Foundations of Physics, VoL 18, No.

7, 1988

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

Stanley P. Gudder 1
Received June 12, 1986 A discrete quantum mechanics is developed and used to construct models for discrete space-time and for the internal dynamics of elementary particles. This dynamics is given in terms of particles performing a quantum random walk on a multigraph.

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N David Bohm published a fascinating article 25 years ago in which he proposed a topological formulation of quantum theory/~) He called this formulation a topo-chronology theory, by which he meant the study of order and relationship in process. The basis of his theory is that every action is a result of discrete primary actions which take place at the speed of light c. A general action at a speed less than c consists of a zig-zag series of primary contacts at the speed e, and all apparently continuous movements at speeds less than c are to be explained as the result of such a trembling movement. According to Bohm: "This fits in with modern relativistic quantum mechanical ideas concerning the movement of the electron. Dirac's equation implies, for example, that the electron moves at the speed of light in trembling movements (called Zitterbewegungen). (The average velocity, which is less than that of light, then corresponds to a kind of circulation in a spiral path that is responsible for the phenomena associated with the electron spin.)" This explains why c is absolute. In fact, c is the only possible speed and all others are only apparent. As a simplified example, suppose a particle moving in one dimension travels two steps

1Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Denver, Denver, Colorado 80208.
751

0015-9018/88/0700-0751506.00/0 1988PlenumPublishingCorporation

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forward and one step backward in a repeated motion. Although its actual speed is c, it has an apparent speed of c/3. Bohm then proposes a mathematical model for his topo-chronology theory. He represents every actual movement by a point (or vertex) and every actual process of immediate contact between such moments by a line (or edge). This corresponds mathematically to a graph. Relationships which define each moment in terms of past moments are described by certain kinds of matrices. He indicates that these matrices have a close connection with fermions and bosons and they might provide an explanation for the structure of elementary particles. In the present paper we intend to expand upon Bohm's ideas by constructing various concrete mathematical models. However, instead of calling this a topochronology theory we shall use the term quantum graphic dynamics. As its name implies, quantum graphic dynamics (QGD) consists of two main ingredients, a graph and a quantum dynamics. The graph (or multigraph) is interpreted as a generalized discrete phase space in which the vertices represent discrete positions which a particle can occupy and the edges represent discrete directions that a particle can propagate. The quantum dynamics is induced by a transition amplitude which generates a quantum random walk on the graph. Our developmment of QGD has two purposes.. First, QGD can be used to describe the motion of a particle in discrete space-time. In this case, the graph represents an actual discrete phase space and the discrete time is given by the time steps of the random walk. Second, QGD can be used to describe the internal dynamics of "elementary particles." In this case, the vertices represent quarklike constituents of a particle, and edges represent interaction paths for gluons which are emitted and absorbed by the vertices. A vertex can emit or absorb a gluon at each time step of the random walk. In Section 2 we begin the development of QGD for an abstract multigraph. Section 3 illustrates this theory by considering two models of discrete space-time. The first model is a cubic lattice, and the second is a tree model. Section 4 develops a multigraph model for elementary particles, and Section 5 derives the gluon dynamics for these multigraphs. For other approaches to discrete quantum mechanics, the reader is referred to Refs. 1-4 and 6-9.

2. ABSTRACT MULTIGRAPHS In a previous paper, ~5) we began to develop a theory of discrete quantum mechanics. To make the present work self-contained, we shall review

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some of that material here. Moreover, in Ref. 5 we only considered graphs while in this work we shall require a theory on multigraphs. A multigraph is a pair G = ( V, E), where V is a nonempty set and E is a collection of one- and two-element subsets of V. The elements of V are called vertices, the two-element sets in E are called edges, and the oneelement sets in E are called loops. The sets in E may be repeated, and a repeated pair of edges is called a biedge. The degree of a vertex is the number of edges containing (or incident to) it. As far as the degree is concerned, a loop is considered to be two edges incident to a vertex. Thus, each loop incident to a vertex adds two to its degree. Suppose that V = {vj:j~J} and that the edges containing vj are denoted by ejk, k~K(j). If {vr, vs} ~E, we write vr 2_ vs and say that vr, v~ are adjacent (r may equal s). The phase space on G is the set S = {(vj, ej~):j~J, k~K(j)} ~ Vx E If q = (vj, ejk), q' = (vj,, ej,k,) e S, and vj 2_ v / w e write q 2_ q'. For n E ~, an

n-path is a sequence of not necessarily distinct elements q0,..., q, ~ S with qj 2_ qj+ 1, J = 9 ..... n + 1. We call q0, q, the initial and final elements of the
n-path, respectively. Denote the set of n-paths with initial element qo and final element q by ~,(qo, q). We interpret V as a set of discrete position coordinates for a particle and adjacent vertices correspond to "nearest neighbor" positions. An edge corresponds to a direction that a particle can move, so it represents a direction of momentum. If e = {vl, v2}~E, then a particle located at Vl can move along e to v2 in one time step. An n-path p ~ ~n(q0, q) is a possible trajectory for a particle moving in a discrete phase space from qo to q in n time steps. A function A: S S ~ C is a transition amplitude if A(q,q')=O if q J_ q' and for every ql, q2 ~ S we have

A(ql, q) A(q2, q) = ~ a(q, qv) A(q, q2) =

q q

(~ q l q 2

(1)

where .~ denotes the complex conjugate of A. If p = {qo,..., q,} ~ ~,(qo, q), the amplitude of p is

A(p)= A(qo, q~) A(q~, q2) ... A(q, 1, q,)

For qo, q ~ S, the n-step transition amplitude from qo to q is

A,(qo, q ) = Z {A(p): P ~ , ( q o , q)}

and by convention Ao(qo , q ) = (~qoq" The n-step transition probability from qo to q is P,,(qo, q ) = [An(qo, q)j2.

