mandela believed to be lung disease.[12] Feeling "cut adrift", he later asserted that he inherited his father's "proud rebelliousness" and "stubborn sense of fairness".[13] His mother took Mandela to the "Great Place" palace at Mqhekezweni, where he was entrusted under the guardianship of Thembu regent, Chief Jongintaba Dalindyebo. Raised by Jongintaba and his wife Noengland alongside their son Justice and dau ghter Nomafu, Mandela felt that they treated him as their son, but would not see his mother for many years.[14] As Mandela attended church services every Sunday with his guardians, Christianity became a significant part of his life.[15] He

attended a Methodist mission school located next to the palace, studying English , Xhosa, history and geography.[16] He developed a love of African history, list ening to the tales told by elderly visitors to the palace, and becoming influenc ed by the anti-imperialist rhetoric of Chief Joyi;[17] he nevertheless considere d the European colonialists as benefactors, not oppressors.[18] Aged 16, he, Jus tice and several other boys traveled to Tyhalarha to undergo the circumcision ri tual that symbolically marked their transition from boys to men; the rite over, he was given the name "Dalibunga".[19] Clarkebury, Healdtown and Fort Hare: 1936 1940 Mandela, circa 1937 Intending to gain skills needed to become a privy councillor for the Thembu roya l house, Mandela began his secondary education at Clarkebury Boarding Institute in Engcobo, a Western-style institution that was the largest school for black Af ricans in Thembuland.[20] Made to socialise with other students on an equal basi s, he claimed that he lost his "stuck up" attitude, becoming best friends with a girl for the first time; he began playing sports and developed his lifelong lov e of gardening.[21] Completing his Junior Certificate in two years,[22] in 1937 he moved to Healdtown, the Methodist college in Fort Beaufort attended by most T hembu royalty, including Justice.[23] The headmaster emphasised the superiority of English culture and government, but Mandela became increasingly interested in native African culture, making his first non-Xhosa friend, a Sotho language-spe aker, and coming under the influence of one of his favourite teachers, a Xhosa w ho broke taboo by marrying a Sotho.[24] Spending much of his spare time long-dis tance running and boxing, in his second year he became a prefect.[25] With Jongintaba's backing, Mandela began work on a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree at the University of Fort Hare, an elite black institution in Alice, Eastern Cap e with around 150 students. There he studied English, anthropology, politics, na tive administration and Roman Dutch law in his first year, desiring to become an interpreter or clerk in the Native Affairs Department.[26] Mandela stayed in th e Wesley House dormitory, befriending Oliver Tambo and his own kinsman, K.D. Mat anzima.[27] Continuing his interest in sport, he took up ballroom dancing,[28] a nd performed in a drama society play about Abraham Lincoln.[29] A member of the Students Christian Association, he gave Bible classes in the local community,[30 ] and became a vocal supporter of the British war effort when the Second World W ar broke out.[31] Although having friends connected to the African National Cong ress (ANC) and the anti-imperialist movement, Mandela avoided any involvement.[3 2] Helping found a freshers' House Committee which challenged the dominance of t he second years,[33] at the end of his first year he became involved in a Studen ts' Representative Council (SRC) boycott against the quality of food, for which he was temporarily suspended from the university; he left without receiving a de gree.[34] Arriving in Johannesburg: 1941 1943 Returning to Mqhekezweni in December 1940, Mandela found that Jongintaba had arr anged marriages for him and Justice; dismayed, they fled to Johannesburg via Que enstown, arriving in April 1941.[35] Mandela found work as a night watchman at C rown Mines, his "first sight of South African capitalism in action", but was fir ed when the induna (headman) discovered he was a runaway.[36] Staying with a cou sin in George Goch Township, Mandela was introduced to the realtor and ANC activ ist Walter Sisulu, who secured him a job as an articled clerk at law firm Witkin , Sidelsky and Edelman, run by a liberal Jew, Lazar Sidelsky, who took a keen in terest in the education of indigenous Africans.[37] At night Mandela worked on h is BA through a University of South Africa correspondence course.[38] Living off a small wage, he rented a room in the house of the Xhoma family in the Alexandr a township; rife with poverty, crime and pollution, Alexandra "occupie[d] a trea sured place in [his] heart".[39] Although embarrassed by his poverty, he briefly courted a Swazi woman, Ellen Nkabinde, before unsuccessfully pursuing Didi Xhom a, his landlord's daughter.[40]

At the firm, he befriended Gaur Redebe, a Xhosa member of the ANC and Communist Party, as well as Nat Bregman, a Jewish Communist who became Mandela's first whi te friend.[41] Attending Communist talks and parties, he was impressed that Euro peans, Africans, Indians and Coloureds were mixing as equals. However, he stated later that he did not join the Party because its atheism conflicted with his Ch ristian faith, and because he saw the South African struggle as being racially b ased rather than class warfare.[42] Redebe encouraged Mandela to join the ANC, a nd in August 1943 Mandela marched in support of a successful bus boycott to reve rse fare rises.[43] Finding the rent cheaper, Mandela moved into the compound of the Witwatersrand Native Labour Association; living among miners of various tri bes, he met the Queen Regent of Basutoland.[44] In late 1941, Jongintaba visited , forgiving Mandela for running away. On returning to Thembuland, the regent die d in winter 1942; Mandela and Justice arrived a day late for the funeral.[45] Pa ssing his BA exams in early 1943, Mandela attended a graduation ceremony at Fort Hare along with his mother and Noengland.[46] Although encouraged to become a p rivy councillor in Thembuland, he returned to Johannesburg to follow a political path as a lawyer,[47] later stating that he experienced no epiphany, but that h e "simply found myself doing so, and could not do otherwise."[48] Revolutionary activity Law studies and the ANC Youth League: 1943 1949 Beginning law studies at the University of Witwatersrand, Mandela was the only n ative African in the faculty, and though facing racism, he befriended a number o f liberal and communist European, Jewish, and Indian students, among them J.N. S ingh, Ismail Meer, George Bizos, Bram Fischer, Joe Slovo, Harry Schwarz and Ruth First.[49] Joining the ANC, Mandela was increasingly influenced by Sisulu, spen ding much time with other activists at Sisulu's Orlando house, including old fri end Oliver Tambo.[50] In 1943, Mandela met Anton Lembede, an African nationalist virulently opposed to a racially-united front against imperialism and to an all iance with the communists.[51] Mandela initially shared these beliefs, despite h is friendships with non-blacks and communists.[52] Deciding on the need for a yo uth wing to mass mobilize Africans in opposition to their subjugation, Mandela w as among a delegation who approached ANC President Alfred Bitini Xuma at his hom e in Sophiatown; the African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL) was founded on Easter Sunday 1944 in the Bantu Men's Social Centre in Eloff Street, with Lem bede as President and Mandela as a member of the executive committee.[53] Mandela and Evelyn in 1944 At Sisulu's house, Mandela met Evelyn Mase, an ANC activist and nurse from Engco bo, Transkei. Married on 5 October 1944, after initially living with her relativ es, they rented House no. 8115 in Orlando from early 1946.[54] Their first child , Mandiba "Thembi" Thembekile, was born in February 1946, while a daughter named Makaziwe was born in 1947, dying nine months later of meningitis.[55] Mandela e njoyed home life, welcoming his mother and sister Leabie to stay with him.[56] I n early 1947, his three years of articles ended at Witkin, Sidelsky and Edelman, and he decided to become a full-time student, subsisting on loans from the Bant u Welfare Trust.[57] In July 1947, Mandela rushed Lembede to hospital, where he died; he was succeeded as ANCYL president by the more moderate Peter Mda, who ag reed to cooperate with communists and non-blacks, appointing Mandela ANCYL secre tary.[58] Mandela disagreed with Mda's approach, in December 1947 supporting an unsuccessful measure to expel communists from the ANCYL, considering their ideol ogy un-African.[59] In 1947, Mandela was elected to the executive committee of t he Transvaal ANC, serving under regional president C.S. Ramohanoe; when Ramohano e acted against the wishes of the Transvaal Executive Committee by cooperating w ith Indians and communists, Mandela was one of those who forced his resignation. [60] In the South African general election, 1948, in which only whites were permitted to vote, the Afrikaner-dominated Herenigde Nasionale Party under Daniel Franois

