Perspectivas en

The Outlook for Agriculture
and Rural Development

in the Americas:
2013
A Perspective on Latin
America and the Caribbean
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
Address: Av. Dag Hammarskjold 3477, Vitacura, Santiago, Chile
Central telephone: (56-2) 471-2000 - 210-2000 - 208-5051
Main facsimile: (56-2) 208-0252
Postal address: P.O. Box 179-D, Santiago, Chile
Postal code: 7630412
E-mail: dpisantiago@cepal.org
Website: www.edac.org
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Regional Oce for Latin America and the Caribbean
Av. Dag Hammarskjold 3241, Vitacura Santiago, Chile
Tel: (56-2) 9232100
E-mail: FAO-RLC@fao.org
Website: www.rlc.fao.org
Inter-American Insitute for Cooperation on Agriculture
Headquarters
P.O. Box: 55-2200 San Jos, Vzquez de Coronado,
San Isidro 11101, Costa Rica
Tel: (506) 2216-0222
Fax: (506) 2216-0233
E-mail: iicahq@iica.int
Website: www.iica.int
T
h
e

O
u
t
l
o
o
k

f
o
r

A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

a
n
d

R
u
r
a
l

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

i
n

t
h
e

A
m
e
r
i
c
a
s
:

A

P
e
r
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e

o
n

L
a
t
i
n

A
m
e
r
i
c
a

a
n
d

t
h
e

C
a
r
i
b
b
e
a
n

2
0
1
3
A Perspective on
Latin America and the Caribbean
2013
and Rural Development in
the Americas
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (eclac),
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (fao),
Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (iica), 2012
Tis publication is also available in electronic format (pdf) on the following websites:
http://www.eclac.org
http://www.rlc.fao.org
http://www.iica.int
Copy editor: Julian Dowling
Layout designer: Pablo Rivas
Cover design: Pablo Rivas
Printer: Alfabeta
Te Outlook for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Americas:
A Perspective on Latin America and the Caribbean / eclac, fao,
iica Santiago, Chile, fao, 2012.
162 pag.; 28 cm.
isbn13: 978-92-5-107355-1
Also published in Spanish
1. Agriculture 2. Agricultural development 3. Macroeconomic analysis 4.
Livestock 5. Forests 6. Fishing 7. Institutional development 8. Land
ownership 9. Latin America 10. Caribbean
I. eclac ii. fao iii. iica iv. Title
agris dewey
E50 338.1
Santiago, Chile
2012
Te terms used in this document and the form in which they are presented do not imply on the
part of ECLAC, FAO and IICA, any judgment on the legal status or level of development of countries,
territories, cities or areas, or of their authorities, or concerning the delimitation of their frontiers
or boundaries. Te mention of companies or manufactured products, whether or not these have
been patented, does not imply that they are approved or recommended in preference to others
of a similar nature that are not mentioned.
Te editorial revision of this document was conducted by fao.
Contents
Acknowledgements
Index of Acronyms
Foreword
Executive Summary
Section I. Macroeconomic Context
Section II. Sectoral Analysis
Context of the Agricultural Sector
Agriculture
Livestock
Fishing and Aquaculture
Forests
Section III. Rural Well-Being and Institutional Framework
Rural Well-Being
Public Policies and Institutional Framework
Section iv: Land Tenure in Latin America and the Caribbean
Introduction
Land tenure in the Caribbean
Bibliography
Statistical Appendix
5
7
9
11
17
27
29
39
51
65
73
81
83
99
111
112
125
137
151
7 A Perspective on Latin America and the Caribbean
Tis document is the result of the joint eforts of the Economic Commission for Latin Ameri-
ca and the Caribbean (eclac), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(fao) and the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (iica). Te inter-agency
group in charge of developing this document was composed of Javier Meneses, Adrin Rodr-
guez, Mnica Rodrigues and Octavio Sotomayor (eclac); Byron Jara and Salomn Salcedo
(fao); and Joaqun Arias, Rafael Trejos and Hugo Chavarra (iica). Adrian Rodriguez, Salomn
Salcedo and Rafael Trejos were responsible for general technical coordination.
Each chapter was developed by a diferent interdisciplinary working group, which was coor-
dinated by the participating institutions according to their areas of expertise. We express our
special thanks to members of the following groups:
Macroeconomic Context. Technical coordinator: Mnica Rodrigues. Members: Joaqun Arias,
Hugo Chavarra, Byron Jara, Salomn Salcedo, Adrin Rodrguez and Octavio Sotomayor.
Sectoral Context. Technical coordinator: Joaqun Arias. Members: Mnica Rodrigues, Adrin
Rodrguez, Hugo Chavarra, Rafael Trejos and Salomn Salcedo.
Agriculture. Technical coordinator: Rafael Trejos, with the collaboration of Adriana Campos,
Joaquin Arias and Hugo Chavarra. Tanks also to the country ofces of iica and the fao repre-
sentatives in the region who helped to carry out the survey.
Livestock. Technical coordinator: Tito Daz, with the collaboration of Gary Williams. Members:
Byron Jara, Cedric Lazarus and Salomn Salcedo.
Forests. Technical coordinator: Jorge Meza, with the collaboration of Claudia Cerda. Members:
Byron Jara, Hivy OrtizChour and Salomn Salcedo.
Fishing and Aquiculture. Technical coordinator: Alejandro Flores, with the collaboration of
Carlos Wurmann. Members: Byron Jara, John Jorgensen, Salomn Salcedo, Octavio Sotomayor
and Raymon VanAnrooy.
Rural Well-Being. Technical coordinator: Adrin Rodrguez, with the collaboration of Javier
Meneses. Members: Joaquin Arias, Hugo Chavarria, Salomn Salcedo and Rafael Trejos.
Acknowledgements
8 The Outlook for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Americas eclac fao iica 9 A Perspective on Latin America and the Caribbean
ava Agricultural Value-Added
caespa Centre of Strategic and Policy Analysis for Agriculture
caricom Caribbean Community
celade Latin American and Caribbean Demographic Centre
ciat International Centre for Tropical Agriculture
coflac Forestry Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
comtrade United Nations Database
cpi Consumer Price Index
eclac Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
ers Economic Research Service
eu European Union
fao The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
fdi Foreign Direct Investment
fontierras Guatemala Lands Fund
funder Foundation for Rural Business Development (Honduras)
giz German Agency for International Cooperation
idb Inter-American Development Bank
iica Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture
ilo International Labour Organization
imas Joint Social Welfare Institute (Costa Rica)
imf International Monetary Fund
Index of Acronyms
Public Policies and Institutional Framework. Technical coordinator: Salomn Salcedo, with the
collaboration of Lya Guzmn. Members: Ileana Avalos, Oscar Cismondi, Hugo Chavarria, Juana
Galvn, Adriana Herrera, Rafael Trejos and Adoniram Snchez.
Land Tenure in Latin America and the Caribbean. Technical coordinators: Alan Williams and
Octavio Sotomayor. Members: Adriana Herrera, Sergio Gmez, Byron Jara, Javier Meneses,
Salomn Salcedo and Guillermo Ziga.
Finally, we would like to thank Lya Guzmn, Julian Dowling and Marcela Sanguinetti for their
editorial assistance, Pablo Rivas for the layout and Eugenia Salazar for updating the Statistical
Appendix.
R
e
c
o
n
o
c
i
m
i
e
n
t
o
s
S
i
g
l
a
s
Ever since the increase in food prices in 2007-2008 raised the alarm about the sustainability of global food
security, agriculture has been a major focus of public attention. Te development of the agricultural sector
during the last fve years has been marked by the volatility of international prices of major commodities, caused
by the uneven performance of the global economy and increased climate variability. Te situation in 2012 was
no exception, as the efects of natural phenomena such as droughts in North America were combined with the
euro crisis and a slowdown in Asian countries.
At the G20 Leaders Summit, held in Mexico in June 2012, several international development agencies sug-
gested that the issue of food and nutritional security should remain high on the agenda of the G20 over the