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We can motivate our definition of a transition amplitude physically. First, we interpret A(q, q') as the probability amplitude that a particle moves from q to q' in one time step and we interpret A(q, q') as the probability amplitude that a particle moves from q' to q in minus one time steps. Alternatively, if a particle is at q' at time t, then .,/(q, q') is the probability amplitude that it was at q at time t - 1 . Then A(q, q')=0 if q l_ q' means that a particle can only move to adjacent vertices in one time step. Moreover, we then interpret A(ql, q)A(q2, q) as the probability amplitude that a particle moves from ql to q2 via q in zero time steps. It follows that Zq A(ql, q)A(q2, q) is the total probability amplitude that a particle moves from q~ to q2 in zero time steps. It is clear that this should equal 6q~q2. Similar reasoning applies to the other equality in Eq. (1). The following result is a slight generalization of a theorem proved in Ref. 5. It states that probability is conserved and that an amplitude Chapman-Kolmogorov equality holds. Theorem 1. (a) m, n ~ ~, m ~<n, then

~q IA,(qo, q)l 2 = Z q
q'

[A~(q, qo)12= 1, n~ ~. (b) If

An(qo, q): ~ Am(qo, q') An m(q', q)

Let 12(S) be the Hilbert space of functions {f: S ~ C: 52q If(q)] 2 < oo } with inner product ( f , g ) = ~ f(q) g(q). An orthonormal basis for/2(S) is {6q:qsS}, where 6q(q')=6qq,. It follows from T h e o r e m l ( a ) that A,(qo, .), A,(., qo) are unit vectors in/2(8). Let T, U be linear operators on /2(8) defied by (Tf)(q) = ~ A(q, q') f(q'),
q'

(Uf)(q) = ~ A(q', q)f(q')

q'

We call T and U propagators for A. The next result slightly generalizes a theorem in Ref. 5.
T h e o r e m 2.

(a) T and U are unitary operators and U = T*. (b)

An(qo , q)= ( T"3q, (~qo) = ((~q, Unbqo ).

Fix qo~ S and let Sn(q)= An(qo, q) be the wave function. We have already noted that ~n is a unit vector in I2(S). Applying Theorem l(b), we obtain

~P~+l(q) = ~ An(qo, q') A(q', q) = ~ A(q', q) t~,(q')

q' q'

(2)

We shall later show that the difference equation (2) is a discrete analog of the Dirac equation. We call Eq. (2) the discrete wave equation.

Quantum Graphic Dynamics 3. DISCRETE SPACE-TIME M O D E L S

755

In this section we illustrate the theory developed in Section 2 with two discrete space-time models. We first consider cubic lattices of arbitrary dimension. Let V = Z ' , Z = {0, + 1, _+2,...} be the cubic lattice of dimension m. For vl, v2e V, define vl L v2 if one of their components differ by one and the others are equal. Thus vl Vz if and only if v~, v2 are nearest neighbors and the edges are represented by lines joining nearest neighbors. Define the following unit vectors in N" /~1 = (1, 0 ..... 0), ~:3 = (0, 1, 0 ..... 0) ..... /~2m i = (0, 0,..., 0, 1)
k2n = - k 2 n - 1,

n = 1,..., m

We can then represent the phase space S as S = {(j,k): j e V, k e {k, ..... /~2m}} We now define the function A: S x S--, C as follows:

A((j,k), (j+k,k'))=

a be ~ cd

if k ' = k if k ' = - k if k' _+k

where a, b, c > 0 , 0, ~b6 [0, 2~), and A((j, k), (j', k ' ) ) = 0 otherwise. The physical interpretation of this function (in a slightly different form) and the following result are given in Ref. 5. Theorem 3. A is a transition amplitude if and only if the following three equations hold: (a) a 2 + b 2 + 2 ( m - 1 ) c 2 = l ; (b) a b c o s O + (m - 1 )c 2 = 0; (c) a cos ~b+ b cos(0 - ~b) + (m - 2)c = 0, if m ~ 1. Thus, if A is a transition amplitude, then only two of the five parameters are left unspecified. We now derive some other characterizations for A to be a transition amplitude, and these will be useful later. Let B, C be the following 2 x 2 matrices B= beiO a J' C = ce iO l

and let M be the 2m x 2m matrix consisting of B's on the main diagonal and C's elsewhere. It is easy to check that 0 1 = ( 1 , t), 0 : = ( 1 , - 1 ) are eigenvectors of B and C with respective eigenvalues a + be i, a - be i and 2ce ~, O. It follows from a direct computation that a - be i is an eigenvalue

756

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of M with multiplicity m and the following are corresponding orthonormat eigenvectors:

(02, 0 ..... 0)/,,/L.., (0, 0,..., 0, 02)/,/2

Moreover, a + be ~+ 2(m - 1 ) ce ~ is a nondegenerate eigenvalue of M with corresponding normalized eigenvector
(01, 01 .....

Finally, a + be ~- 2ce ~ is an eigenvalue with multiplicity m - 1, and the following are corresponding orthonormal eigenvectors: (01, - 0 1 , 0 ..... 0)/2 (01,01, - 2 0 1 , 0 ..... 0)/x/J2
(01, 01 ..... 01, - ( r n 1)01)/,J2(m-

1)m

Theorem 4.

The following statements are equivalent:

(a) (b) (c)

A is a transition amplitude.
l a - beil = la + be ~ - 2ceeOl -= la + be i + 2(m - 1) ce~Ot = 1.

M is a unitary matrix.