Malan took power, soon uniting with the Afrikaner Party to form the National Par ty. Openly racialist, the party codified and expanded racial segregation with th e new apartheid legislation.[61] Gaining increasing influence in the ANC, Mandel a and his cadres began advocating direct action, such as boycotts and strikes, i nfluenced by the tactics of the Indian South African community. Xuma did not sup port these measures, and was removed from the presidency in a vote of no confide nce, replaced by James Moroka and a more militant cabinet containing Sisulu, Mda , Tambo and Godfrey Pitje; Mandela later related that "We had now guided the ANC to a more radical and revolutionary path."[62] Having devoted his time to polit ics, Mandela failed his final year at Witwatersrand three times; he was ultimate ly denied his degree in December 1949.[63] Defiance Campaign and Transvaal ANC Presidency: 1950 1954 The tri-colour flag of the African National Congress Mandela took Xuma's place on the ANC National Executive in March 1950.[64] That month, the Defend Free Speech Convention was held in Johannesburg, bringing toge ther African, Indian and communist activists to call an anti-apartheid general s trike. Mandela opposed the strike because it was not ANC-led, but a majority of black workers took part, resulting in increased police repression and the introd uction of the Suppression of Communism Act, 1950, affecting the actions of all p rotest groups.[65] In 1950, Mandela was elected national president of the ANCYL; at the ANC national conference of December 1951, he continued arguing against a racially-united front, but was outvoted.[66] Thenceforth, he altered his entire perspective, embracing such an approach; influenced by friends like Moses Kotan e and by the Soviet Union's support for wars of national liberation, Mandela's m istrust of communism also broke down. He became influenced by the Marxist texts of Marx, Engels, Lenin, Stalin and Mao, and embraced dialectical materialism.[67 ] In April 1952, Mandela began work at the H.M. Basner law firm,[68] though his increasing commitment to work and activism meant he spent less time with his fam ily.[69] In 1952, the ANC began preparation for a joint Defiance Campaign against aparthe id with Indian and communist groups, founding a National Voluntary Board to recr uit volunteers. Deciding on a path of nonviolent resistance influenced by Mohand as Gandhi, some considered it the ethical option, but Mandela instead considered it pragmatic.[70] At a Durban rally on 22 June, Mandela addressed an assembled crowd of 10,000, initiating the campaign protests, in which he was arrested alon gside Yusuf Cachalia and briefly interned in Marshall Square prison.[71] With fu rther protests, the ANC's membership grew from 20,000 to 100,000; the government responded with mass arrests, introducing the Public Safety Act, 1953 to permit martial law.[72] In May, authorities banned Transvaal ANU President J. B. Marks from making public appearances; unable to maintain his position, he recommended Mandela as his successor. Although the ultra-Africanist Bafabegiya group opposed his candidacy, Mandela was elected regional president in October.[73] In the early 1950s, Mandela was influenced by left-wing, anti-colonialist though t, including figures like Karl Marx (left) and Jawaharlal Nehru (right). On 30 July 1952, Mandela was arrested under the Suppression of Communism Act, an d stood trial as a part of the 21 accused among them Moroka, Sisulu and Dadoo in Johannesburg. Found guilty of "statutory communism", their sentence of nine mon ths' hard labour was suspended for two years.[74] In December, Mandela was given a six-month ban from attending meetings or talking to more than one individual at a time, making his Transvaal ANU presidency impractical. The Defiance Campaig n meanwhile petered out.[75] In September 1953, Andrew Kunene read out Mandela's "No Easy Walk to Freedom" speech at a Transvaal ANC meeting; the title was take n from a quote by Indian independence leader Jawaharlal Nehru, a seminal influen ce on Mandela's thought. The speech laid out a contingency plan for a scenario i n which the ANC was banned. This Mandela Plan, or M-Plan, involved dividing the organisation into a cell structure with a more centralised leadership.[76]

Mandela obtained work as an attorney for the firm Terblanche and Briggish, befor e moving to the liberal-run Helman and Michel, passing qualification exams to be come a full-fledged attorney.[77] In August 1953, Mandela and Oliver Tambo opene d their own law firm, Mandela and Tambo, operating in downtown Johannesburg. The only African law firm in the country, it was popular with aggrieved Africans, o ften dealing with cases of police brutality. The authorities removed the firm's office permit under the Group Areas Act, forcing them to relocate, where their c ustomers dwindled.[78] Though a second daughter, Makaziwe Phumia, was born in Ma y 1954, Mandela's relationship with Evelyn became strained, and she accused him of adultery. Evidence has emerged indicating that he was having affairs with ANC member Lillian Ngoyi and secretary Ruth Mompati; persistent but unproven claims assert that the latter bore Mandela a child. Disgusted by her son's behaviour, Nosekeni returned to Transkei, while Evelyn embraced the Jehovah's Witnesses and rejected Mandela's obsession with politics.[79] Congress of the People and the Treason Trial: 1955 1961 "We, the people of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to kn ow: That South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no go vernment can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of the people ." The opening of the Freedom Charter[80] Mandela took part in the unsuccessful protest to prevent the demolition of the a ll-black Sophiatown suburb of Johannesburg in February 1955. The events led Mand ela to believe that the ANC "had no alternative to armed and violent resistance" .[81] When Sisulu visited Romania, Mandela advised him to proceed to the People' s Republic of China in search of weaponry; the Chinese supported the anti-aparth eid struggle, but believed the movement to be insufficiently prepared for gueril la warfare.[82] With the involvement of the South African Indian Congress, the C oloured People's Congress, the South African Congress of Trade Unions and the Co ngress of Democrats, the ANC planned a Congress of the People, calling on all So uth Africans to send in proposals for a post-apartheid era. Based on the respons es, a Freedom Charter was drafted by Rusty Bernstein, calling for the creation o f a democratic, non-racialist state with the nationalisation of major industry. When the charter was adopted at a June 1955 conference in Kliptown attended by 3 000 delegates, police cracked down on the event.[83] Following the end of a second ban in September 1955, Mandela went on a working h oliday to Transkei to discuss the implications of the Bantu Authorities Act, 195 1 with local tribal leaders, also visiting his mother and Noengland before proce eding to Cape Town.[84] In March 1956 he received his third ban on public appear ances, restricting him to Johannesburg for five years, but he often broke it.[85 ] His marriage broke down as Evelyn left Mandela, taking their children to live with her brother. Initiating divorce proceedings in May 1956, she claimed that M andela had physically abused her; he denied the allegations, and fought for cust ody of their children. She withdrew her petition of separation in November, but Mandela filed for divorce in January 1958; the divorce was finalised in March, w ith the children placed in Evelyn's care.[86] During the divorce proceedings, he began courting and politicising a social worker, Winnie Madikizela, who he marr ied in Bizana on 14 June 1958. She later became involved in ANC activities, spen ding several weeks imprisoned.[87] The apartheid system pervaded all areas of life. On 5 December 1956, Mandela was arrested alongside most of the ANC Executive for "high treason" against the state. Held in Johannesburg Prison amid mass protest s, they underwent a preparatory examination in Drill Hall on 19 December, before being granted bail.[88] The defence's refutation began on 9 January 1957, overs een by defence lawyer Vernon Berrang, and continued until adjourning in September

. In January 1958, judge Oswald Pirow was appointed to the case, and in February he ruled that there was "sufficient reason" for the defendants to go on trial i n the Transvaal Supreme Court.[89] The formal Treason Trial began in Pretoria in August 1958, with the defendants successfully applying to have the three judges all linked to the Nationalist Party replaced. In August, one charge was dropped , and in October the prosecution withdrew its indictment, submitting a reformula ted version in November which argued that the ANC leadership committed high trea son by advocating violent revolution, a charge the defendants denied.[90] In April 1959, militant Africanists dissatisfied with the ANC's united front app roach founded the Pan-African Congress (PAC); Mandela's friend Robert Sobukwe wa s elected president, though Mandela thought the group "immature".[91] Both parti es campaigned for an anti-pass campaign in May 1960, in which Africans burned th e passes that they were legally obliged to carry. One of the PAC-organized demon strations was fired upon by police, resulting in the deaths of 69 protesters in the Sharpeville massacre. In solidarity, Mandela publicly burned his pass as rio ting broke out across South Africa, leading the government to proclaim martial l aw.[92] Under the State of Emergency measures, Mandela and other activists were arrested on 30 March, imprisoned without charge in the unsanitary conditions of the Pretoria Local prison, while the ANC and PAC were banned in April.[93] This made it difficult for their lawyers to reach them, and it was agreed that the de fence team for the Treason Trial should withdraw in protest. Representing themse lves in court, the accused were freed from prison when the state of emergency wa s lifted in late August.[94] Mandela used his free time to organise an All-In Af rican Conference near Pietermaritzburg, Natal, in March, at which 1,400 anti-apa rtheid delegates met, agreeing on a stay-at home protest to mark 31 May, the day South Africa became a republic.[95] On 29 March 1961, after a six-year trial, t he judges produced a verdict of not guilty, embarrassing the government.[96] Umkhonto we Sizwe and African tour: 1961 1962 The thatched room at Liliesleaf Farm, where Mandela hid Mandela immediately went into hiding, disguised as a chaffeur in order to travel the country, organizing the ANC's new cell structure and a mass stay-at-home st rike for 29 May. Referred to as the "Black Pimpernel" in the press, the police p ut out a warrant for his arrest.[97] The government failed to prevent the strike , which Mandela described as "magnificent" to a reporter, also warning that anti -apartheid activists would soon resort to violence through armed groups like the PAC's Poqo.[98] At a clandestine ANC Executive meeting, he convinced leader Alb ert Luthuli who was morally opposed to violence to support the creation of an ar med group, further convincing other activist groups of its necessity.[99] Inspired by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement in the Cuban Revolution, in 196 1 Mandela co-founded Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation", abbreviated MK) w ith Sisulu and the communist Joe Slovo. Becoming chairman of the militant group, he gained ideas from illegal literature on guerilla warfare by Mao and Che Guev ara. Officially separate from the ANC, in later years MK became the group's arme d wing.[100] Most early MK members were white communists; after hiding in commun ist Wolfie Kodesh's flat in Berea, Mandela moved to the communist-owned Liliesle af Farm in Rivonia, there joined by Raymond Mhlaba, Slovo and Bernstein, who put together the MK constitution.[101] Operating through a cell structure, the MK a greed to acts of sabotage to exert maximum pressure on the government with minim um casualties, bombing military installations, power plants, telephone lines and transport links at night, when civilians were not present. Mandela noted that s hould these tactics fail, MK would resort to "guerilla warfare and terrorism."[1 02] Soon after ANC leader Luthuli was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the MK publ icly announced its existence with 57 bombings on Dingane's Day (16 December) 196 1, followed by further attacks on New Year's Eve.[103] The ANC agreed to send Mandela as a delegate to the February 1962 Pan-African Fr eedom Movement for East, Central and Southern Africa (PAFMECSA) meeting in Addis