coming years. At the Rio+20 Conference held this year, it was agreed that to eradicate hunger and poverty, as
well as to achieve sustainable development, food security and the good management of natural resources must
go hand in hand.
Tis report provides information and analysis, both of the current situation and context of the agri-food sec-
tor and the outlook for 2013. Tis is a joint efort developed for a fourth consecutive year by the Economic
Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (eclac), the Regional Ofce for Latin America and the
Caribbean of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (fao) and the Inter-American
Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (iica).
Tis year the special chapter is dedicated to the issue of land tenure in Latin America and the Caribbean. Te
chapter analyses recent trends in land policies, processes of structural change and challenges such as securiti-
zation, which remains precarious in many countries of the region.
Te report recognizes that the global situation in recent years has complicated the process of policy formulation
and decision-making, both for public ofcials and private entities. But it also provides an opportunity for the
development of more sophisticated, comprehensive and long-term public policies, dealing with issues that
transcend the purely agricultural. Te current context is favourable for recovering the role of the state in the
provision of public goods for agriculture, promoting the participation of stakeholders in the process of policy
creation, and to encouraging greater public-private cooperation, especially in order to increase investment in
research, development and innovation.
eclac, fao and iica reafrm our commitment to the sustainable development of agriculture and rural areas
of the region. We also continue to put our knowledge and experience at the service of countries to formulate
policies that allow governments, and the regions most vulnerable populations, to cope with adversities caused
by an environment of uncertainty.
Foreword
Alicia Brcena
Executive Secretary
Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (eclac)
Ral Bentez
Assistant Director-General
fao Regional Representative for Latin Ameri-
ca and the Caribbean
Vctor Villalobos
Director General
Inter-American Institute for Coopera-
tion on Agriculture (iica)
incra National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian Reform (Brazil)
inra National Institute for Agrarian Reform (Bolivia)
lac Latin America and the Caribbean
oas Organization of American States
oecd Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
oie World Organization for Animal Health
pacta Land Access Programme (Honduras)
ptt Land Transfer Programme (El Salvador)
R+D+I Research, Development and Innovation
sitc Standard International Trade Classifcation
undp United Nations Development Programme
unep United Nations Environment Programme
unesco United Nations Educational, Scientifc and Cultural Organization
un-redd United Nations Programme for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation
us$ us Dollar
usda United States Department of Agriculture
wb World Bank
wti West Texas Intermediate
wto World Trade Organization
Section I. Macroeconomic Context
Tis section analyses the macroeconomic and fnancial
conditions of the current international context that in-
fuence the economic performance of countries in the
region.
Te uncertainty with regards to the recovery of the ad-
vanced economies and, more specifcally, to the euro
zone debt crisis, is afecting the growth forecast for the
world economy. Te uncertain scenario facing the Eu-
ropean Monetary Union, combined with the strong
increase in the rates of sovereign bonds of the countries
hardest hit by the crisis, has afected even the more
robust economies in the eu. For its part, the United
States is facing an exceptionally slow recovery from the
crisis, with persistently high rates of unemployment
and growing inequality. Emerging countries, which
hitherto had reported booming growth rates, such as
Brazil, China and India, have also reported a slowdown
in growth. In Latin America and the Caribbean, which
experienced an economic rebound in 2010, there has
been a signifcant slowdown in the rate of gdp growth
in 2011, as well as in projections for 2012 growth.
However, even in a scenario of crisis escalation conside-
red by international organizations and agencies to be a
possibility in the coming years, the economies of Latin
America and the Caribbean have, with some exceptions,
the macroeconomic conditions to implement counter-
cyclical fscal policies and strengthen social welfare
networks. In the coming months, regional economies
will face a scenario of stagnation in some of their main
export markets, including Europe and the United States,
which goes beyond a downward trend in prices for their
main commodities and the increased volatility in energy
markets. Te impact of these variables on growth rates of
regional exports, combined with the decline in income
due to a deterioration in the terms of trade, could lead
to slower investment growth.
Although the majority of countries in the region have
not yet taken measures to deal with a pronounced global
slowdown, some (Brazil, Chile, Peru, Mexico, Colombia
and Uruguay) have already approved specifc measures
or raised the alarm and announced their willingness
to take further steps in the event of a severe cooling of
the global economy (eclac, 2011a). Te rest have yet
to follow suit. One option for them is to monitor and
learn from these experiences, as well as to foster, as far as
possible, a coordinated response at the regional level.
Section ii. Sectoral Analysis
Sectoral context. Tis section discusses the growth
of agricultural activity in lac in a volatile pricing envi-
ronment. In 2009, lac experienced a reduction in its
real Agricultural Value-Added (ava) of 3.89%, which
more than doubled the slowdown in general economic
growth (1.82%).
Te Southern subregion sufered a drop of -7.21% in real
ava. On the other hand, real ava growth in 2009 in the
Caribbean region was exceptional (9.62%). However,
real ava in the Andean and Central regions grew only
marginally (0.01% and 0.29%, respectively).
Agriculture performed better in the region in 2010 (6.37%
growth), which compared favourably against other re-
gions of the world. However, according to preliminary
data for 2011, a slowdown in agriculture is forecast (2%
approximately).
In the international market for agricultural goods, lac
has sustained strong growth in its competitiveness
for more than a decade, which means that the region,
which is highly specialized in the export of agricultural
products, maintains good dynamism and is positioned
better than other regions. Within the subregions of lac,
the positive trend in agricultural competitiveness is ex-
plained in large part by the countries of the Southern
Cone, but the subregions of Central America and the
Caribbean have also recovered signifcantly.
Moreover, the international demand for agricultural pro-
ducts will continue to grow, while the supply of food and
agricultural raw materials will not be able to keep up.
Tis section concludes that, given the constraints on
natural resources and environmental pressures, climate
change, and the increased volatility in prices, the main
challenge facing the agricultural sector in the region is
Executive Summary
to increase productivity in an environmentally friendly
manner.
Another conclusion is that extreme weather conditions,
the risk of a collapse of the euro, the possible fscal
stagnation of the United States and the slowdown in
emerging economies, among other threats, suggest an
environment of greater uncertainty and volatility in
international prices. Tis requires specifc measures at
the national and international level, which were clearly
defned by the G20 ministerial meeting on food price
volatility and agriculture in 2011.
Agriculture. Tis section highlights the slowdown
of global economic growth and high climate variability
as the main challenges facing regional agriculture in