P r o o f That (a) implies (b) follows from expanding the squares of the expressions in (b) and applying Theorem 3. If (b) holds, then M is a normal matrix with eigenvalues of modulus one. It follows from the spectral theorem that M is unitary and hence (c) holds. Now suppose M is unitary, and denote its entries by Mik, j, k = 1,..., 2m. Then ~.k M~k-Myk= ~jj., j, j' = 1,..., 2m. If j = j ' , we obtain 1 =~
k

I M j k l 2 = a 2 + b 2 + 2 ( m - 1)c 2

and hence Condition (a) of Theorem 3 holds. If j C j', there are two cases. In the first case, I J - J ' l = 1 and min(j, f ) is odd. For this case, we have
0 = E M)e~/iJ'k = 2ab cos 0 + 2(m - 1)c 2
k

and hence (b) of Theorem 3 holds. Otherwise, we have the second case which gives
0 = ~ mjk Mj,k = 2ac cos + 2bc cos(0 -- ~b) + 2(m - 2)c 2
k

Quantum GraphicDynamics

757

If c 0 and m ~>2, we obtain (c) of Theorem 3. Otherwise, c = 0 and m = l, so this condition is vacuous. | We now consider the discrete wave equation in this context. Assume A is a transition amplitude and write Eq. (2) as follows:
2m

~n+l(J'for)= 2 A((J--fCs'~s)'(J'fCr))~tn(J--ks'fCs) S=l

(3)

If we use the notation ~S(n, j) = ~,,(j,/~,), s = 1,..., 2m, we can write (3) in matrix form:

"

= M

"

(4)

,,j)j

[/2m(n,j-k2m)

where M is the unitary matrix considered above. In a rough sense, Eq. (4) is a discrete analog of Dirac's equation since the left-hand side has the position variable j fixed and the time variable n is incremented, while the right-hand side has the time variable n fixed and the position variable j is incremented. For simplicity,let us consider the one-dimensional case, m = 1. In this case, the parameters c and ~ do not appear and the conditions for unitarity in Theorem 3 become: a2+b2= 1, ab cos 0 = 0. It follows that b = ( 1 - a Z ) 1/2 and 0 = ~/2 or 3rr/2. For concreteness, suppose 0 = re/2. We thus have only one fi'ee parameter 0 < a < 1. In this case, Eq. (4) is equivalent to the following two equations, where j s Z:

O~(n + 1, j)=aOl(n, j - 1) + ibO2(n, j + 1)

02(n + 1, j) = ibO'(n, j From Eq. (5) we obtain ~tZ(n, j) = - ~ ~l(n + l , j -

(5) (6)

1 ) + a~,2(n, j + 1)

1) +~- ~l(n, j - 2)

ia

(7)

Substituting (7) into (6) and simplifying gives

01(n+l,j)+~kl(n-l,j)=a[~t(n,j+l)+~l(n,j-1)]

(8)

A similar procedure shows that Eq. (8) also holds for ~2(n, j). Notice that Eq. (8) is a discrete analog of the Klein-Gordon equation. The solution of (4) in closed form appears to be quite difficult. This has been solved for m = 1 in Ref. 5. Although the method employed there

758

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can be extended to higher dimensions, the work involved is very tedious. However, a related problem which is physically relevant can be easily solved. We call this the momentum problem. Let
On(s) = ~ tpS(n, j ) = ~ An(qo, (j, ~s))
J /

We call ~b.(s) the m o m e n t u m wave f u n c t i o n and note that it gives the probability amplitude that a particle moves in the /~. direction at time n given that it began at qo at time 0. If we sum Eq. (4) over j, we obtain

= M ~+l ~+1(2m) L~bn(2m)]

(9)

l+o(i )/

Since ~bo(S ) is clearly a unit vector in C 2m and M is unitary, it follows that ~bn(s) is a unit vector in C 2m. Since we know the eigenpairs for M (these were listed right before Theorem 4), we can diagonalize M and solve the momentum problem. To facilitate this, define the 2 x 2 matrices

--I'1 'd,
Then the projections P1, P2, P3 onto the eigenspaces for the eigenvalues 21 = a - be i, 22 = a + b d + 2(m - 1 ) e g , 23 = a + be ~ - 2 c d ~, respectively, become 1
el =~

iio...l
0 E .-.

1
P2 =~mm

...

0 ...

D -D .... (m--1)D .... " --O ..-(m

D / _D -1)
"1

1
(10)

( m - 1)D 1 [ _~ P3 =~mm

o1

and from the spectral theorem we have

M = 21P~ + 22P2 + )~3P3

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

759

Suppose the initial momentum is in the/~r direction. Then ~bo(S)= 6,r and, by Eq. (9), q~,(s)= ( M ~ o ) ( s ) . Applying Eq. (10) gives the following explicit solution to the momentum problem:

~ ( s ) = (a -- bei)~(Pl).,.r + [a + be i + 2(m - 1) cei~]"(P2)sr + (a + be i - 2cei)n(P3),r

The cubic lattices just considered do not give a very realistic model since the directions of motion are quite limited. For example, in the threedimensional case, a particle can only move in six directions. However, we can use some of our previous results in the next model. In this model a particle can move in an arbitrary finite number of directions. We shall, however, restrict our attention to the two- and three-dimensional cases. We begin in two dimensions. Let/~1 be a unit vector in R 2 which we take for concreteness to be in the horizontal direction. Let n e N, and let c~rr/n be an angle. Form the unit vectors ~1,-..,/~2~, where /~j-/~l= c o s ( j - 1)~, j=2,..., 2n. Thus, the /~s are unit vectors and each forms an angle ~ with its predecessor. We call a point x ~ ~2 accessible if it has the form x = ~ k s, kj~ {/~1..... /~2~}. Let V be the set of accessible points and, for x, y ~ V, define x _1_y if x - y e {/c~,...,/~2,}. Let G = (V, E) be the graph in which the edges are represented by the straight lines between adjacent vertices. The phase space S can be represented as follows:

s = {(x, k):

v,

We now define a function A: S x S ~ C as follows:

A((x,k),(x+k,k,))={a be ~

if k ' = k if k' k

where a, b > 0 , 0~ [0, 2re) and A((x, k), (x', k ' ) ) = 0 otherwise. Physically, this may be interpreted as follows. If a particle is moving in direction k, then at the next time step it continues in this direction with amplitude a and changes to one of the other possible directions with amplitude be ~. It is easy to check that A is a transition amplitude if and only if it satisfies a 2+ (2n-- 1)b 2= 1 (11) acos 0 + ( n 1)b=0 (t2)

Hence, there is only one free parameter which we take to be a. Solving (11) and (12) in terms of a gives { 1 - a 2 ~ 1/'2 b= (13) cos 0 = (1 - n ) ( 1 - - a 2 ) "] i/2 a \ 2-~~-1]

(14)

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Because of Eq. (14), a cannot have arbitrary values in the interval (0, 1) but must satisfy

(n-- 1)/n<.a< 1
In the limiting case a = (n - 1)/n, we obtain

(15)
(16)

b= 1/n,

0=g

In this model, the discrete wave equation is similar to Eq. (4) except that the matrix M is replaced by the 2n x 2n matrix M' with a's on the main diagonal and be i elsewhere. The solution to the momentum problem is similar to our previous work. In fact, all we have to do is replace ce ~ by be ~ whenever it appears. The extension of the above to three dimensions is straightforward. For n ~ N we again let ~ = rein. Form a spherical coordinate system and let/~1 be a unit vector in the vertical direction. We now have n polar angles, ~, 2~,..., n~, and for each of the n - 1 polar angles ~, 2~,..., (n - t )~ we have 2n azimuthal angles 0, c~ ..... ( 2 n - 1 )~. Construct a unit vector ~ i n each of these 2 n ( n - 1) directions. Including the unit vectors ~i, ~r = - k l , we now have r = 2n(n - 1 ) + 2 unit vectors/~t ,..-, ~r. We now define G = ( V, E) and A: S x S-~ C in a similar way as we did in two dimensions. The unitarity conditions now become a2q - [ n 2 + ( n - 1 ) 2 ] b 2=1 (17)

a c o s O+n(n-- 1 ) b = O Solving (17) and (18) in terms of a gives b= I 1- a2 ]

1/2

(t8)

n2+
cos = a

-l?J
n2 + ~ 1) z

(19) (20)

Again because of Eq. (20) we must have [ ( n - t) 2 + n - 2 + l ] - 1 ~ < a < l In the limiting case we obtain b = I n 2 + ( n - 1)2 +n2(n -

1)2] -1,

0=re

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

761

4. PARTICLE M O D E L S In this section we apply the theory of Q G D to construct models for the internal dynamics of particles. By a "particle" we mean a massive lepton or a hadron. We begin by representing each particle by a multigraph. The vertices of the multigraph represent quarktike constitutents of the particle, and edges represent interaction paths for gluons which are emitted or absorbed by the vertices. We assume that the vertices are relatively stationary and that the dynamics is described by the Q G D theory of the gluons. The electron is represented by a multigraph consisting of a single vertex and a loop. The more massive leptons are formed by adjoining an odd number of loops to the electron multigraph. Thus, the muon has two loops, the tau has four loops, etc. These are illustrated in Fig. 1. In Fig. 1, we have denoted the single vertex by a 1 and have numbered the edges. Using this numbering scheme we can represent their phase spaces as follows: S~= {(1, 1), (1, 2)} S~ = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4)} St = {(1, t), (1, 2) ..... (1, 8)} The pion is represented by a multigraph consisting of two vertices and a biedge. More massive mesons are formed by adjoining an odd number of loops to one or both of the vertices. A few mesons are illustrated in Fig. 2. Although we shall not have much need for it here, the members of a multiplet can be distinguished by labeling the vertices according to their electric charge. We can follow the usual quark convention of assigning charges of + 1/3 and +2/3 to the vertices. Moreover, the various spin states can be distinguished by labeling each vertex with a spin up (1") or a

3'

14
'r

Ix

Figure 1

762

Gadder
2 1 2 1 4

zr
3 2 1

K
4

1
T I,

Figure

spin down ($). The phase spaces for the multigraphs in Fig. 2 can be represented as follows:

S. = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)} S~= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)} S,, = {(1, t), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1,4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4)}
Finally, the nucleon is represented by a multigraph with three vertices and three biedges. More massive baryons are formed by adjoining an odd number of loops to one or more of the vertices. A few baryons are illustrated in Fig. 3. Again, the members of a multiplet can be distinguished by labeling the vertices with an electric charge and a spin. The phase spaces for the multigraphs in Fig. 3 can be represented as follows:

3 3

1 4 1
4

4
1

1 4 1 _

~ 1 6 .