Ababa, Ethiopia.[104] Traveling there in secret, Mandela met with Emperor Haile Selassie I, and gave his speech after Selaisse's at the conference.[105] After the conference, he traveled to Cairo, Egypt, admiring the political reforms of P resident Gamal Abdel Nasser, and then went to Tunis, Tunisia, where President Ha bib Bourguiba gave him 5000 for weaponry. He then traveled to Morocco, Mali, Guin ea, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Senegal, receiving funds from Liberian President W illiam Tubman and Guinean President Ahmed Skou Tour.[106] Leaving Africa for Londo n, England, he met anti-apartheid activists, reporters and prominent leftist pol iticians.[107] Returning to Ethiopia, he began a six-month course in guerrilla w arfare, but completed only two months before being recalled to South Africa.[108 ] Imprisonment Arrest and Rivonia trial: 1962 Monument erected in 1996 marking the site where Mandela was arrested near Howick , KwaZulu-Natal On 5 August 1962, while traveling by car with Cecil Williams, police arrested Ma ndela near Howick.[109] Transferred to Marshall Square prison, Johannesburg, he was charged with inciting workers to strike and leaving the country without perm ission; representing himself with Slovo as his legal advisor, Mandela intended t o use the trial to showcase "the ANC's moral opposition to racism" while support ers demonstrated outside the court.[110] Moved to Pretoria, Winnie was able to v isit him, while he spent his time in his cell working on correspondence studies for a Bachelor of Laws degree from the University of London.[111] His hearing be gan on 15 October, and he wore a traditional kaross in court, refusing to call a ny witnesses and turning his plea of mitigation into a political speech. He was sentenced to five years imprisonment, and as he left the courtroom, supporters s ung Nkosi Sikelel iAfrika.[112] "In a way I had never quite comprehended before, I realized the role I could pla y in court and the possibilities before me as a defendant. I was the symbol of j ustice in the court of the oppressor, the representative of the great ideals of freedom, fairness and democracy in a society that dishonoured those virtues. I r ealized then and there that I could carry on the fight even in the fortress of t he enemy." Mandela, 1994[113] While Mandela was imprisoned, police raided Liliesleaf Farm and arrested those t here on 11 July 1963, discovering paperwork documenting MK's activities. At the subsequent Rivonia Trial, which began in Pretoria Supreme Court on 9 October, Ma ndela and these comrades were charged by chief prosecutor Percy Yutar with four charges of sabotage and conspiring to violently overthrow the government, facing the death penalty.[114] Judge Quartus de Wet soon threw out the prosecution's c ase for insufficient evidence, but Yutar reformulated the charges, presenting hi s new case from December until February 1964, calling 173 witnesses and bringing thousands of documents and photographs to the trial.[115] Mandela and a number of other accused admitted sabotage but denied that they had ever adopted Operation Mayibuye, a plan to initiate guerilla war against the go vernment. They used the trial to highlight their political cause; one of Mandela 's speeches inspired by Castro's "History Will Absolve Me" speech was widely rep orted in the press.[116] The trial gained international attention, with global c alls for the release of the accused; the United Nations voted to cancel the tria l, the World Peace Council awarded the accused medals, the University of London Union voted Mandela to its presidency, and nightly vigils for him were held in S t. Paul's Cathedral, London.[117] South Africa's government ignored all calls fo r clemency, and on 12 June 1964 de Wet found Mandela and two of his co-accused g uilty on all four charges, but he sentenced them to life imprisonment rather tha n death.[118] Robben Island: 1962 1982

The lime quarry at Robben Island. Mandela and his co-accused were transferred from Pretoria to the prison on Robbe n Island, remaining there for the next 18 years.[119] Isolated from non-politica l prisoners in Section B, Mandela was imprisoned in a damp concrete cell 8 feet by 7 feet, with a straw mat to sleep on.[120] Mocked and harassed by many of the white prison warders, Mandela and his comrades spent their days breaking rocks into gravel, until being reassinged in January 1965 to work in a lime quarry; in itially forbidden from wearing sunglasses, the glare from the lime permanently d amaged Mandela's eyesight.[121] At night, he worked on his LLB degree, but newsp apers were forbidden, and he was locked in solitary confinement on several occas ions for possessing smuggled news clippings.[122] Classified as the lowest grade of prisoner, Class D, he was permitted one visit and one letter every six month s, although all mail was heavily censored.[123] The political prisoners took part in work and hunger strikes the latter consider ed largely ineffective by Mandela to improve prison conditions, viewing this as a microcosm of the anti-apartheid struggle.[124] Appointed to the four-man "High Organ" of the ANC prisoners along with Sisulu, Govan Mbeki and Raymond Mhlaba, Mandela was also involved with Ulundi, a group representing all political prison ers regardless of affiliation; within prison, he forged links with PAC and Yu Ch i Chan Club members.[125] He initiated a teaching program known as the "universi ty of Robben Island," whereby prisoners lectured on their own areas of expertise ; he debated politics with Marxists like Mbeki and Harry Gwala, also discussing the issue of homosexuality, which he came to accept.[126] Attending Christian Su nday services, Mandela talked with the prison imam and studied Islam.[127] Also studying Afrikaans, he respected the warders and tried to convert them to the ca use.[128] Various official visitors met with Mandela; most significant was the l iberal parliamentary representative Helen Suzman of the Progressive Party, who c hampioned Mandela's cause outside prison.[129] In September 1970 he was met by B ritish Labour Party MP Dennis Healey,[130] while South African Minister of Justi ce Jimmy Kruger visited in December 1974, though he and Mandela did not get on.[ 131] His mother visited in 1968, dying shortly after, while his firstborn son Th embi died in a car accident the following year; Mandela was forbidden from atten ding either funeral.[132] His wife was rarely able to visit, being regularly imp risoned for political activity, while his daughters first visited in December 19 75; Winnie got out of prison in 1977 but was forcibly settled in Brandfort, stil l unable to visit him.[133] Mandela's cell and the prison yard at Robben Island, where he was imprisoned From 1967, prison conditions improved, with black prisoners given trousers rathe r than shorts, games being permitted, and food quality increasing.[134] In 1969, an escape plan for Mandela was developed by Gordon Bruce, but it was abandoned after being infiltrated by an agent of the South African Bureau of State Securit y (BOSS), who hoped to see Mandela shot during the escape.[135] In 1970, Command er Piet Badenhost became commanding officer. Mandela, seeing an increase in the physical and mental abuse of prisoners, complained to visiting judges, who had B adenost reassigned.[136] He was replaced by Commander Willie Willemse, who devel oped a co-operative relationship with Mandela and was keen to improve prison sta ndards.[137] By 1975, Mandela had become a Class A prisoner,[138] allowing great er numbers of visits and letters; he corresponded with anti-apartheid activists like Mangosuthu Buthelezi and Desmond Tutu.[139] That year, he began his autobio graphy, which was smuggled to London, but remained unpublished at the time; pris on authorities discovered several pages, and his study privileges were stopped f or four years.[140] Instead he devoted his spare time to gardening and reading, enjoying the work of Leo Tolstoy, Winston Churchill, and works of political biog raphy, reading much about Boer history; he resumed his LLB degree studies in 198 0.[141] A "Free Mandela" protest in Berlin, 1986

By the late 1960s, Mandela's fame had been eclipsed by Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement; inspired by the PAC, it saw the ANC as ineffectual. Foll owing the Soweto uprising of 1976, many involved in the movement were imprisoned on Robben Island.[142] Mandela tried to build a relationship with these young r adicals, although was critical of their racialism and contempt for white anti-ap artheid activists.[143] In July 1978, Mandela celebrated his 60th birthday, attr acting international attention and renewed interest in his plight.[144] Lesotho awarded him an honourary doctorate, while in 1979 India awarded him the Nehru Pr ize for International Understanding, and in 1980 Glasgow in Scotland gave him Fr eedom of the City.[145] In March 1980 the slogan "Free Mandela!" was developed b y journalist Percy Qoboza, sparking an international campaign that led the UN Se curity Council to call for his release.[146] However, U.S. President Ronald Reag an and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher continued their support for the South African regime, viewing them as Cold War allies; Thatcher considered Mandela a communist terrorist.[147] Pollsmoor Prison: 1982 1988 In April 1982 Mandela was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison in Tokai, Cape Town al ong with senior ANC leaders Walter Sisulu, Andrew Mlangeni, Ahmed Kathrada and R aymond Mhlaba; they believed that they were being isolated to remove their influ ence on younger activists.[148] Here, they experienced better conditions that at Robben Island, although Mandela missed the camaraderie and scenery of the islan d.[149] Getting on well with Pollsmoor's commanding officer, Brigadier Munro, Ma ndela was permitted to create a roof garden,[150] also reading voraciously and c orresponding widely, now permitted 52 letters a year.[151] South African Preside nt P.W. Botha of the National Party instituted reforms allowing Coloured and Ind ian citizens to vote for their own parliaments which would have control over edu cation, health, and housing, but black Africans were excluded from the system; w hile some saw this as a partial erosion of apartheid, Mandela was critical, beli eving it designed to divide the anti-apatheid movement along racial lines. In th is it failed, for a multi-racial United Democratic Front (UDF) formed to oppose Botha's reforms, selecting Mandela as one of its patrons.[152] Bust of Mandela erected on London's Southbank by the Greater London Council admi nistration of socialist Ken Livingstone in 1985 Violence across the country escalated, with many fearing civil war; under pressu re from an international lobby, multinational banks stopped investing in South A frica, resulting in economic stagnation. Numberous banks and Thatcher asked Both a to release Mandela then at the height of his international fame to diffuse the volatile situation.[153] Although considering Mandela a dangerous "arch-Marxist ",[154] in February 1985 Botha offered him a release from prison on condition th at he '"unconditionally rejected violence as a political weapon". Mandela spurne d the offer, releasing a statement through his daughter Zindzi stating "What fre edom am I being offered while the organisation of the people remains banned? Onl y free men can negotiate. A prisoner cannot enter into contracts."[155][156] In 1985 Mandela underwent surgery on an enlarged prostate gland, before being gi ven new solitary quarters on the ground floor.[157] He was met by the "seven emi nent persons", an international delegation sent to South Africa to negotiate a s ettlement, but Botha's government refused to negotiate, in June calling a state of emergency and initiating a police crackdown on unrest. The anti-apartheid res istance fought back, with the ANC committing 231 attacks in 1986 and 235 in 1987 . Utilising the army and right-wing paramilitaries to combat the resistance, the government secretly funded Zulu nationalist movement Inkatha to attack ANC memb ers, furthering the violence.[158] Mandela requested talks with Botha but was de nied, instead secretly meeting with Minister of Justice Kobie Coetsee in 1987, h aving a further 11 meetings over 3 years. Coetsee organised negotiations between Mandela and a team of four government figures starting in May 1988; the team ag reed to the release of political prisoners and the legalisation of the ANC on th