the short term. It also analyses the behaviour of the
agricultural sector in response to crisis situations and
market demands.
Te participation of the agricultural sector in exports
from the region has remained relatively stable over the
last decade, amounting to 20% of total goods exported
in 2010. Imports of agricultural products accounted for
8% of total imports.
It is expected that in 2013, due to a possible modera-
tion in price volatility, the efects of climate events and
international demand on agricultural production will
acquire greater importance. In fact, the drought that
occurred in the United States (mainly in the grain belt)
and Eastern Europe during 2011 and 2012 caused low
yields and high rates of loss in agricultural crops. In
addition, in several countries of the region, numerous
crops sufered climatic efects associated with the La
Nia phenomenon, which afected the harvest in late
2011 and early 2012. Te countries that have registered
the greatest losses due to this phenomenon are Brazil
(maize), Paraguay (maize), Bolivia, (cereals), Ecuador
(cereals), Argentina (maize, wheat and coarse grains)
and Mexico (maize, wheat and beans).
New trade agreements with countries in the Pacifc basin
are expected to gain greater prominence. In addition,
competition for access to national and international agri-
cultural markets is expected to increase substantially.
Tis section concludes that, despite the less-than-pro-
mising signs facing the euro zone economies and the
damage caused by extreme climatic events, agricultural
production in lac has responded positively to high in-
ternational prices, the incipient economic recovery of
the United States, and growing demand in Southeast
Asia (especially in China).
Livestock. Te production of meat and milk has
grown at double-digit rates in the last 10 years in lac, far
exceeding the rates of growth in the United States and
Europe. Currently, lac accounts for a higher percentage
of world production of beef, lamb and poultry than the
United States, and almost the same proportion of world
milk production.
On the demand side, lac consumers increasingly prefer
alternative sources of animal protein such as poultry,
pork, eggs and dairy products, above beef and lamb.
Te growth of the poultry and pork industries, as well
as in associated consumption, has been notable and is
a powerful source of change in Latin Americas lives-
tock industry. Te per capita consumption of poultry
increased at double-digit rates in many countries of the
region, including Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Mexico and
others, where the ofer of alternative sources of protein
available for consumption has been reduced on a per
capita basis.
Te future of animal production in Latin America de-
pends mainly on regional and global demand for animal
protein for human consumption, technological advan-
ces to improve efciency in livestock production, im-
provements in the control of animal diseases, and the
implementation of public policies aimed at protecting
the environment and mitigating the efects of the rise
in food prices. Te strengthening of family livestock
production systems will be key to reducing the impact
of rising food prices and contributing to the fght against
chronic child malnutrition in rural areas and vulnerable
communities. Silvopastoral livestock production systems,
which do not depend on grain-based feed, will have a
great opportunity in relation to intensive systems with
high use of concentrated feed.
Te confict between the growth of the industry and its
environmental impact requires a more balanced appro-
ach including greater investments in research, infras-
tructure, technological innovation, education, training
and other measures to improve productivity. Sustainable
livestock development policies and incentives are also
needed to help the industry move towards greater sus-
tainability and lower environmental degradation in a
process of adaptation to climate change.
Fishing and aquaculture. Regional aquaculture
continued to grow moderately in 2010 (2.2% compared
to 2009), reaching a record 1.92 million tonnes, valued at
us$7.85 billion. For its part, extractive fshing decreased
by 23.4% compared to 2009, falling to 11.71 million
tonnes, the lowest volume since 1983, which means that
lac reduced its share of the years total global catch to
only 13.2%.
Regional fsheries and aquaculture continue to show
high rates of concentration. Te fgures obtained for
2010 reafrm the concentration of extractive fshing in
a few countries and species. Tree nations (Peru, Chi-
le and Mexico) provided 72% of the total wild catch
and, adding Argentina and Brazil, this rises to 86%.
Meanwhile, the 10 most important species accounted
for 70% of the total catch. In the case of aquaculture,
Chile, Brazil, Ecuador and Mexico produced 81% of
the total harvest in 2010, and the fve most important
farmed species comprised 67% of the harvest.
Te global demand for fsh products will continue to
increase. Most developed countries will continue using
more fsh products than their feets or fsh farms can
provide in their respective territories and, consequently,
they will depend heavily on imports, which represents
an important opportunity for the region.
Given the trend of decreasing extractive fshing and the
systematic increase of aquaculture, countries in the re-
gion should continue exploring measures to improve go-
vernance in the sector and facilitate the full development
of its potential to increase employment, contribute to
food security, and improve the general well-being of the
region. Small producers, who continue to face challen-
ges they cannot solve alone, require long-term policies
to help them overcome technological, organizational,
business management and fnancial limitations.
Forests. Tis section highlights the importance of
forest conservation and management for countries of
the region, especially considering the role of forests in
mitigating climate change and generating income and
assets to enhance food and nutritional security. In this re-
gard, many countries are involved in initiatives to reduce
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation
(redd), and to foster and recognize the environmental
services of forests.
Te current contribution of the forestry sector to the
Gross Domestic Product (gdp) of countries in the region
varies between 2% and 3%, according to a fao survey.
Countries are seeking to increase the participation of the
sector in their national economies through the genera-
tion of higher incomes for families. Te aim is to achieve
a higher valuation of environmental services provided
by forests and to increase awareness of their importance
in the region. Protecting forests is also important in the
fght against hunger and poverty.
Tere are major socio-economic challenges in the region
that hamper progress in forest conservation and mana-
gement. Te annual rate of deforestation in the region
is approximately three times higher than the annual rate
of loss of forest cover around the globe. However, some
progress is evident. For example, the increase of the area
of forests destined, as a primary function, for uses other
than timber, and also a greater understanding of the im-
portance of forests as providers of environmental goods
and services. In this regard, the rate of deforestation has
been reduced by about 20% in the last fve years com-
pared to the previous fve-year period. However, there
is still a long way to go.
Section iii. Rural Well-Being and
Institutional Framework
Rural well-being. Tis section discusses how rural
life in Latin America has changed signifcantly over the
last two decades, with signifcant changes in agricultural
production, territorial dynamics, environmental visions
and governance schemes.
Tis chapter analyses four signifcant trends in the rural
labour market over the previous decade: a reduction in
agricultural employment, an increase in the employment
of women (especially in non-agricultural activities), an
increase of salaried employment versus a drop in self-