1 ~

Figure

Quantum GraphicDynamics

763

SN= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 4)}
S z = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1) ..... (3, 6)} S z = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1),..., (2, 6), (3, t),..., (3, 6)} It wilt be convenient to have a under consideration. We do this by vertex in the order of the labels on multigraph. The multigraphs in Figs. e = (1), re= (0, 0), N = (0, 0, 0), notation describing the multigraphs giving the number of loops at each the vertices and call this the type of 1, 2, and 3 have the following types: ~=(4) r/'= (1, 1) ~ = ( 0 , 1, l)

/t= (2), ~c= (0, 1), Z = (0, 0, 1),

Notice that in this scheme there is no need to postulate various generations of quarks. All we need is the first generation consisting of a vertex with charge _+1/3 and a vertex with charge +2/3. The later generations are automatically described by the number of loops. As we shall see, one loop corresponds to strange, three to charm, five to bottom, seven to top, etc. There may be physical reasons for this sequence to terminate, but there is no mathematical reason. Although we shall not consider excited states here, we propose, for later investigation, that these are formed by adjoining pairs of vertices to biedges. Two excited states are illustrated in Fig. 4. We now describe the gluon dynamics. Once the multigraph is given, the dynamics is determined by the transition amplitudes or equivalently by the propagator or transition matrix T. We shall assume that the transition amplitudes have the simplest nontrivial values. First notice that the vertices of the multigraphs under consideration all have even degree. In fact, the possible degrees for a lepton or meson are 2, 4,..., 4n, and for a baryon they are 4, 6 ..... (4n - 2). We call a vertex basic if it has degree 2 in a lepton or

<2>
Figure 4

764

Gudder

meson or degree 4 in a baryon. Let v 1, v2 be adjacent vertices, let el be incident to vl and v2, and let e2 be incident to v2. For brevity, let A(I, 2) = A((~)I, el) , (v2, e2) ). If v2 is basic, we define A(1, 2)---612 for a lepton and for a hadron A(1, 2) -- 1 if el, e2 are different edges of the same biedge and A(1, 2) = 0 otherwise. Now suppose v2 is not basic and has degree n. For a lepton, define A(1, 2 ) = ( 2 - n ) / n if el, e2 are "different" edges of the same loop and A(1, 2 ) = 2/n otherwise. For a hadron, define A (1, 2 ) = ( 2 - n)/n if el = e2 and A(t, 2 ) = 2in otherwise. In all other cases, we define A((vl, el), (v2, e2) ) = 0 . Notice that these values correspond to the limiting case in Eq. (16). It is easy to show that A is indeed a transition amplitude. Moreover, it is the unique transition amplitude in which the "forward" amplitudes are equal and have maximal value. In Fig. 5 we illustrate the transition amplitudes for various cases. In this figure we label the initial edge with a double arrow and label adjacent elements with single arrows together with their transition amplitudes. If the elements of the phase space are enumerated 1, 2 ..... m, then the matrix T with entries T o = A(j, i), i, j = 1, 2,..., m, is caled the transition matrix. This is a unitary matrix which describes the evolution of a gluon. In fact, if a gluon is initially in a state ~0, then after n time steps it will be in the state T"Oo. We now construct the transition m~itrices for the multigraphs representing leptons and hadrons. In doing this we assume that the elements of the phase space are ordered as we have done previously. It will first be convenient to define the 2 x 2 matrices

An=

Ejn

(1-n)/n

n = l , 2 ....

Figure 5

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

765

Also, we let I = A 1 and B . = (1In)I, n = 2 , 3..... It turns out that T can be represented in terms of these matrices. When a multigraph has type (i,...), we write the corresponding transition matrix as T(i,...). The number of rows (and columns) in a matrix is placed at its right-hand corner and when an A, (and hence Bn's) appear, the number of such matrices in that column or row is always n. The leptons have the following transition matrices: T ( 1 ) = I

T(n) =

B.
n

A. .
B,,

B.

n = 2, 4, 6,,..

A n 2n

The mesons have the following transition matrices:

T(0, 0 ) =

0 4

0 A,+I

I 0
0

0 A,+I

...

B~+1 ... B , + I ... B , + I

B ~ + 1 "'" B , + I

T(O, n) =

B,+ 1 0
B,+ I

n = 1 , 3 , 5 ....

B.+I

B.+ 1 ... A.+

2(n + 2)

0 0 0
0

Bm+l Am+l

"" ""

Bm+l B,.+l
Bm+ I

A,.+l B,.+l
Bm+ I

0 0
0

..

0 0 0 0
Bn+ 1 On+ t Bn + 1

B,~+I
Bin+ t

""

T(m, n) =

...

Am+ t

Bin+ 1

A.+I
B~+I B,+I B,+I

0
0 0 0

...
... ... ...

0
0 0 0

0
0 0 0

B.+I
A.+I B,+I B,+i

An+l

~(rn+n + 2)

m , n = 1 , 3 , 5 ....

825/18/7-6

.''

P II

q,

+ + +

+ ~

+
0

O~

...~

++

11
+ + + +
I !

+ +

C~ 0

..-

+
+ + + +

++

'

'

'

~ I

4-

....
,I ~ +

P
+
t~

....... i

....

II

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

767

~l,m,n)=
0
0 0 0 Bm+2

0
0 0 0 0

Bt+2"'BI+2
AI+2.'.BI+2 B~+2""At+~ 0 ... 0

0
0 0 0

Al+2 BI+ 2 Bl+2 BI+2 0

0 0 0 0

.." -." .., ...

0 0 0 0

Bt+2 Bl+2 Bl+2

0

0 0 0 A,,+2

0 0 0 0 0

'.,-.--.. --.
,.. ... ...

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0

BI+z...BI+ 2 0

A+ 2 0

B~+2...Bm+2

Am+2
Bin+2

0
0

0
0 0

...
.., ...

0
0 0

0
0 0

0
0 0

Bm+2""B,,+2

Bin+ 2 0 Bin+ 2 0 Bin+ 2 0

Am+2...Bm+ 2 0 Bm+2...Am+ 2 0

Bin+ 2 0

0 0
0 0

An+ 2 0 B~+2 0
Bn+ 2 0 Bn+ 2 0

.-, ""
"" ,"

0 0
0 0

Bn+ 2 0 A~+2 0
Bn+2 B,+2 0 0

0 0
0 0

---..
"" ..,

0 0
0 0

0 0
0 0

0 0
0 0

B~+z'"B,,+2 B#+2...B,+2
A,~+z',.Bn+2 Bn+2"-An+2

2(rn+,~+[+61

l,m,n=l, 3,5,...