e condition that they permanantly renounced violence, broke links with the Commu nist Party and did not insist on majority rule. Mandela rejected these condition s, insisting that the ANC would only end the armed struggle when the government renounced violence.[159] Mandela's 70th birthday in July 1988 attracted international attention, with the BBC organising the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute music gig at Wembley St adium.[160] Although presented globally as a heroic figure, he faced personal pr oblems when ANC leaders informed him that Winnie had set herself up as head of a criminal gang, the "Mandela United Football Club", who had been responsible for torturing and killing opponents including children in Soweto. Though some encou raged him to divorce her, he decided to remain loyal until she was convicted.[16 1] He also fell ill with tuberculosis, caused by the dank conditions in his cell .[162] Victor Verster Prison and release: 1988 1990 Mandela on a 1988 Soviet commemorative stamp. Recovering from tuberculosis, in December 1988 Mandela was moved to Victor Verst er Prison near Paarl, where he was housed in relative comfort in a warders house with a personal cook.[163] Here, Mandela was allowed many visitors, and organis ed secret communications with exiled ANC leader Oliver Tambo.[164][165] In 1989, Botha suffered a stroke, retaining the state presidency but stepping down as le ader of the National Party, to be replaced by the conservative F. W. de Klerk.[1 66] In a surprise move, Botha invited Mandela to a meeting over tea in July 1989 , something Mandela considered genial.[167] Botha was replaced as state presiden t by de Klerk six weeks later; the new president recognised that apartheid was i nsustainable, and unconditionally released all ANC prisoners except Mandela.[168 ] Following the fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989, de Klerk called his ca binet together to debate legalising the ANC and unconditionally freeing Mandela. Although some were deeply opposed, de Klerk decided to go ahead with it. He met with Mandela in December to discuss the situation, a meeting both men considere d genial, before releasing Mandela unconditionally and legalising all formerly b anned political parties on 2 February 1990.[169][170] Mandela was released from Victor Verster Prison on 11 February 1990, holding Win nie's hand in front of amassed crowds and press; the event was broadcast live ac ross the world.[171][172] Driven to Cape Town through crowds, he gave a speech d eclaring his commitment to peace and reconciliation with the country's white min ority, but made it clear that the ANC's armed struggle was not yet over: "our re sort to the armed struggle in 1960 with the formation of the military wing of th e ANC (Umkhonto we Sizwe) was a purely defensive action against the violence of apartheid. The factors which necessitated the armed struggle still exist today. We have no option but to continue. We express the hope that a climate conducive to a negotiated settlement would be created soon, so that there may no longer be the need for the armed struggle."[173][174] He said his main focus was to bring peace to the black majority and give them the right to vote in both national an d local elections.[174] In the following days, Mandela met with friends, activis ts and press, giving a speech to 100,000 people at Soccer City in Johannesburg.[ 175] The end of apartheid Early negotiations: 1990 1991 Main article: Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa Shell House in Johannesburg, which became ANC headquarters in 1991. Mandela proceeded on an African tour, meeting supporters and government figures in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Namibia, Libya and Algeria, continuing to Sweden where he w as reunited with Tambo, and then London, where he appeared at the Nelson Mandela : An International Tribute for a Free South Africa music gig in Wembley Stadium. [176] Returning to South Africa, he visited his home village of Qunu before cont inuing on his global tour, encouraging foreign countries to support sanctions ag

ainst the apartheid government. In France, he was welcomed by President Franois M itterand, in the Vatican City by Pope John Paul II, and in England he met Thatch er, who thought him "stuck in a socialist time warp". In the United States, he m et President George H.W. Bush, addressed both Houses of Congress and visited eig ht cities, being particularly popular among the African-American community.[177] In Cuba he met President Fidel Castro, a long time opponent of apartheid whom M andela had long emulated, with the two becoming friends.[178] In Asia he met Pre sident R. Venkataraman in India, President Suharto in Indonesia and Prime Minist er Mahathir Mohamad in Malaysia, before visiting Australia and Japan; he notably didn't visit the Soviet Union, which had long supported the ANC.[179] In May 1990, Mandela led a multi-racial ANC delegation into preliminary negotiat ions with a government delegation of 11 Afrikaner males. Mandela impressed them with his discussions of Afrikaner history, but reiterated that under apartheid, he was unable even to vote. The negotiations led to the Groot Schuur Minute, in which the government lifted the state of emergency, while in August Mandela reco gnising that the ANC were at a severe military disadvantage offered a ceasefire, the Pretoria Minute, for which he was criticised by some MK activists.[180] He spent much time trying to unify and build the ANC, appearing at a Johannesburg c onference in December that was attended by 1600 delegates, many of whom thought he was more moderate that expected.[181] At the ANC's July 1991 national confere nce in Durban, attended by over 2000 delegates, Mandela admitted the party's fau lts and proclaimed his aim in building a "strong and well-oiled task force" for securing majority rule.[182] At the conference, he was elected ANC President, re placing the ailing Tambo, while a 50-strong multi-racial, multi-gendered nationa l executive was elected.[183] Purchasing Shell House in central Johannesburg as ANC headquarters, Mandela was given his own office, while moving with Winnie to a large house in Soweto.[184] Their relationship was particularly strained, due to her constant adultery and h er trial for kidnap and assault. Though supporting her during the trial, with de fence funding coming from the International Defence and Aid organisation and fro m Mandela's Libyan friend Muammar Gaddafi, in June 1991 she was found guilty and sentenced to six years, reduced to two on appeal. On 13 April 1992, Mandela pub licly announced he was separating from Winnie, moving to Houghton, a white Johan nesburg suburb, while the ANC forced her to step down from the national executiv e.[185] Mandela's reputation was further damaged by the huge increase in "blackon-black" violence, particularly between ANC and Inkatha supporters in KwaZulu-N atal, in which thousands died. Mandela met with Inkatha leader Buthelezi, but th e ANC prevented further negotiations on the issue. Mandela recognised that there was a "third force" within the state intelligence services fuelling the "slaugh ter of the people" and openly blamed de Klerk whom he increasingly distrusted fo r the Sebokeng massacre.[186] In September 1991 a national peace conference was held in Johannesburg in which Mandela, Buthelezi and de Klerk signed a peace acc ord, though the violence continued.[187] The CODESA talks: 1991 1992 The Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) began in December 1991 at the Johannesburg World Trade Center, attended by 228 delegates from 19 political parties. Although Cyril Ramaphosa led the ANC's delegation, Mandela remained a key figure, publicly referring to de Klerk as "head of an illegitimate, discredi ted minority regime" after the President had used his speech to criticise ANC vi olence. Dominated by the National Party and ANC, little negotiation was achieved .[188] CODESA 2 was held in May 1992, in which de Klerk insisted that post-apart heid South Africa must use a federal system with a rotating presidency to ensure the protection of ethnic minorities; Mandela opposed this, demanding a unitary system governed by majority rule.[189] Following the Boipatong massacre of ANC a ctivists by government-aided Inkatha militants, Mandela called off the negotiati ons, before attending a meeting of the Organisation of African Unity in Senegal, at which he called for a special session of the UN Security Council and propose

d that a UN peacekeeping force be stationed in South Africa to prevent "state te rrorism". The UN subsequently sent special envoy Cyrus Vance to the country to a id negotiations.[190] Calling for domestic mass action, in August the ANC organi sed the largest ever strike in South African history, while supporters marched o n Pretoria.[191] De Klerk and Mandela shake hands at the World Economic Forum, 1992. Following the Bisho massacre, Mandela realised that mass action was leading to f urther violence, resuming negotiations in September. He agreed to do so on the c onditions that all political prisoners be released, that Zulu traditional weapon s be banned, and that Zulu hostels would be fenced off, the latter two to preven t further Inkatha attacks; under increasing pressure, de Klerk reluctantly agree d. The negotiations agreed that a multi-racial general election would be held, r esulting in a five year coalition government of national unity and a constitutio nal assembly that gave the National Party continuing influence. The ANC also con ceded to safeguarding the jobs of white civil servants; such concessions brought fierce internal criticism.[192] The duo agreed on an interim constitution, guar anteeing separation of powers, creating a constitutional court, and including a U.S.-style bill of rights; it also divided the country into nine provinces, each with its own premier and civil service.[193] The democratic process was threatened by the Concerned South Africans Group (COS AG), an alliance of far right Afrikaner parties and black ethnic-secessionist gr oups like Inkatha; in June 1993 the white supremacist Afrikaner Weerstandsbewegi ng (AWB) attacked the World Trade Centre.[194] Following the murder of ANC leade r Chris Hani, Mandela made a publicised speech to calm rioting, soon after appea ring at a mass funeral in Soweto for Tambo, who had died from a stroke.[195] In July 1993, both Mandela and de Klerk visited the U.S., independently meeting Pre sident Bill Clinton and each receiving the Liberty Medal.[196] Soon after, they were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, travelling to Norway, where in press interviews they continued to show their dislike for one another.[197] Socialist s within the ANC founded the Macro Economic Research Group to explore economic r eform, but its findings had little effect on the leadership. Influenced by young ANC leader Thabo Mbeki, Mandela began meeting with big business figures, and pl ayed down his support for nationalisation, fearing that he would scare away much -needed foreign investment. Although criticised by socialist ANC members, he was encouraged to embrace private enterprise by members of the Chinese and Vietname se Communist parties at the January 1992 World Economic Forum in Switzerland.[19 8] General election: 1994 Main article: South African general election, 1994 Cape Town mural of the 1994 election. With the election set for 27 April 1994, the ANC began campaigning, opening 100 election offices and hiring advisor Stanley Greenberg; he orchestrated the found ation of People's Forums across the country. Mandela appeared at many; though a poor public speaker, he was a popular figure with great status among black South Africans.[199] The ANC campaigned on a Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) to build a million houses in five years, introduce universal free educati on and extend access to water and electricity; its slogan was "a better life for all."[200] With the exception of the Weekly Mail and the New Nation, South Afri ca's press opposed Mandela's election, fearing continued ethnic strife, instead supporting the National or Democratic Party.[201] Mandela devoted much time to f undraising for the ANC, touring North America, Europe and Asia to meet wealthy d onors, including former supporters of the apartheid regime.[202] He also urged a reduction in the voting age from 18 to 14, but the ANC rejected this.[203] Concerned that COSAG would undermine the election, particularly in the wake of t he Battle of Bop and Shell House Massacre, Mandela met with Afrikaner politician s and generals, including P.W. Botha, Pik Botha and Constand Viljoen, persuading