employment, and the increase in agricultural workers
with urban residence.
Te evidence given here shows that, in general, the in-
crease of non-agricultural rural employment and the
transformation of the rural economy are accompanied
by an increase in salaried employment, both within and
outside agriculture. In particular, wages are an important
component of income, particularly for non-agricultural
households and households above the poverty line.
Tis chapter highlights the need for a more integrated
management of rural public policies. Some areas that
require greater integration with rural development po-
licies include: a) social security policies; (b) policies for
the mitigation and adaptation of agriculture to climate
change; (c) food security policies; and (d) national po-
licies related to digital agendas.
Institutional framework. Dealing with the ne-
gative efects of the food crisis has continued to set the
agricultural agenda in the region. Te reduction or eli-
mination of the negative impacts of food price volatility
on the population is a priority for governments in the
region, which have implemented specifc measures to
tackle the problem. In some countries the implemen-
tation of programmes and policies of greater scope, in
coordination with local organizations, has helped to
strengthen state actions in the agricultural sector.
In the search for solutions to the current situation of
economic uncertainty, countries are focusing more on
family farming, both in terms of emergency programmes
and the development of this sectors potential to mitigate
the efects of the agri-food crisis. Tis is happening in
various countries through the creation of family farming
programmes with medium and long-term horizons. In
some countries, this has been strengthened by the crea-
tion of institutions designed specifcally to foster the
growth of this sector.
Te chapter concludes that the development of agricul-
ture in the region depends on the implementation of
integrated policies adapted to the reality of each country.
Rather than designing policies specifcally for the agri-
cultural sector, countries should focus on sustainable
rural development, using a results-based management
approach. Although specifc policies may difer from
country to country, increasing the participation of all
sectors in the formulation of policies and programmes
requires a focus on innovation systems, improving the
existing institutional framework and developing socially
inclusive policies. Tis includes policies aimed at deve-
loping the potential of the family farming sector, which
lags behind in the region in terms of social inclusion
and equality.
Section iv. Land Tenure in Latin
Tis year the special chapter is focused on analysing land
tenure in Latin America and the Caribbean. Te pro-
found transformation of the world economy is changing
the terms of the debate about the future of agriculture
in the region. It seems there are diferent trends marking
the transition to a new economy that include: the fnan-
cialization of the economy and its efect on the volatility
of prices for agricultural commodities; technological
innovations (ict, biotechnologies, nanotechnologies,
cognitive science) that have generated radical changes
in productive processes; the increasing importance of
healthy diets; the new health risks generated by globa-
lization; the impact of climate change on agriculture;
and, the need to feed 9 billion people by 2050 with the
impact this implies on natural resources.
Te question of how to reconcile land ownership as a
form of personal capital and as a legitimate way for rural
populations to seek sustainable livelihoods is important
in a constantly changing and increasingly complex envi-
ronment. Tere is also the discussion of land grabbing
in the region, which is a relatively new phenomenon
that could have important consequences. Are the legal
and institutional frameworks in the region able to deal
with the current land dynamics?
Considering the current trends, governments should
develop more sophisticated and integrated policies that
facilitate a new approach to address the problem of land
in the region. Tis implies, frstly, no longer treating
natural resources as if they were inexhaustible, and in-
tegrating them into economic calculations through new
parameters that consider the environmental impact of
productive activities (resource extraction, waste accumu-
lation, transformation of ecosystems, among others).
In addition, new regulations are needed at all levels -
local, regional, national and international - that protect
the environment and regulate land use. Access to the
land should be maintained and deepened, identifying
family farming as a sub-sector that should be the target
of broader policies related to land distribution, technical
assistance, irrigation, associativity, infrastructure and
credit. Tese measures, along with others outlined in
this section, form part of the new approach needed to
give economic, social and environmental sustainability
to the dynamic process of agricultural development in
the region.
Section I:
Macroeconomic
Context
The facts
The debt overhang in the public, banking and ex- *
ternal sectors in several European countries threa-
tens the very survival of the euro zone.
International fnancial markets interpret conditio- *
nal assistance to various countries in the euro zone
as an expectation of low growth due to measures
such as tax increases, cuts in public spending and
the introduction of extensive labour reforms.
The debt crisis in the euro zone is not an isolated *
phenomenon: similar trends can be seen in other
advanced economies and repercussions are being
felt in the main emerging economies.
Macroeconomic conditions in the Latin Ameri- *
can and Caribbean economies, notwithstanding
the differences that may exist between countries,
are suffciently sound to enable these economies
to implement countercyclical fscal policies and
reinforce social protection networks.
Macroeconomic Context
New challenges posed by the global economic crisis
Te uncertain outlook for the advanced economies suggests that additional policy measures
will be needed to maintain growth in Latin America and the Caribbean
Trends
Growth rates in the advanced economies have shown two
distinct phases in recent years.
Following the recession of 2009, the performance of the
world economy in 2010 seemed to point to an upturn in
most countries with a rally in private consumption and
international trade. At the same time, commodity prices,
which had ceased to rise during the 2007-2008 crisis,
resumed their upward trend in 2010.
Such trends, which lasted up to mid 2011, called for po-
licy responses from the emerging economies to stem the
rise in local price indices, foreign capital infows and the
appreciation of regional currencies (eclac/fao/iica, 2011;
eclac, 2011).
From the second half of 2011, doubts as to whether a
sustainable solution would be found for the euro zone
debt crisis and the risk that the slowdown in these eco-
nomies might spill over onto other regions prompted
a downward adjustment in world economic growth fo-
recasts.
Te uncertain outlook for the European Monetary Union,
together with the sharp rise in the rates of sovereign bonds
in the European countries hardest hit by the crisis, has had
an impact even on the most robust European Union eco-
nomies. Tis impact has been felt in the fnancial sector,
owing to the loss of investor confdence and rising risk
premiums, as well as in the real sector, resulting in weaker
economic activity and trade within the bloc.
In the second quarter of 2012, the gdp of the euro zone
countries declined by 0.2% compared with fat growth in
the preceding quarter. One third of the 17 countries of the
euro zone are in this situation. In fact, Cyprus, Greece,
Italy, Portugal and Spain have recorded two or more con-
secutive quarters of negative growth since the end of 2011.
Te recession in these countries has lowered overall gdp
growth in the 27 European Union countries in the second
quarter of 2012 and is one of the main factors constraining