5. G L U O N D Y N A M I C S In Section 4 we constructed the transition matrix T for a massive lepton or hadron. To describe the gluon dynamics we need to find T ", n e N. Essentially the only way this can be done is by diagonalizing T or, equivalently, finding the eigenpairs of T. We devote the present section to accomplishing this. Notice that we wish to diagonalize a 2m x 2m matrix T whose entries may be thought of as 2 x 2 matrices which have the special form

Our next results show that because of this special form we can reduce our work to diagonalizing two m x m matrices. First define the matrices

Lemma 5.

Let A = (Aij), i, j = 1, 2, be a 2 x 2 complex matrix. Then

768

Gudder

the following statements are equivalent. (a) A commutes with K. (b) A commutes with L. (c) AH = A22, A 12= Azl.

Proof Straightforward.

i and define the following

Define the vectors ~ = (1, 1), ~ 2 = ( 1 , - 1 ) vectors in C2":

= 0 ..... 0),...,

= (0, 0,..., 0,

~1 : (02, 0,..., 0),...,

Lemma 6.

(~rn:

(0, 0,..., 0, 02)

Let M be a 2m x 2m matrix of the form M = [ A ( t , 1).: ... A(1.,m)]

k A(m, 1)
where the 2 x 2 matrices

A(m, rn) J

A(i, j) have the form [aijbij] A(i,j)= b~ a~jA

Then M is normal and its eigenvectors have the form Z e i ~ or Z cqq~,

cci~C, i= l,...,m. Proof Let J/and ~ be the subspaces of C 2m generated by ~1 ..... ~

and q~ ..... ~m, respectively. Notice that J/and Y are mutually orthogonal subspaces and c 2 m = j / @ J V ". Let Km, L~ be the following 2 m x 2 m matrices: Km = diag(K,..., K), L,, = diag(L,..., L)

It is easy to check that the projections onto Jg and ~/" are Kin~2 and Lm/2, respectively. Moreover, it is not hard to verify that M is normal and thus has a complete set of eigenvectors. By Lemma 5, M commutes with Km and Lm, and hence the eigenvectors of M lie either in J/to ~ . The result now follows. I Theorem 7. Let M be a 2m x 2m matrix with the properties given in Lemma 6. Let h~, N~be the m x m matrices with entries ~0 = ao + b~j, .~T 0.= a~-bi~. Then the eigenvalues of M are precisely the union of the eigenvalues of . ~ and N. Moreover, if 2(2') is an eigenvalue of 214(N) with corresponding eigenvector (el,... , e,~) ((/~l ..... /~m)), then 2(2') is an eigenvalue of M with corresponding eigenvector ~2 c q ~ ( Z Piq~i).

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

769

Proof Applying Lemma 6, the eigenvectors of M have the form 5 2 e ~ i or ~]eiq~i- Suppose 5 2 ~ i ~ is an eigenvector of M with corresponding eigenvalue 2. If follows from the equation M(52 c~it~)= )~(Z O~i~l i) that ~. A(i, j) c~j(kj= 2cqO ,,
J

i, j = 1,..., m

Hence c~j(a~ + 10) = 2cq,

J

i, j = 1..... m

It follows that M(al ..... c~m)=2(~ ..... am). The converse is easily verified. Similar reasoning applies to the eigenvectors of the form 52 ai~i. | We are now ready to evaluate the eigenpairs for the transition matrices constructed in Section 4. We begin with the mssive leptons. The 2 x 2 matrix T(1) = I has degenerate eigenalue 1 and we take, by convention, its eigenvectors to be 0~, 02. Next consider the 2n x 2n matrices T(n), n = 2, 4, 6..... Applying Theorem 7, the problem reduces to finding the eigenpairs for the n x n matrices M, N, where

117/=1
t/

F2 n 2 2] I10
2-n 2 2 ~= 0 1 .. -.. 2 - n 0 0..

0
1

Now N has the n-fold degenerate eigenvalue 1. We take the corresponding eigenvectors to be (1, 0,..., 0) ..... (0, 0 ..... 0, i). Next M has the nondegenerate eigenvalue 1 with corresponding eigenvector (1, 1,..., 1). Finally, f / h a s the (n - 1)-fold degenerate eigenvalue - 1 and we take the corresponding eigenvectors to be (1, - 1, 0, 0 ..... 0), (1, 0, - 1, 0,..., 0) ..... (1, 0, 0 , . . . , 0 , - 1 ) . Note that these latter eigenvectors are not mutually orthogonal. However, they are linearly independent, they have the simplest form, and as shall later see, they have physical significance. Moreover, we have not bothered to normalize these eigenvectors since this will not be necessary for our purposes. Again, applying Theorem 7, the eigenpairs for T(n) are given in Table I. We next consider the mesons. The eigenpairs for the 4 x 4 matrix T(0, 0) are easily computed and are shown in Table II.

770 Table I. Eigenpairs for T(n) Eigenvectors Eigenvector(s)

Gudder

We n o w come to the 2(n + 2) x 2(n + 2) matrices T(0, n), n = 1, 3, 5 ..... The (n + 2) x (n + 2) matrices ~/, )V are given by 0 1-n
1

n+l 0 0 0 0

0 2 1-n 2 2

... ... ... ... ...

0 2 2 2 1-n , N=

-0

...