many to work within the democratic system, and with de Klerk convinced Inkatha' s Buthelezi to enter the elections rather than waging a war of secession.[204] A s leaders of the two major parties, de Klerk and Mandela appeared on a televised debate; although de Klerk was widely considered the better speaker at the event , Mandela's offer to shake his hand surprised him, leading some commentators to consider it a victory for Mandela.[205] The election went ahead with little viol ence, although an AWB cell killed 20 with car bombs. Mandela voted at the Ohlang e High School in Durban, but publicly highlighted that the election had been mar red by fraud and sabotage.[206][207] Having taken 62% of the national vote, the ANC were victorious in 7 states, with Inkatha and the National Party each taking another, meaning that Mandela was just short of the two thirds majority needed to change the constitution. Afflicted by influenza, he made a public announcemen t congratulating de Klerk on his campaign, which was reciprocated.[208][209] Presidency of South Africa Main article: Presidency of Nelson Mandela Mandela's inauguration took place in Pretoria on 10 May 1994, televised to a bil lion viewers globally. Attended by 4000 guests, the event united such disparate figures as Hillary Clinton, Fidel Castro, Chaim Herzog and Yasser Arafat.[210] T he country's first black President, Mandela became head of a Government of Natio nal Unity. According to earlier agreements de Klerk became first deputy, while T habo Mbeki was selected as second.[211][212] Many observers credited Mandela's w ork toward reconciliation with aiding a peaceful transition.[213] After assuming the presidency, one of Mandela's trademarks was his use of Batik shirts, known as "Madiba shirts", even on formal occasions.[214] National reconciliation As President from May 1994 until June 1999, Mandela presided over the transition from minority rule and apartheid to a multicultural democracy, and saw national reconciliation as the primary task of his presidency.[215] Having seen how othe r African post-colonial economies had been damaged by the departure of white eli tes, Mandela worked to reassure and retain South Africa's white population.[216] He kept Afrikaner bureaucrats in their positions, including a major on his staf f who had once bombed an ANC building.[217] He attempted to create the broadest possible coalition in his cabinet: de Klerk served as a Deputy President of Sout h Africa; other National Party officials became ministers for Agriculture, Energ y, Environment, and Minerals and Energy; and Zulu Inkatha Freedom Party head Man gosuthu Buthelezi was named Minister for Home Affairs.[218] Mandela's efforts at reconciliation assuaged the fears of whites, but also drew criticism from more militant blacks; his estranged wife, Winnie, accused the ANC of being more inter ested in appeasing whites than in helping blacks.[219] Mandela also encouraged black South Africans to get behind the previously hated Springboks, the national rugby team, as South Africa hosted the 1995 Rugby World Cup.[220] After the Springboks won an epic final over New Zealand, Mandela pres ented the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar, an Afrikaner, wearing a Springbok shirt with Pienaar's own number 6 on the back. This was widely seen as a major s tep in the reconciliation of white and black South Africans; as de Klerk later p ut it, "Mandela won the hearts of millions of white rugby fans."[221][222] More controversially, Mandela oversaw the formation of a Truth and Reconciliatio n Commission to investigate crimes committed under apartheid by both the governm ent and the ANC, appointing Desmond Tutu as its chair. To prevent the creation o f martyrs, the Commission granted individual amnesties in exchange for testimony of crimes committed during the apartheid era. Dedicated in February 1996, it he ld two years of hearings detailing rapes, torture, bombings, and assassinations, before issuing its final report in October 1998. Both De Klerk and the ANC appe aled to have parts of the report suppressed, though only de Klerk's appeal was s uccessful.[223] Mandela praised the Commission's work, stating that it "had help ed us move away from the past to concentrate on the present and the future".[224

] Domestic programs During the course of Mandela's presidency, a wide range of progressive social re forms were enacted, aimed at reducing long-entrenched social and economic inequa lities in South Africa. As part of these reforms, free health care was introduce d in 1994 for all children under the age of six together with pregnant and breas tfeeding women making use of public sector health facilities (a provision extend ed to all those using primary level public sector health care services in 1996). [225] The Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) was launched, which inv ested in essential social services such as housing and health care. Increases in welfare spending were carried out, with public spending on welfare and social g rants increased by 13% in 1996/97, 13% in 1997/98, and 7% in 1998/99.[226] The g overnment also introduced parity in grants for communities, including disability grants, child maintenance grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously be en set at different levels for South Africa's different racial groups.[226] 3 mi llion people were connected to telephone lines,[227] 1.5 million children were b rought into the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2 mi llion people were connected to the electricity grid, water access was extended t o 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were constructed, housing nearly 3 millio n people in the process.[227] However, the RDP missed its targets for home and j ob creation, and the Mandela government soon began a retreat from its goals in f avor of free-market reforms.[228] The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their property as a result of the Natives Land Act, 1913 to claim back their land, leading to the s ettlement of tens of thousands of land claims.[229] The Land Reform Act 3 of 199 6 safeguarded the rights of labour tenants who live and grow crops or graze live stock on farms. This legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a court order or if they were over the age of sixty-five.[230][231] Mandela on a visit to Brazil in 1998 The Skills Development Act of 1998 provided for the establishment of mechanisms to finance and promote skills development at the workplace.[232] The Labour Rela tions Act of 1995 promoted workplace democracy, orderly collective bargaining, a nd the effective resolution of labour disputes.[233] The Basic Conditions of Emp loyment Act of 1997 improved enforcement mechanisms while extending a "floor" of rights to all workers,[233] while the Employment Equity Act of 1998 was passed to put an end to unfair discrimination and ensure the implementation of affirmat ive action in the workplace.[233] Commentators and AIDS activists such as Edwin Cameron have criticised Mandela fo r his government's ineffectiveness in stemming the AIDS crisis.[234] After his r etirement, Mandela admitted that he may have failed his country by not paying mo re attention to the HIV/AIDS epidemic.[235][236] Mandela has since spoken out on several occasions about the epidemic.[237][238] Mandela was also criticised for the sluggish economy, corruption scandals in the ANC government, and rising crime rates.[239] The last of these in particular ca used waves of white emigration in the late '90s.[240] Foreign affairs Mandela with U.S. President Bill Clinton In South Africa's first post-apartheid military operation, Mandela ordered troop s into Lesotho in September 1998 to protect the government of Prime Minister Pak alitha Mosisili. This came after a disputed election prompted fierce opposition threatening the unstable government.[241] Mandela took a particular interest in helping to resolve the long-running disput e between Muammar al-Gaddafi's Libya and the U.S. and Britain over bringing to t

rial the two Libyans who were indicted in November 1991 and accused of sabotagin g Pan Am Flight 103. The flight had crashed in the Scottish town of Lockerbie on 21 December 1988, with the loss of 270 lives.[242] As early as 1992, Mandela in formally approached U.S. President George H.W. Bush with a proposal to have the two indicted Libyans tried in a third country. Bush reacted favourably to the pr oposal, as did President Franois Mitterrand of France and King Juan Carlos I of S pain.[243] However, British Prime Minister John Major rejected the idea, saying that his government did not have confidence in foreign courts.[244] A further th ree years elapsed until Mandela's offer was repeated to Major's successor, Tony Blair, when Mandela visited London in July 1997. A compromise solution was then agreed for a trial to be held at Camp Zeist in th e Netherlands, governed by Scots law, and Mandela began negotiations with Colone l Gaddafi for the handover of the two accused (Megrahi and Fhimah) in April 1999 .[245] On 31 January 2001, Fhimah was found not guilty, but Megrahi was convicte d and sentenced to 27 years in a Scottish jail. Megrahi's initial appeal was tur ned down in March 2002, and Mandela visited him in Barlinnie prison on 10 June 2 002, afterward calling Megrahi's isolation "psychological persecution" and calli ng for his transfer to a Muslim country.[246] Megrahi was subsequently moved to Greenock jail and out of solitary confinement.[247] Retirement Apartheid in South Africa Events and projects 1948 general election Coloured vote constitutional crisis Treason Trial Sharpeville massacre Rivonia Trial Soweto uprising Church Street bombing Khotso House bombing Cape Town peace march CODESA Saint James Church massacre Shell House massacre Organisations ANC APLA IFP AWB Black Sash CCB Conservative Party ECC PP RP PFP HNP MK PAC UDF Broederbond National Party COSATU SACC SADF SAIC

SAP SACP Umkhonto we Sizwe State Security Council People P. W. Botha Mangosuthu Buthelezi Steve Biko Yusuf Dadoo Sheena Duncan F. W. de Klerk Eugene de Kock Ruth First Bram Fischer Chris Hani John Frederick Harris Barbara Hogan Trevor Huddleston Helen Joseph Ronnie Kasrils Ahmed Kathrada Jimmy Kruger Moses Mabhida Winnie Madikizela-Mandela Mac Maharaj D. F. Malan Nelson Mandela Kaiser Matanzima Govan Mbeki Thabo Mbeki Robert McBride Billy Nair Hastings Ndlovu Alan Paton Hector Pieterson Harry Schwarz Walter Sisulu JG Strijdom Joe Slovo Helen Suzman Oliver Tambo Eugne Terre'Blanche Andries Treurnicht Desmond Tutu H. F. Verwoerd B. J. Vorster Places Bantustan District Six Robben Island Sophiatown South-West Africa Soweto Sun City Vlakplaas