world economic growth in 2012 and 2013.
Outside the European Union, other trends are also limi-
ting global growth. Uncertainty in the United States as
to whether a political agreement will be reached on the
long-term fnancing of the public defcit, now at 8% of
gdp, is compounded by the approach of the presidential
elections. Moreover, real-sector recovery in the United
States is painfully slow, with persistently high rates of
unemployment and growing inequality.
Te outlook for growth in Japan over the next few years
is slightly better than for other advanced economies,
although the budgetary defcit remains high. However,
growth in Japan in the second quarter of 2012 stood at
1.4% (on an annualized basis), which represents a sig-
nifcant slowdown from the rate of 5.5% recorded in
the previous quarter. Tis reduction refects in part the
impact of the euro crisis on the appreciation of the yen
and the implications for the competitiveness of Japanese
exports.
Te emerging economies, such as Brazil, China and India,
which had previously recorded robust growth, are now
showing signs of a slowdown. Te frst reduction in in-
terest rates in China since 2008 reveals the governments
concern at the slower growth.
Te impact of these trends on Latin America and the
Caribbean is analysed in the following sections, along with
the macroeconomic policy adjustments that have been
adopted at the regional level to deal with the behaviour
of fundamental variables in the world economy.
Most countries saw an upturn in economic
growth in 2010, with variations, however, from
one country to another.
In 2010, the developed economies were able to post posi-
tive growth; however, their rate of expansion was slower
than in the emerging economies: 3.2% compared with
7.5% on average (fgure 1).
Signifcant diferences were noted in the performance of
the emerging economies, especially between exporters and
importers of commodities, which rose sharply in price
in international markets. Metals and hydrocarbons were
particularly buoyant. In Latin America, this meant more
intense growth in South America than in Central America
and the Caribbean.
Apart from the rise in commodity prices and the robust
external demand, which boosted the regions export vo-
lumes, regional growth in 2010 and early 2011 was also
shored up by domestic demand. Te latter was stimulated
by the countercyclical policies applied in response to the
crisis and by the abundant liquidity available in interna-
tional fnancial markets.
Following a brief upturn, the world economy
again started to slowdown, with repercussions
in Latin America and the Caribbean
World gdp growth stood at 3.9% in 2011, down sharply
from the 5.1% rise in 2010 (see fgure 1). Tese rates refect
the uncertainty in international markets as to whether a
sustainable solution to the debt crisis will be found for
the euro zone and fscal consolidation achieved in the
United States.
Te fall in gdp growth was sharper in the advanced eco-
nomies, especially the United States, than in the emerging
and developing economies as a whole. Within this group,
Latin America and the Caribbean recorded a signifcant
slowdown in gdp growth in 2011, following a rally in
2010. Nevertheless, the regions performance surpassed
the average of the central economies.
Te slowdown observed towards the end of 2011 in Latin
America was due not just to the unfavourable interna-
tional context, but also to a restrictive monetary policy
designed to rein in infation and wind up fscal progra-
mmes and policies adopted in response to the fnancial
crisis of the preceding years.
Between October 2010 and September 2011, the avera-
ge consumer price index (cpi) in Latin America trended
upward, refecting rises in the international prices for food
and other commodities (minerals, metals and hydrocar-
bons). Since these products are important as inputs in
manufacturing and as benchmarks for price adjustments
in the services sector, core infation also tended to accele-
rate during the period, especially in the South American
countries (see fgure 2).
In response to movements in the cpi between mid-2010
and the third quarter of 2011, monetary policy rates were
raised or, at least, the downward trend was halted (see f-
gure 3). Tis adjustment was immediate and more intense
in South America, especially in economies that work with
infation targets.
From mid-2009, relatively optimistic expectations concer-
ning the economic performance and interest rate spreads
in the Latin American economies compared with those
in global fnancial markets stimulated capital infows,
which contributed to a real appreciation of the currencies
in the region. Tis appreciation was much sharper and
more sustainable in the South American countries than
in Central America, Mexico and the Caribbean, partly
because rising commodity prices resulted in higher ex-
port volumes and currency infows in South America
(see fgure 4).
Te currency appreciation resulted in a loss of compe-
titiveness for regional exports that did not beneft from
international price rises. In response, governments adop-
ted policies to boost productivity and cut costs in the
production sectors.
Figure 1. Growth rates and projections of Gross Domestic Product (%)
Source: Preparedby author onthe basis of data fromWorldEconomic Outlook, International Monetary Fund(imf).
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
2010 2011 Jan
2011 / 2012
Apr
2011 / 2012
Apr
2012/ 2012
Apr
2012/ 2013
Jul
2012/ 2012
Jul
2012/ 2013
Sept
2011 / 2012
Jan
2012/ 2012
Jan
2012/ 2013
Projections in / For
World Advanced economies United States Euro Zone Emerging economies China India LatAm& Caribbean
2009
Figure 2. Consumer Price Index (cpi) by component, 12-month variation (%)
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
14,0
16,0
18,0
20,0
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
Latin America Caribbean South America Central America & Mexico
General CPI Foods Others Core CPI
Source: Prepared by author on the basis of data from the Economic Commission for Latin America and the
Caribbean (eclac).
In terms of monetary policy, central banks in the coun-
tries of the region built up their international monetary
reserves in order to curb the infow of foreign exchange
and limit the currency appreciation. Tanks to these two
measures the regions economies were better able to wi-
thstand the turmoil that broke out in world markets in
the second half of 2011 (eclac, 2011).
In the second half of 2011 and early 2012, the internatio-
nal situation worsened owing to higher risk ratings in
the advanced economies. In Europe, negotiations for an
agreement to provide fnancial rescue to economies in
greater difculties (Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and
Spain) have come up against a series of obstacles.
Given the size of some of these economies, a declaration
of bankruptcy would probably launch a systemic crisis
with repercussions within and far beyond the European
Union. Tus, a collective solution was identifed as the
best option, albeit a politically difcult one to maintain
in creditor countries. At the same time, since devaluation
is not an option for addressing some of the competitive-
ness issues, the burden falls on fscal adjustment, which
will continue to cause the economies to contract over the
coming years.
In the case of the United States, the current administrations
difculties in achieving a fscal agreement that will enable
it to continue to fnance the public debt are compoun-
ded by structural problems in the real estate and banking
sectors and persistently high unemployment, which is
pushing up social insurance expenditure.
Uncertainty about growth prospects in the central eco-
nomies over the coming years has led to a reassessment
of global expectations and of the inevitable impacts on
the real and fnancial sectors.
Changes in the international outlook have
prompted new macroeconomic policy direc-
tions in Latin America and the Caribbean
Dwindling liquidity and uncertainty in fnancial markets
have reduced capital infows into emerging countries,