0-

M=

2 2 2

100.--0 0 0 1 --. 0 0 0 0--.0 ." ~ _0 0 0 ... 1

n+l

F o r N, the ( n + l ) - f o l d degeerate eigenvalue 1 has eigenvectors (1, 1, 0,..., 0), (0, 0, 1, 0,..., 0),..., (0, 0 ..... 0, 1) while the nondegenerate eigenvalue - 1 has eigenvector (1, - 1, 0,,.., 0). T o find the eigenpairs for 37/, let (el ..... ~, +2) be an eigenvectors with corresponding eigenvalue 2, We then obtain the equations ~2 = )~0~t ( 1 -- n) c~1 + 2c% +
20~ 4 -t- " ' " q-

2% + 2 = (n + 1 ) 20~ 2 3

2~1+(t--n)0%+2~4+

.-. + 2 0 t , + 2 = ( n + l ) 2 ~

2cq +2c%+2c~4 + --- + ( 1

--n)o:,,+2=(n+ 1) 2c~,+2

Table II. Eigenpairs for T(O, 0) Eigenvalue Eigenvector

-1

,6t-62
, i

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

77!

Suppose e~ = 1 and hence c~ 2 = 2. From the second and third equations, we obtain ~ 3 = ( 1 + 2 2 ) / ( 1 + 2 ) (notice that 2 - 1 ) . In a similar way we obtain e j = (1 + 22)/(1 + 2), j = 4,..., n + 2. Substituting these values into the second equation gives (1-n)+2n Hence, ( n + 1)23+ ( 1 - n ) 2 2 - ( 1 - n ) 2 - ( n + The roots of this equation are 1 and
- 1 +_ i [ n ( n + 2)] ~/2

(1 + 2 2 ) = ( n + 1)22 1+2 1)=0

n+l Now suppose n > 1, cq = 7 2 = 0 , and let ~3= 1. It follows from the second two equations that 2 = -1. If we let ~4 = -1, and ~s = 0, j = 5..... n + 2, then all the equations are satisfied. In a similar way we can let c~5= -1, and es=0, j = 4 , 6, 7,..., n + 2, etc. Thus 2 = - 1 is an ( n - 1 ) - f o l d degenerate eigenvalue. Letting

/L+= 1 + I,ty)=
1+2~ we list the eigenpairs for T(0, n) in Table III. Finally, we have the 2 ( m + n + 2 ) 2 ( m + n + 2 ) matrix T(m, n), m, n = 1, 3, 5..... We shall not display M and N since their construction is similar to those done previously. For ~" the (m + n + 1 )-fold degenerate eigenvalue 1 has eigenvectors (1, 0,..., 0, I, 0,..., 0), (0, 1, 0,..., 0) ..... (0, 0 ..... 0, 1) where the second 1 in the first vector is at the (m+2)-entry. The nondegenerate eigenvalue - 1 has eigenvector (1, 0,..., 0 , - 1 , 0 ..... 0) where the - 1 is at the (m + 2)-entry. Table III. Eigenpairsfor T(0, n) Eigenvalue
1

Eigenvector(s)

-1
1

('1+('2+ "'" +('~+2 '3-('4, ~ ' 3 - ~ ..... ~3-(,+~

- I (if n> 1)
iiiiiiiiiiiiii i

772

Gudder

T o find the eigenpairs for 3~r, let (cq ..... 0 ~ m + n + 2 ) be an eigenvector with corresponding eigenvalue L We then obtain the equations 2 ~ 2 + ... +2~m+l+(1--m)C~m+2=(m+l)2~q (1--m)C~zq- ... +20~m+l+20~m+2=(m+l)~,~ 2 2C~2+ "'" + (1 -- m) e,~ + 1 + 2 ~ m + Z = ( m --1- 1 ) ,~0~m + 1 (1 -- n)cq + 20~m+ 3 q- " " nt" 2 0 ~ m + n + 2 = (n + 1)
J.0~m + 2

2~1 + (1 - n)0~m+ 3 -t" " " q- 2~m+n+ 2 = (/7 q- 1) ~'~m+3 2Cq + 2~m+ 3 q- '-1- (1 --n)O~m+n+2 = (n-t- 1) 2~m+n+ 2 Suppose cq = 1. F r o m the first two equations we have (assuming 2 ~ - 1 ) 2 1

In a similar way, a j, j = 3 ..... m + 1, have this same value.' Substituting these values into the first equation gives 2 [ ( m + 1)2 + (1 - m ) ] (l-m)2+ ( m + 1)

am+2= We then obtain 22

c~J- (1 - m ) 2 + ( m +

1)'

j = 2 , 3 ..... m + l

F r o m the fourth and fifth equations we have

era+3=

(m+ 1)22-2m2 + (m + t) (1-m)2+(m+l)

In a similar way, e j, j = m + 4,..., m + m + 2, have this same value. Substituting these values into the fourth equation gives (n + 1)(m + 1 ) 2 3 - (3mn +m + n - 1 ) 2 2 + (3mn+m + n - 1)2 -(n+ 1)(m+ 1)=0

The roots of this equation are 1 and

+

2tin'") --

( m n - 1 ) _ + i [ ( n + 1 ) 2 ( m + 1) z - ( I - r a n ) 2 ] (n + 1 )(m + 1 )

Quantum Graphic Dynamics Table IV. Eigenpairs for

773

T(m,n)

Eigenvalue 1 -1 1

Eigenvector(s)

+7(m,n)m+3

+ "'" "~"7(rn, n ) ~I . . . .