Related topics Cape Qualified Franchise Afrikaner nationalism Apartheid legislation Freedom Charter Sullivan Principles Kairos Document Disinvestment campaign South African Police Apartheid in popular culture v t e Mandela became the oldest elected President of South Africa when he took office at the age of 75 in 1994. He decided not to stand for a second term and retired in 1999, to be succeeded by Thabo Mbeki. After his retirement as President, Mandela went on to become an advocate for a v ariety of social and human rights organisations. He has expressed his support fo r the international Make Poverty History movement of which the ONE Campaign is a part.[248] The Nelson Mandela Invitational charity golf tournament, hosted by G ary Player, has raised over twenty million rand for children's charities since i ts inception in 2000.[249] This annual special event has become South Africa's m ost successful charitable sports gathering and benefits both the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund and Gary Player Foundation equally for various children's causes around the world.[250] Mandela is a vocal supporter of SOS Children's Villages, an international organi sation dedicated to raising orphaned and abandoned children.[251] Three organisa tions associated with Mandela have been established: the Nelson Mandela Foundati on, the Nelson Mandela Children's Fund, and the Mandela Rhodes Foundation.[252] Post-retirement health In July 2001 Mandela was diagnosed and treated for prostate cancer. He was treat ed with a seven-week course of radiation.[253] In 2003 Mandela's death was incor rectly announced by CNN when his pre-written obituary (along with those of sever al other famous figures) was inadvertently published on CNN's web site due to a fault in password protection.[254] In 2007 a fringe right-wing group distributed hoax email and SMS messages claiming that the authorities had covered up Mandel a's death and that white South Africans would be massacred after his funeral. Ma ndela was on holiday in Mozambique at the time.[255] Mandela with wife Graa Machel and Indian guru Sri Chinmoy In June 2004, at age 85, Mandela announced that he would be retiring from public life. His health had been declining, and he wanted to enjoy more time with his family. Mandela said that he did not intend to hide away totally from the public , but wanted to be in a position "of calling you to ask whether I would be welco me, rather than being called upon to do things and participate in events. My app eal therefore is: Don't call me, I will call you."[256] Since 2003, he has appea red in public less often and has been less vocal on topical issues.[257] Mandela's 90th birthday was marked across the country on 18 July 2008, with the main celebrations held at his home town of Qunu.[258] A concert in his honour wa s also held in Hyde Park, London.[259] In a speech to mark his birthday, Mandela called for the rich people to help poor people across the world.[258] Despite m aintaining a low-profile during the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, Mandela made a rare public appearance during the closing ceremony, where he received a

"rapturous reception".[260] In January 2011, he was hospitalized for two and a half days for a respiratory i nfection.[261] On 8 December 2012, he was hospitalized for a recurring lung infe ction,[262] and had surgery to have gallstones removed a week later.[263] He was released from the hospital on 26 December.[264] He underwent a successful sched uled medical procedure in early March 2013.[265] On 27 March 2013, Mandela's lun g infection reoccurred and he was hospitalized in Pretoria, but it was reported on 28 March that he was responding well to treatment.[266][267] The Elders On 18 July 2007, Mandela, Graa Machel, and Desmond Tutu convened a group of world leaders in Johannesburg to contribute their wisdom and independent leadership t o address the world's toughest problems. Mandela announced the formation of this new group, The Elders, in a speech he delivered on the occasion of his 89th bir thday.[268][269] "This group can speak freely and enes on whatever actions need to k to support courage where there ct, and inspire hope where there boldly, working both publicly and behind the sc be taken, Mandela commented. Together we will wor is fear, foster agreement where there is confli is despair."[270]

The Elders are Martti Ahtisaari, Kofi Annan, Ela Bhatt, Lakhdar Brahimi, Gro Har lem Brundtland, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Jimmy Carter, Graa Machel, Mary Robins on and Desmond Tutu (Chair). Mandela is an honorary Elder. AIDS engagement Since his retirement, one of Mandela's primary commitments has been to the fight against AIDS. He gave the closing address at the XIII International AIDS Confer ence in 2000, in Durban, South Africa.[271] In 2003, he had already lent his sup port to the 46664 AIDS fundraising campaign named after his prisoner number (466 of 1964).[272] In July 2004, he flew to Bangkok to speak at the XV Internationa l AIDS Conference.[273] Criticism of US and UK foreign policy Nelson Mandela had strongly opposed the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo and cal led it an attempt by the world's powerful nations to police the entire world.[27 4] In 2002 and 2003, Mandela criticised the foreign policy of US president Georg e W. Bush in a number of speeches.[275][276] Criticising the lack of UN involvem ent in the decision to begin the War in Iraq, he said, "It is a tragedy, what is happening, what Bush is doing. But Bush is now undermining the United Nations." Mandela stated he would support action against Iraq only if it is ordered by th e UN. Mandela also insinuated that the United States may have been motivated by racism in not following the UN and its secretary-general Kofi Annan on the issue of the war. "Is it because the secretary-general of the United Nations is now a black man? They never did that when secretary-generals [sic] were white".[277] Mandela urged the people of the US to join massive protests against Bush and cal led on world leaders, especially those with vetoes in the UN Security Council, t o oppose him.[277] "What I am condemning is that one power, with a president who has no foresight, who cannot think properly, is now wanting to plunge the world into a holocaust." He attacked the United States for its record on human rights and for dropping atomic bombs on Japan during World War II. "If there is a coun try that has committed unspeakable atrocities in the world, it is the United Sta tes of America. They don't care."[277] Nelson Mandela also harshly condemned Bri tish Prime Minister Tony Blair and referred to him as the "foreign minister of t he United States".[278] Ismail Ayob court action Mandela visiting the London School of Economics in 2000 Further information: Ismail Ayob

Ismail Ayob was a trusted friend and personal attorney of Mandela for over 30 ye ars. In May 2005, Ayob was asked by Mandela to stop selling prints signed by Man dela and to account for the proceeds of their sale. This bitter dispute led to a n extensive application to the High Court of South Africa by Mandela that year.[ 279] Ayob denied any wrongdoing,[280] and claimed that he was the victim of a sm ear campaign orchestrated by Mandela's advisors, in particular, lawyer George Bi zos.[281] Ayob, George Bizos and Wim Trengove were trustees of the Nelson Mandela Trust, w hich was set up to hold millions of rands donated to Nelson Mandela by prominent business figures, including the Oppenheimer family, for the benefit of his chil dren and grandchildren.[282] Ayob later resigned from the Trust. In 2006, the tw o remaining trustees of the Nelson Mandela Trust launched an application against Ayob for disbursing money from the trust without their consent.[283] In Februar y 2007, Ayob promised to pay R700 000 to Mandela, which Ayob had transferred int o trusts for Mandela's children, and apologised,[284][285] although he later sai d that he was the victim of a "vendetta" by Mandela.[286] Zimbabwe and Robert Mugabe In 2000, Mandela criticised Robert Mugabe, the president of Zimbabwe who has led the country since independence in 1980, referring to African leaders who had li berated their countries but had then overstayed their welcome.[287][288] In his retirement, Mandela spoke out less often on Zimbabwe and other international and domestic issues,[257] sometimes leading to criticism for not using his influenc e to greater effect to persuade Mugabe to moderate his policies.[289] His lawyer George Bizos revealed that Mandela has been advised on medical grounds to avoid engaging in stressful activity such as political controversy.[290] Nonetheless, in 2007, Mandela attempted to persuade Mugabe to leave office "sooner than late r", with "a modicum of dignity", before he was hounded out like Augusto Pinochet . Mugabe did not respond to this approach.[291] In June 2008, at the height of t he crisis over the Zimbabwean presidential election, Mandela condemned the "trag ic failure of leadership" in Zimbabwe.[292] Acclaim Most South Africans consider Mandela "the father of nation".[293] Eve Fairbanks of Newsweek said "Mandela rightly occupies an untouched place in the South Afric an imagination. He's the national liberator, the saviour, its Washington and Lin coln rolled into one".[294] In November 2009, the United Nations General Assembly announced that Mandela's b irthday, 18 July, is to be known as "Mandela Day" to mark his contribution to wo rld freedom. Individuals, communities and organisations are asked to donate 67 m inutes to doing something for others, commemorating the 67 years that Nelson Man dela gave to the struggle for social justice.[295] Orders and decorations Main article: List of awards and honours bestowed upon Nelson Mandela Mandela has received many South African, foreign and international honours, incl uding the Nobel Peace Prize in 1993 (which was shared with de Klerk);[296] appoi ntment as a Baliff Grand Cross of the Order of St. John and to the Order of Meri t, both personal gifts of Queen Elizabeth II;[297] and the Presidential Medal of Freedom from George W. Bush.[298] In July 2004, the city of Johannesburg bestow ed its highest honour on Mandela by granting him the freedom of the city at a ce remony in Orlando, Soweto.[299] As an example of his foreign acclaim, during his tour of Canada in 1998, he was made an honorary Companion of the Order of Canada,[300] and 45,000 school childr en greeted him with adulation at a speaking engagement in the SkyDome in the cit y of Toronto.[301] In 2001, he was the first living person to be made an honorar