with repercussions on exchange rates. Te appreciation
in the regions currencies eased somewhat in mid-2011
and the second quarter of 2012 (not included in any fgu-
re). Furthermore, with upward pressure on international
commodity prices abating, infation rates also started to
fall, thus paving the way for cuts in real interest rates.
Despite the recent depreciation in real terms, the impact
on infation in the region has been very slight, owing to
the lower expectations for the central economies and the
dampening efect they will have on imports of industrial
goods and investment as a whole.
As a result of the currency appreciations experienced re-
cently, and following several years of exposure to com-
petition from imports, some segments of industry in the
region have become sufciently competitive to absorb a
portion of the price rise for imported inputs, instead of
passing it all on to the end consumer.
Te regional industry has gained in competitiveness
thanks to policies on investment loans and subsidies
applied in the region since the crisis. Indeed, as a result
of these policies, gross fxed capital formation stood at
22.8% of gdp in 2011, a new record in recent decades
(eclac, 2011).
In the labour market, employment and wages continued
to rise in 2011 and the frst few months of 2012 in most
of the countries of the region and this trend is expected
to continue. Te unemployment rate dropped by 0.5 of
a percentage point for the region as a whole to stand at
6.9%. Wage employment and jobs with social security
coverage increased and formal-sector real average wages
continued to trend upward (eclac, 2012).
Te tax yield in Latin America also improved in 2011,
moving from a primary defcit in previous years to a small
surplus, equivalent to 0.3% of gdp. Tus, the countries of
the region were able, albeit with signifcant diferences,
to rein in the public debt to a level below the record low
of recent decades (eclac, 2011).
Tese improvements in the regional macroeconomic si-
tuation over the past two years enabled them to provide
the region with (fnancial and institutional) resources and
to reduce the vulnerability of the regions economies to
possible external shocks, such as those being discussed by
international agencies in their forecasts for the coming
years.
Having to address the volatility in fnancial markets has
been an important learning process for regional economies
in the management of public accounts and anticyclical
policies.
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
9,0
10,0
11,0
I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
South America Latin America Central America & Mexico
Caribbean (eclac).
Figure 3. Median of the Monetary Policy Rate, by Sub-Region (%)
Figure 4. Real Effective Exchange Rate Index (%)
Base year 2005 = 100
75
80
85
90
95
100
105
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
South America Latin America Central America & Mexico Caribbean
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
J
a
n
F
e
b
M
a
r
A
p
r
M
a
y
J
u
n
J
u
l
A
u
g
S
e
p
O
c
t
N
o
v
D
e
c
Caribbean (eclac).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Nicaragua
Bolivia
Venezuela
Ecuador
Uruguay
Paraguay
Honduras
Chile
Argentina
Colombia Peru
Brazil
El Salvador
Costa Rica
Guatemala
Mexico
Dominican Republic
Panama
LATAM
Participation of the EU27 in total exports (Average 2007-10)
Participation of primary goods in total exports (Average 2007-10)
Participation of tax revenue fromprimary goods in total tax revenue (Average 2007-09)
External debt total/GDP (2011)
Remittances/GDP (average 2008-09)
Outlook
The world economic outlook is progressively
being revised downward
Projections for 2013 (see fgure 1, left side) refect a positive
but cautious view of eforts being made by the European
Union to reach agreement on assistance to the most se-
riously hit economies in the euro zone. Te precaution is
due to the fragility of the achievements to date and to the
need to continue to apply policies for gradually reducing
risk in the markets (imf, 2012). Te fscal consolidation
measures that will be applied by the most seriously afected
economies are also expected to have a signifcant impact on
growth in the European Union, especially in 2013.
Tere is no ruling out either an even gloomier scenario,
with a deep crisis in the euro zone and adverse efects be-
ing transmitted to world markets through both real and
fnancial channels, and economic implications reaching
far beyond Europe.
In any of these scenarios, with the decline in growth in the
advanced economies, growth rates in Latin America and
the Caribbean would remain moderate, albeit with major
diferences between countries.
Te outlook for the countries of the region depends on
the diferent levels of vulnerability to the deteriorating
international context
As regards international trade, the vulnerability of regional
economies stems from the importance of the European
Union as a market for exports from Latin American and
Caribbean countries and to the share of commodities
which are subject to greater price volatility in international
markets in total exports.
In terms of external accounts as well, consideration should
be given to the role of migrants remittances for some eco-
nomies in the region and to the impact of limited econo-
mic growth in the advanced economies on the infows of
these resources.
Given the unfavourable international outlook, the fact
that fscal revenues from commodities account for a very
signifcant share of total revenues is a source of instability
and vulnerability. Furthermore, a high level of public debt,
especially debt fnanced by external sources, is synonymous
with high vulnerability to volatility in international fnan-
cial markets.
Figure 5 presents the values of these indicators of vulne-
rability to the international situation for the countries of
Latin America and the Caribbean for which information
is available. Te countries are listed by order of the average
of the four indicators.
Te signifcance of Europe as a destination for exports from
Latin America and the Caribbean diminished progressi-
vely in the 1990s, stabilizing at around 13% in 2000. Te
decline was sharp for the Central American countries and
more gradual for those of South America. Mexico is an
exception in the region as its exports to Europe expanded
over the past decade.
Overall, the share of the 27 European Union countries as
a destination for subregional exports stood at 19% in the
case of South America, 13% for the Caribbean, 10% for
Central America and 5% for Mexico (average for 2000-
2011). Te countries that are the most heavily dependent
on Europe as a market for their exports are Argentina,
Brazil, Chile, Honduras and Uruguay. Although the nature
of the products exported to Europe (and the likelihood
of their being reshipped to other markets) should also be
taken into account, generally speaking, exports from these
countries will be hard hit if the European debt crisis drags
on indefnitely.
Te size of remittances reveals the diferential impact of
one of the ways in which the international crisis is trans-
mitted to the economies of Latin America and the Ca-
ribbean, even if no breakdown is available by country of
origin of these resources. Te countries where remittances
account for the highest percentages of gdp are Honduras,
El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Dominican Republic,
the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Ecuador. Clearly,
the fnal impact on these countries will depend on the
performance of the migrants countries of residence and
the specifc policies towards this population group.
Another source of vulnerability for the regional economies
is the fact that in some cases, commodities account for
a high share of the nations total exports. Te risk arises
from the volatility in commodity prices, which depend
not only on real variables (for example, growth in manu-
facturing) but also fnancial ones (risk in world markets,
among others). In recent years, several Latin American
countries have specialized more heavily in commodities
trade, following the boom in world demand and prices