+2

-t

N o w let 2 = - 1 and ~1 = ~,. +2 = 1. Then all the equations are satisfied if we let ~ 2 = ~ + 3 = - 1 a n d the other ccs's equal to 0. In a similar way we can ~et ~2 = ~m+4 = --1,..., ~2 = ~m+.+2 = --1, and the other ~j's equal to 0. Finally, we can let ~3 = ~m+3 = --1 ..... ~m+l = ~m+3 = --1 and the other ~j's equal to 0. Thus, - 1 is an (m + n - 1)-fold degenerate eigenvalue. If we define 22~,n) coL'") = (1
+ +

-m)2i~,,.)+(m+ I)
+

fl(~,.) = 26.,.)[(m + 1 ) 26~,. ) + (1 -- m ) ] ( 1 - m)2(.~,~) + (m + 1)

+ (m + 1 ) [ 2 & ..)] 2 + - 2m2~ , . ) + (m + i)

-m)2~,m

+ ( m + 1)

then the eigenpairs for T(rn, n) are listed in Table IV. We finally consider the baryons. T h e eigenpairs for the 12 12 matrix T(0, 43, 0) are shown in Table V. Table V. Eigenpairs for T(0, 0, 0) Eigenvalue Eigenvector(s)

-1

,-,, ~-~, ~-o

774 Table

Gudder

VI. Eigenpairsfor T(0, 0, n) Eigenvector(s)

Eigenvalue
- 1 ~ -

&, ~ -

~,, & - &

.-

@2-{-@3"}-]./;@S~-t~-~6-'}-/~;@7-t-

----l-/~Z@n+

(I2--~,+i(t,--i(t6
,i i

We next have the 2(n + 6) x 2(n + 6) matrix T(0, 0, n), n = 1, 3, 5 ..... The computation of the eigenpairs is similar to that for 7(0, n). Letting

/~'~ =

2+ + _ i[n(n -t- 4)] 1/2 n+2 '

fl+ =

1 + (2+)2 1 +2,{

we list the eigenpairs for T(0, 0, n) in Table VI. The eigenpair problem for the next transition matrix T(O,m, n), m, n = 1, 3, 5,..., is much more difficult. Except for some special cases, it appears that it can only be solved numerically. As usual, diagonatizing ?~ is straightforward. However, six of the eigenvalues of h~r turn out to the roots of the following equation: (m + 2)(n + 2)); 6 - (2ran - 8)25 + (3ran + 2m + 2n
+

8)). 4 -

(4mn

8)2 3

+(3mn+2m+2n+8)22-(2mn-8)2+(m+2)(n+2)=O

(21)

We list the eigenpairs for T(0, m, n) in Table VII. We call the roots of (21) (which we have not evaluated) 2~ ..... 26. Of course, the corresponding

Table VII. Eigenpairs for T(O,m, n)

IIIIIIIIII I IIIIIIIIIIII

Eigenvalue
1

Eigenvector(s)

-1
1
21

~1+

"'"

+~ . . . . 6

,..., ),6 --1

.,.

~13 "}- ~l m + 6 - - ~l S - - ~lm + 7 ,..,, 3 3 -~ ~ m + 6 - - ~l S - - ~l m + n + 6 ,

,u,,,,,,,, .,,., m......,,,

Quantum Graphic Dynamics

775

eigenvectors can be constructed once these eigenvalues are evaluated. F o r 2~{2~,...,26}, the corresponding eigenvector is (el,--.,em+~+6), where
~1 = 1, g4 = 2, a n d

1+22
~5=e6 .... =0~m+4= 1 +2

(m + 2)(J~4 + 1 ) -- 2m2(22 - ,~ + 1 ) ~2 = 22(1 + 22)

m 2 3 + m~. 2 -- ( m -- 2)2 + (m + 2)

~3 = ~m + 5 = "~2

22(1 + 2)

(m + 2)it 3 + (2 - m ) 2 2 + m). - m

O~m+6

2(1 + R)

(I + )})~2
0~m+7 = 0(m+8 . . . . -~" 0[rn + n + 6 l+J.

We can solve (21) in the special case m = n = 1. In this case (2t) has the factorization
(324 + 2)~: + 3)(322 + 22 + 3) = 0 Table VIII. Eigenvalue 1
--1

Eigenpairs for T( 1, 1, 1)

Eigenvector(s)

1 --1

2~1 + ~3 + 2~4 + t~6 + 2~7 + t~9

-~,+~-~+~-~+~, -~+~+~.-~-~+~,
-,e (1+i) r

~ 1 -- ~2 -- 3~4 + ~5 -}- 2 ~ 6 - - ~ 7 - - 3~8 + 4~9

(I - ,~v,, - - 7 - (1 + i )

w + ~, - - - - ~

(i+3)~

~, -,v,e + - - - 5 - - q,~

.~

(1+3i)~

-5--~8 +(i- 1)~9

i~1--i~2+ (1 --i)q~4 +~5 + (1 + i ) ~ 6 - - ~ 7 + (i+ 1)~ 8 - (1 + i)~9 --i +~8--( 1+i)~9

it~l -}-i~2 + (1 + i)~4 + ~5 + (1 -- i)~6 -- ~7 q- (1 -- i)~8 + ( i - 1)~ 9

776

Gudder

We then obtain the six eigenvalues given by

2= - ~ i2,,f23'

22=

- ~ + i2x/~3

As the reader would expect, the eigenvatue problem for T(l, m, n) is much more involved then it was for T(0, m, n). For this reason, we shall only consider the spcial case T(1, 1, 1) and this is given in Table VIII.

REFERENCES
1. D. Bohm, "A proposed topological formulation of quantum theory," in The Scientist Speculates, I. J. Good, ed. (Basic Books, New York, 1962), pp. 302-314. 2. A. Das, J. Math. Phys. 7, 52 (1966). 3. D. Finklestein, Phys. Rev. D 9, 2219 (1974). 4. R. Friedberg and T. D. Lee, Nuel. Phys. B 225, 1 (1983). 5. S. Gudder, "Discrete quantum mechanics," J. Math. Phys. 27, 1782 (1986). 6. S. Gudder and V. Naroditsky, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 20, 619 (1981). 7. R. Jagannathan and F. Santhanam, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 20, 755 (1981). 8. M. Lorente, Int. J. Theor. Phys. 11, 213 (1974). 9. D. Shale, Found. Phys. t2, 661 (1982).

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