y Canadian citizen (the only previous recipient, Raoul Wallenberg, was awarded h onorary citizenship posthumously).[302] In 1990 he received the Bharat Ratna Award from the government of India[303] and also received the last-ever Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union.[304] In 19 92 he was awarded the Atatrk Peace Award by Turkey. He refused the award, citing human rights violations committed by Turkey at the time,[305] but later accepted the award in 1999.[304] In 1992 he received the Nishan-e-Pakistan, the highest civil service award of Pakistan.[306] Musical tributes Mandela Family Museum, Soweto Many artists have dedicated songs to Mandela. One of the most popular was from T he Special AKA who recorded the song "Free Nelson Mandela" in 1983, which Elvis Costello also recorded and had a hit with. Stevie Wonder dedicated his 1985 Osca r for the song "I Just Called to Say I Love You" to Mandela, resulting in his mu sic being banned by the South African Broadcasting Corporation.[307] In 1985, Yo ussou N'Dour's album Nelson Mandela was the Senegalese artist's first U.S. relea se. Other artists who released songs or videos honoring Mandela include Johnny C legg,[308] Hugh Masekela,[309] Brenda Fassie,[310] Beyond,[311] Nickelback,[312] Raffi,[313] and Ampie du Preez and AB de Villiers.[314] On 11 June 1988, the Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute event was produced by Tony Hollingsworth and broadcast to a worldwide audience of 600 million people. The event had three main objectives, in addition to the obvious demand that Mand ela should be released: to stop radio and television broadcasters from referring to Mandela as a "terrorist"; to position him as a leader; and to obtain ratings figures high enough to motivate politicians worldwide to call for Mandela's rel ease. The event was staged at London's Wembley Stadium and involved 83 major art ists.[315] Participants included Jerry Dammers, Simple Minds, Santana, Tracy Cha pman, Salif Keita, and Whitney Houston.[315] Shortly after Mandela's release from prison in February 1990, Hollingsworth prod uced a second global broadcast event, Nelson Mandela: An International Tribute f or a Free South Africa, which reached a worldwide audience of 500 million people . This event, held on 16 April 1990, was regarded by Mandela as an official inte rnational reception. Mandela was on stage for 45 minutes, of which the first eig ht minutes was taken up by a standing ovation. He called for the maintenance of sanctions against South Africa and for continued pressure from people around the world for the abolition of the apartheid system.[316][317] Published biographies Mandela's autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom, was published in 1994, an extende d version of No Easy Walk to Freedom, published by Heinemann in 1965. Mandela ha d begun work on it secretly while in prison.[318] In 1995, one of Mandela's former warders, James Gregory, published a biography o f Mandela titled Goodbye Bafana. Biographer Anthony Sampson maintained that Mand ela had not known Gregory well, but that Gregory censored the letters sent to th e future president and thus discovered the details of Mandela's personal life. S ampson also stated that other warders suspected Gregory of spying for the govern ment and that Mandela considered suing Gregory.[319] Cinema and television In the final scene of the 1992 film Malcolm X, Mandela appears as a schoolteache r in a Soweto classroom and recites a portion of one of Malcolm X's speeches.[32 0] The 1997 film Mandela and de Klerk, starring Sidney Poitier as Mandela, told the story of Mandela's release from prison.[321] Goodbye Bafana, a 2007 feature film, starred Dennis Haysbert as Mandela and chronicled Mandela's relationship w ith prison guard James Gregory.[322] In the 2009 BBC television film Mrs Mandela

, Nelson Mandela was portrayed by David Harewood, and Sophie Okonedo played Winn ie Mandela.[323] Mandela and Springboks captain Franois Pienaar are the focus of a 2008 book by Jo hn Carlin, Playing the Enemy: Nelson Mandela and the Game that Made a Nation,[32 4] that spotlights the role of the 1995 Rugby World Cup win in post-apartheid So uth Africa.[325] The film adaptation, titled Invictus, featured Morgan Freeman a s Mandela.[325] Statues and civic tributes Tributes to Nelson Mandela Statue of Mandela in Parliament Square, London Nelson Mandela Gardens in Leeds Nelson Mandela Bridge in Johannesburg On 30 April 2001, Nelson Mandela Gardens in Millennium Square, Leeds was officia lly opened and Nelson Mandela was awarded the freedom of the city and awarded a commemorative 'golden owl' (the heraldic symbol of Leeds).[326] On 31 March 2004 , Sandton Square in Johannesburg was renamed Nelson Mandela Square, after a 6-me tre statue of Nelson Mandela was installed on the square.[327] On 29 August 2007, a statue of Nelson Mandela was unveiled at Parliament Square in London by Richard Attenborough, Ken Livingstone, Wendy Woods (widow of Donald Woods), and Gordon Brown.[328] The campaign to erect the statue was started in 2000 by the late Donald Woods, a South African journalist driven into exile beca use of his anti-apartheid activities. Mandela stated that it represented not jus t him, but all those who have resisted oppression, especially those in South Afr ica.[329] On 27 August 2008, a statue of Nelson Mandela was unveiled at Groot Drakenstein Correctional Centre, formerly Victor Verster Prison, near Cape Town. It stands o n the spot where Mandela was released from the prison after his long captivity.[ 330] Political ideology Biographer David James Smith asserted that politically, Mandela was "a democrat, and a socialist".[331] Although he presented himself in an autocratic manner in several speeches, Mandela was a devout believer in democracy, and would abide b y majority decisions even when he deeply disagreed with them.[332] Biographer Anthony Sampson relating that Mandela was "openly opposed to capitali sm, private land-ownership and the power of big money."[333] Influenced by Marxi sm, during the revolution Mandela advocated "scientific socialism,"[334] althoug h denied being a communist during the Treason Trial.[335] Smith thought that whi le Mandela "embraced communism and communists" in early life, he was a "fellow t raveller" rather than a party member.[336] Nevertheless, coming to power shortly after the fall of the socialist states in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, du ring the early 1990s he was convinced that socialist policies of nationalising i ndustry were not best for South Africa, for they would scare foreign investment. [337] Personal life Mandela exhibited a "relaxed charm" when talking to others, including his oppone nts.[338] In later life, Mandela was known for looking for the best in everyone, even defending political opponents to his allies.[339] He was nevertheless know n for his "hot temper", and could flare up in anger in certain situations.[340] Very conscious of his image, throughout his life he sought fine quality clothes, and carried himself in a "regal style" stemming from his childhood in the Themb u royal house.[341] Considered "physically undemonstrative" with his children,[3 42] he was a "demanding, ambitious father".[343] Mandela has been married three

times, has fathered six children, has twenty grandchildren, and a growing number of great-grandchildren.[344] He is grandfather to Chief Mandla Mandela.[345] First marriage Mandela's first marriage was to Evelyn Ntoko Mase who, like Mandela, was also fr om what later became the Transkei area of South Africa, although they actually m et in Johannesburg.[346] The couple broke up in 1957 after 13 years, divorcing u nder the multiple strains of his constant absences, devotion to revolutionary ag itation, and the fact she was one of Jehovah's Witnesses, a religion which requi res political neutrality.[347] Mase died in 2004.[348] The couple had two sons, Madiba Thembekile (Thembi) (1946 1969) and Makgatho Mandela (1950 2005), and two dau ghters, both named Makaziwe Mandela (known as Maki; born 1947 and 1953). Their f irst daughter died aged nine months, and they named their second daughter in her honour.[349] All their children were educated at the United World College of Wa terford Kamhlaba.[350] Thembi was killed in a car crash in 1969 at the age of 23 , while Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island, and Mandela was not allowed to attend the funeral.[351] Makgatho died of AIDS in 2005, aged 54.[352] Second marriage Mandela's second wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, also came from the Transkei ar ea, although they, too, met in Johannesburg, where she was the city's first blac k social worker.[353] They had two daughters, Zenani (Zeni), born 4 February 195 8, and Zindziswa (Zindzi) Mandela-Hlongwane, born 1960.[353] Zindzi was only 18 months old when her father was sent to Robben island. Later, Winnie would be dee ply torn by family discord which mirrored the country's political strife; while her husband was serving a life sentence in the Robben Island prison, her father became the agriculture minister in the Transkei.[353] The marriage ended in sepa ration (April 1992) and divorce (March 1996), fueled by political estrangement.[ 354] Mandela was still in prison when his daughter Zenani was married to Prince Thumb umuzi Dlamini in 1973, elder brother of King Mswati III of Swaziland.[355] Altho ugh she had vivid memories of her father, from the age of four up until sixteen, South African authorities did not permit her to visit him.[356] In July 2012, Z enani was appointed ambassador to Argentina, becoming the first of Mandela's thr ee remaining children to enter public life.[357] Third marriage Mandela remarried on his 80th birthday in 1998, to Graa Machel ne Simbine, widow o f Samora Machel, the former Mozambican president and ANC ally who was killed in an air crash 12 years earlier.[358] References Footnotes ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ a b Mandela 1994, p. 3; Sampson 1999, p. 3; Smith 2010, p. 17. Mandela 1994, p. 4; Smith 2010, p. 16. Mandela 1994, p. 6; Smith 2010, p. 16. Smith 2010, p. 19. Mandela 1994, pp. 8 9; Sampson 1999, p. 4; Smith 2010, pp. 21 22. Mandela 1994, p. 17. Mandela 1994, pp. 7 8; Sampson 1999, p. 4; Smith 2010, pp. 16, 23 24. Mandela 1994, p. 19. Mandela 1994, p. 15. Mandela 1994, p. 12; Smith 2010, pp. 23 24. Mandela 1994, pp. 18 19; Sampson 1999, pp. 5,7; Smith 2010, p. 24. Mandela 1994, pp. 20; Sampson 1999, p. 7; Smith 2010, p. 25. Mandela 1994, pp. 8, 20. Mandela 1994, pp. 22 25; Sampson 1999, pp. 7 9; Smith 2010, pp. 26 27. Mandela 1994, pp. 27 29. Mandela 1994, p. 25; Smith 2010, p. 27.

^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^

Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Sampson Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Sampson Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Sampson Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela Mandela