for raw materials.
International prices for these products, especially hydrocar-
bons, are highly sensitive to the outlook for growth in the
advanced economies and their impact on world demand.
Prices for the main commodities soared throughout the
frst decade of the millennium in response to growing
world demand (eclac/fao/iica, 2010). Tat growth was
scarcely interrupted by the repercussions of the crisis on
economic activity in the advanced countries and to a lesser
extent in the emerging economies.
Te resurgence of fears in recent months, concerning the
negotiation of sovereign debt of the euro zone countries
has once more pushed down commodity prices, including
those for petroleum and petroleum derivatives.
Te rise in petroleum prices in the frst quarter of 2012
was due to the geopolitical upheaval in some Middle
Eastern producing countries. In recent months, however,
with growth prospects down in the central economies,
prices have settled at below us$100 per barrel (West
Texas Intermediate (wti)), a situation not seen since
February 2011.
According to the specialized agencies, a price slightly below
us$100 per barrel would seem to represent a new equili-
brium point and takes into account the expected slowdown
in the main advanced economies. If the slowdown and the
resulting risks for the world economy do not materialize
fully, the rally in demand could push prices up to between
us$100 and us$110 per barrel by the end of 2012 (Morse,
2012).
Te predictions of sluggish growth in the advanced eco-
nomies are expected to have an even greater impact on the
prices of other commodities including some minerals,
metals and agricultural products that account for a large
share of regional exports. Tis is because the pressures that
have already had a bearing on short-term supply predic-
tions for crude, in particular the geopolitical turmoil in
some of the main Middle-Eastern producers such as Iran
and Iraq, have not yet fltered through to these products.
In 2011, commodity prices (not including those for pe-
troleum) had already trended downward owing to the
Figure 5. Latin American Countries: Indicators of Vulnerability to the Euro Zone Crisis (%)
Caribbean (eclac) (2011).
uncertainty generated by the crisis in the advanced econo-
mies and signs of a slowdown in the emerging economies,
including China.
Other variables, such as the appreciation of the dollar
against the euro and escalating risks in international mar-
kets, also had a dampening efect on commodity prices,
which had been buoyant in the preceding years.
Te International Monetary Fund (imf) forecasts an ove-
rall reduction of close to 10% in commodity prices (except
for petroleum) compared with 2011, when they had soared
by 18%. A further fall of 2% has been predicted for 2013.
Petroleum prices, on the other hand, are expected to close
the year (2012) 10% higher and to decline by 4% in 2013
(imf, 2012).
Tese trends are taken into account by eclac (2012) in
its forecasts for the countries of Latin America, which is
expected to face a worsening of its terms of trade overall
but especially in mercosur and in hydrocarbon-exporting
countries.
If the predictions for fat growth in the euro zone econo-
mies and tepid growth in the United States prove to be
accurate, international commodity prices will be volatile,
trending downward in 2012 and 2013. Tis volatility will
be due to uncertainty over global supplies of crude oil and
the outcome of the elections in the United States (above
all its impact on fscal consolidation) and to negotiations
on rescue programmes and institutional reforms in the
euro zone countries.
In those Latin American and Caribbean countries whose
fscal position depends largely on movements in commo-
dity prices (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Ecuador,
Mexico and the Plurinational State of Bolivia), failure
to adopt anticyclical mechanisms will make their public
policies less efective and sustainable in the face of volatile
international prices.
Further impacts of such volatility on domestic markets in-
clude a variation in price indices and in the real exchange
rate, with repercussions on the competitiveness of other
export sectors (eclac/fao/iica, 2011).
External debt levels as a percentage of gdp are another
indicator of these countries vulnerability to any worse-
ning of the crisis. Te overall external debt of the region
fell steadily over the past decade, but with signifcant di-
ferences at the subregional level. Whereas the countries
of South America, Mexico, Central America, along with
the Dominican Republic and Haiti, cut their external
debt from around 40% of gdp at the beginning of the
century to close to 20% in 2011, average debt levels in the
Caribbean subregion increased in the post-crisis period
from 40% in 2008 to 50% in 2011 (eclac, 2011).
Figure 5 shows other major diferences between the coun-
tries. In terms of South America, Argentina, the Bolivarian
Republic of Venezuela, Chile and Uruguay continue to
record external debt levels above the subregional average
and the same is true of El Salvador, Nicaragua and Panama
in Central America.
Some authors associate high public debt levels with a slow-
down in economic growth. Reinhart and others (2012)
show that high debt episodes since 1800 are linked to a
growth rate more than one percentage point below the
typical rate for periods marked by lower debt levels. Tis
is because governments with high debt levels need to raise
taxes and cut back on investment in order to keep up with
interest payments.
Since long-term debt is normally fnanced with conse-
cutive, short-maturity loans, the possibility that a rise in
interest rates may rapidly push up costs is a real risk for
countries whose debt burden is already high. Te current
uncertainties and the volatility in international markets
are particularly risky for those countries that constantly
need to reschedule their debt fnancing arrangements with
external creditors.
External accounts have benefted from strong infows of
foreign direct investment (fdi), which were the leading
source of external fnancing in the region in 2011, accoun-
ting for 2.4% of gdp (eclac, 2012). Nevertheless, these
fows are also likely to be constrained by the slowdown
in the main countries of origin, although the crisis in the
central economies could, just as well, turn the region into
a more attractive destination for investments.
Policy recommendations
With the cooling of the world economy, the re-
gion should turn its attention to strengthening
domestic markets and boosting intraregional
trade
In the next few months, the economies of Latin America
and the Caribbean will have to contend with sluggish
growth in some of their principal markets (Europe and
the United States), in addition to sliding prices for some
of their major exports. Te impact of these variables on
growth of the regions exports, together with the decline
in income due to the worsening terms of trade, could lead
to slower growth in investment.
Tis slowdown could sharpen, depending on the be-
haviour of international fnancial markets. Tey could
become more volatile, because of risks in the petroleum
market and uncertainty surrounding fscal consolidation
in the advanced economies, which could also adversely
afect the volume and stability of capital fows into the
region. Under a more pessimistic scenario in which the
crisis of the euro zone intensifes and other economies
are weakened by contagion, capital fows into the region
could contract signifcantly.
In any of these scenarios, the vibrancy of domestic mar-
kets and intraregional trade will be crucial for sustaining
regional gdp growth, as has been the case since the se-
cond half of 2011 when the international situation started
to deteriorate (eclac, 2012). Moreover, the micro- and
macroprudential policies implemented in the region in
recent years, especially those that regulate the operation
of fnancial institutions, will need to be strengthened in
order to deal with acute market volatility.
One of the repercussions of the international recession