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^ Sampson 1999, p. 431. ^ Sampson 1999, p. 431; Smith 2010, p. 80 ^ Sampson 1999, p. 432. ^ Smith 2010, p. 147 ^ Sampson 1999, p. 246. ^ Jon Jeter (17 June 1999). "In S. Africa, a President Replaces an Icon; Mbe ki Takes Over From Mandela, Nation's 'Saintly Man'". The Washington Post. via H ighBeam Research (subscription required). Retrieved 3 February 2013. ^ Andrew Quinn (16 April 2007). "Mandela's grandson becomes tribal chief, po litical heir". Reuters via HighBeam Research (subscription required). Retrieved 3 February 2013. ^ "Nelson Mandela Timeline". Nelson Mandela Foundation. Archived from the or iginal on 25 February 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2008. ^ "Mandela's life and times". BBC. 16 July 2008. Archived from the original on 25 February 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2008. ^ "Madiba bids final farewell to his first wife". Independent Online. 8 May 2004. Archived from the original on 25 February 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2008. ^ Sharon Feinstein (16 October 2010). "Nelson Mandela's daughter: I don't kn ow if my father loves me". Daily Mail. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2013. ^ "UWC Presidents and Patrons". United World Colleges. Archived from the ori ginal on 18 May 2008. Retrieved 28 October 2008. ^ Smith, Charlene; Tutu, Desmond (2004). Mandela: In Celebration of a Great Life. Struik. p. 41. ISBN 1-86872-828-5. ^ Timberg, Craig (7 January 2005). "Mandela Says AIDS Led to Death of Son". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 25 February 2013. Retrieved 1 6 June 2010. ^ a b c "Winnie Mandela". ANC. Archived from the original on 22 July 2008. R etrieved 27 October 2008. ^ "Nelson and Winnie Mandela divorce; Winnie fails to win $5 million settlem ent". Jet. 8 April 1996. Retrieved 27 October 2008. ^ "Swaziland prince and princess attend Boston University". WGBH Boston. 13 May 1987. Retrieved 27 October 2008. ^ "Daddy Stayed In Jail. That Was His Job'; Zenani Mandela's Life Without Fa ther". The Washington Post. 8 November 1987. Archived from the original on 25 Fe bruary 2013. Retrieved 27 October 2008.} ^ "Mandela daughter Zenani appointed Argentina ambassador". BBC News. 4 July 2012. Archived from the original on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 3 February 2013. ^ "Mandela gets married on 80th birthday". CNN. 18 July 1998. Archived from the original on 14 June 2008. Retrieved 27 October 2008. Bibliography Aikman, David (2003). Great Souls: Six Who Changed a Century. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0438-1. Mandela, Nelson (1994). Long Walk to Freedom Volume I: 1918 1962. Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 978-0754087236. Mandela, Nelson (2004) [1994]. Long Walk to Freedom Volume II: 1962 1994 ( large print edition). London: BBC AudioBooks and Time Warner Books Ltd. ISBN 978 -0754087247. Meredith, Martin (2010). Mandela: A Biography. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1586488321. Sampson, Anthony (1999). Mandela: The Authorised Biography. HarperCollin s. ISBN 978-0006388450. Smith, David James (2010). Young Mandela. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 97 8-0297855248. Further reading A Prisoner in the Garden: Opening Nelson Mandela's Prison Archive. Penguin B

ooks. 2005. ISBN 0-14-302495-7. Desmond Tutu ; edited by John Allen. (1996). The Rainbow People of God: The Making of a Peaceful Revolution. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-48374-2. Benson, Mary. Nelson Mandela: The Man and the Movement. Bezdrob, Anne Marie du Preez (2006). The Nelson Mandela Story. Samoja Books. ISBN 0-620-36570-6. Denenberg, Barry. Nelson Mandela: No Easy Walk To Freedom. Hoobler, Dorothy; Hoobler, Thomas (1992). Mandela: The Man, The Struggle, Th e Triumph. New York: Franklin Watts. ISBN 978-0-531-15245-4. Juckes, Tim (1995). Opposition in South Africa: The Leadership of Matthews, Nelson Mandela, and Stephen Biko. Westport: Praeger Publishers. Meredith, Martin. Nelson Mandela: A Biography. Nelson, Kadir (2013). Nelson Mandela. Katherine Tegen Books. Smith, Charlene. Mandela: In Celebration of a Great Life. Stengel, Richard (2009). Mandela's Way: Fifteen Lessons on Life, Love, and C ourage. Crown. ISBN 978-0-307-46068-4. Villa-Vicencio, Charles (1996). The Spirit of Freedom. Berkeley: University of California Press. External links Find more about Nelson Mandela at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from Commons Learning resources from Wikiversity News stories from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Source texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Nelson Mandela Centre of Memory Nelson Mandela Children's Fund Mandela: An Audio History The Elders Nelson Mandela: Prisoner, president, peacemaker CBC Digital Archives Nelson Mandela Day official site Political offices Preceded by Frederik Willem de Klerk as State President of South Africa President of South Africa 1994 1999 Succeeded by Thabo Mbeki Diplomatic posts Preceded by Andrs Pastrana Arango Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement 1998 1999 Succeeded by Thabo Mbeki [show] Nelson Mandela Authority control WorldCat VIAF: 98029748 LCCN: n85153068 GND: 118730541 Categories: 1918 births Alumni of the University of London External System

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Ladder Track is a type of railway track in which the track is laid on longitudin al supports with transverse connections holding the two rails at the correct gau ge distance. Modern ladder track can be considered a development of baulk road w hich supported rails on longitudinal wooden sleepers. Synonyms include Longitudi nal Beam Track. Contents 1 History and overview 2 Design variants 2.1 Tubular Modular Track 2.2 RTRI Japan ladder tracks 2.3 Other types 3 See also 4 References 5 External links History and overview Diagram of cross section of 1830s ladder type track used on the Leeds and Selby Railway Early forms of ladder track include Baulk road, ladder type track has also be us ed historically on bridges lacking ballast, and in situations requiring good dra inage or ease of maintenance such as stations. Research into longitudinal sleepe rs took place in Japan, Russia and France in the mid 20th century.[1] In the lat e 20th century, interest in ladder type tracks increased due to its potential fo r lower cost and lower maintenance railways, as well as increased stability bene fits over sleepered track. In general, ladder track produces lower pressures on the road bed: both the maxi mum pressure and the amplitude of pressure pulses are smaller than transverse sl eepered track, which can reduce maintenance costs in ballasted systems. An addit ional benefit in ballasted ladder track is increased resistance to ballast wash out and other forms of ballast degradation due the addition longitudinal support and rigidity in ladder track.; the same structural rigidity also adds to buckli ng resistance.[1] Design variants Tubular Modular Track Tubular Modular Track Tubular Modular Track (or TMT) is a type of ballastless ladder track manufacture d by Tubular Track (Pty.) Ltd. of South Africa first introduced in 1989.[2] and invented by Peter Ksel.[3] The track consists of steel rail resting on concrete supports via rubberised cor k absorption pads with galvanised steel tie beams which wrap around the concrete members rather than being cast into the concrete as with other ladder tracks. T he track is modular and precast, rather than being cast in situ. Modular turnout s are also produced.[4] The modular nature and controlled production of the trac k sections has the advantage of rapid installation and good quality control.[5] The ballastless and modular nature of the track makes it advantageous for both w et and desert conditions where ballast degradation is problematic, as well as in mines where transportation of the track components is simplified.[6] Since the rail is continuously supported rail stresses are less; a 34 tonne axle load vers ion has been designed and lighter rails can be used compared to sleepered track, additionally maintenance costs of ballast are reduced.[7] The track has been used mainly in southern Africa,[8] including a section of the Gautrain line in South Africa.[9] The system has also been used in Saudi Arabia .[10] RTRI Japan ladder tracks

Ladder track at Akabane Station The Railway Technical Research Institute of Japan has developed two types of lad der track; ballasted and a floating un-ballasted type.[11] Both types utilise a 'combined rail' of steel rails each attached through a conv entional modern railway fastener to a longitudinal pre-stressed concrete support s (6.25m long) which are kept in gauge by thick walled tubular steel cross membe rs embedded in the concrete.[12] Forms for axle load of 40 tonnes have been desi gned.[1] The ballasted track show reduced maintenance (tamping) compared to conventional cross-tie sleeper track,[12] longitudintal creep is greater than that in convent ional track; for this reason transverse 'anti creep' panels are included in the structure.[1] The non-ballasted track is ric pads[1]) on a concrete al vibrations of the track gives reduced noise levels 13] Other types supported by vibration absorbing springs (or elastome road bed; the combined structure shows reduced vertic bed compared to conventional track[12] This property when the track is utilised in a steel girder bridge.[

Specialised Track Systems (Pty.) Ltd. licenses its technology for ladder track t o contractors; the track system is ballastless with steel lateral braces in a co ncrete roadbed, support of the track is by conventional rail fastening systems s paced at regular intervals. The design can also incorporate ducts within the bea ms (for cabling) and can be converted to slab track by in-situ concrete pouring. The company's main market is mining applications.[14][15] See also Railroad tie References ^ a b c d e Wakui, Hajime; Matsumoto, Nobuyuki; Inoue, Hiromi. "Technologica l Innovation in Railway Structure System with Ladder Track System". Tokyo: Railw ay Technical Research Institute. Archived from the original on 27 September 2005 . ^ Company Profile : Tubular Track www.tubulartrack.co.za ^ Tubular Track offers continuous rail support at a competitive price 1/9/20 05 , www.railwaygazette.com ^ What is TMT? www.tubulartrack.co.za ^ Precast Modular Sections www.tubulartrack.co.za ^ Applications www.tubulartrack.co.za ^ "Tubular Track an Array of Advantages". Railways Africa. 24 December 2009. Retrieved 19 September 2010. ^ Installation highlights since 1989 www.tubulartrack.co.za ^ Gautrain Burnett Street deviation www.tubulartrack.co.za ^ Tubes in the desert 18/2/2009 , www.railwaygazette.com ^ "Low Cost Railways through the Latest Technologies of Design, Construction and Maintenance", www.rtri.or.jp (Railway Technical Research Institute (Japan)) , archived from the original on 14 June 2007 ^ a b c Kiyoshi Asanuma (1 September 2004), "Ladder Track Structure and Perf ormance", Railway Technology Avalanche (6): 35 ^ Low-noise steel composite bridges Major results of research and developmen t in Fiscal 2007 , www.rtri.or.jp ^ Shuttleworth backs rail-track innovation Jill Stanford, 17/10/2003 , www.m iningweekly ^ Specialised Track Systems Company website , www.track.co.za

External links "????? Ladder Track System" (in Japanese), www.rtri.or.jp (Railway Technical Research Institute (Japan)), archived from the original on 22 October 2003, Dia grams of structure of Japanese ladder track, with image of internal steel reinfo rcement and tie member attachments There is also a short story "Aficionado" (originally titled "Life in the Extreme "), published in 1998, which serves as a prequel to the series as a whole (it al so serves as a part of Existence, an unrelated work by Brin), and a novella Temp tation published in 1999 in Far Horizons, which follows on from Heaven's Reach. Brin also wrote Contacting Aliens: An Illustrated Guide To David Brin's Uplift U niverse which is a guidebook about the background of the series. At least one more Uplift book is planned by the author, as Brin has stated that Temptation "will be a core element of the next Uplift novel... and answers sever al unresolved riddles left over from Heaven's Reach." [6] GURPS Uplift is a sourcebook for a science fiction themed role-playing game base d on the Uplift Universe. It includes a few stories that happen in Jijo after th e end of Heaven's Reach.