on regional economies may be a slowdown in currency
appreciations and in the consumer price indices. Tis
scenario would open up opportunities for a less restrictive
monetary policy, with a reduction in real interest rates in
order to stimulate domestic demand.
Having weathered the crisis of 2008, the region is in a
reasonably sound macroeconomic position for facing the
expected worsening in the international economic situa-
tion, although the situation varies from one country to
another, as explained in the foregoing section. Neverthe-
less, with falling commodity prices and the likelihood of
increasingly volatile capital fows, the anti-cyclical policies
that enabled the region to pick up relatively quickly after
the world fnancial crisis may no longer be feasible.
Te regions main achievements in recent years were the
build-up of international currency reserves and the low le-
vel of public and external debt. However, if the downtrend
in commodity prices is prolonged, lower fscal revenues
in the commodity-dependent countries of Latin America
and the Caribbean may lead to weaker public accounts
and higher debt.
The social bias in public policies should be
maintained as a tool for strengthening regio-
nal economies
Using the fscal space created in previous years, some
countries took advantage of the crisis to reorient their
public policies towards strengthening their medium and
long-term economic and social development, with the
emphasis on reducing poverty and inequality (eclac,
2011). Tis fscal space has been reduced in recent years,
but still exists, except in the case of the Caribbean coun-
tries, whose debt burden and fscal position are worse than
in the rest of the region.
With the worsening crisis in the advanced economies
exacerbating the fscal situation in the region, pressure is
mounting for cutbacks in the very expenditure and aid
programmes that had underpinned the recovery in emplo-
yment and consumption levels in the post-crisis period.
Nevertheless, when defning their fscal policy priorities
over the coming years, governments should bear in mind
that social programmes can act as a stimulus to domestic
markets, which, as already mentioned, are vital at a time
when the world economy is cooling.
A few countries in the region (Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Mexico, Peru and Uruguay) have already adopted speci-
fc measures for addressing the sharp global slowdown
or sounded an alarm, declaring their willingness to take
further steps in the event of a severe cooling of the world
economy (eclac, 2011). Te rest have yet to follow suit.
One option for them would be to monitor and learn
from such experiences, and foster, as far as possible, a
coordinated response at the regional level.
Section ii:
Sectoral Analysis
Facts
China has become the largest importer of almost *
all basic agricultural products; this has had, and
will continue to have, a signifcant impact on in-
ternational prices.
Price volatility negatively affects access to food *
for the poor, as well as agricultural producers and
decisions relating to investment and innovation in
the agricultural sector.
Context of the Agricultural Sector
A growing sector with productivity gaps between countries
Te growth dynamics in the volume of production, income, productivity and agricultural
trade difers signifcantly between the countries of the Americas. Tis represents an
opportunity and, at the same time, a challenge to close these gaps and respond adequately
to the growing demands worldwide for agricultural raw materials in a difcult context of
economic uncertainty and volatility of international prices.
Trends
Agricultural production is recovering following
the crisis, with strong leadership from the
Southern Region1.
In 2009, lac experienced a reduction of 3.89% in real
Agricultural Value-Added (ava, see Table 1b), almost
1 Two indicators are used to measure the performance
of the agricultural sector. The frst and most utilized
is the real Agricultural Value-Added (ava in Table 1b),
which represents the evolution of an index of volume
of production, where each one of its components is
weighed by the value of the production over a base
period (Valds et al, 2008; Paz et al, 2009). The second
indicator measures the movement of real income in the
sector, taking into account fuctuations in agricultural
prices and the purchasing power of the income received
by the farmers. For this, the ava is expressed in nominal
terms (a measure of nominal income) and is divided by
the implicit price defator for gdp (as a measurement of
the trend in prices of goods and services throughout the
economy). We have referred to this indicator as defated
nominal ava in Table 1c.
double the decrease of the economy in general (1.82%).
Tis reduction was due almost exclusively to a drop of
7.1% in the real ava of the Southern subregion (which
accounts for a high percentage of agricultural production
in the region), as a result of the drought that afected the
countries of the Southern Cone during the 2008/2009
farming season (de Carbonnel, 2009; La Red 21, 2009).
In addition to the climatic conditions, there was also
great uncertainty in Argentina stemming from the
governments proposal to impose sliding-scale taxes on
agricultural exports, a move that discouraged cultivation
during that cycle.
On the other hand, real ava growth in 2009 in the Ca-
ribbean region was exceptional (9.6%), led by Guyana,
Dominica and Jamaica, countries in which the possibi-
lity for turning staples into products with greater added
value has increased. Nevertheless, the ava of the Andean
and Central regions grew only marginally (0.01% and
0.29%, respectively).
During 2010, the economy of lac experienced signifcant
recovery, growing at almost twice the aggregate gdp rate of
the Americas. Tis is explained by a highly positive perfor-
mance of the Southern subregion, which grew by 7.87%.
Figure 6. Agricultural Productivity in the Americas, 1990-1999 and 2000-2009
(ava per agricultural worker, in constant 2000 us$)
Source: iica (caespa) with World Bank data (2012)
0 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000 40.000 45.000
World
Peru
St. Kitts & Nevis
Honduras
Ecuador
St. Lucia
Trinidad & Tobago
Paraguay
Nicaragua
El Salvador
Jamaica
St. Vincente & the Grenadines
Colombia
Granada
Guatemala
Mexico
Latin America and the Caribbean
Brazil
Suriname
Guyana
Dominican Republic
Panama
Costa Rica
Belize
Chile
Dominica
Venezuela
Uruguay
Argentina
Barbados
United States
Canada
1990-1999 2000-2009
Agriculture also performed better worldwide during 2010
(6.37%), although with diferences at the subregional level.
Comparing the behaviour of the agricultural sector with
growth throughout the economy, the recovery of real ava
in the Southern subregion was extraordinary, recording
10.8% growth with respect to 2009, almost three per-
centage points above the subregional gdp. Tis was due
fundamentally to record production of wheat in Brazil
and Argentina, and of maize in Argentina (eclac/fao/
iica, 2011). On the other hand, ava in the other subregions
remained fat, with growth rates that were lower than in
the rest of the economy.
Te positive real ava growth in lac in 2010 (6.4%) far
exceeded that of other regions around the world. It was
signifcantly higher than the ava growth in the European
Union (0.46%), in North America (0.81%), in the Arab
world (1.33%), in the countries of East Asia and the Pacifc
(2.9%), and in general, was far above the global aggregate
ava growth, which was only 2.7% (World Bank, 2012).
According to preliminary data from eclac, agriculture is
expected to decelerate in 2011, a year in which real ava in
lac grew by approximately 2%, which was three times less
than it did in 2010. Nevertheless, there were signifcant
disparities between the countries. Chile experienced ex-
traordinary growth of 11.9%, supported by the dynamism
of the fruit sector
2
(Central Bank of Chile, 2011), followed
by Grenada, Ecuador and the Dominican Republic, whe-
re growth exceeded 5%. Peru and Uruguay experienced
moderate growth of between 2 and 5%, while El Salvador,
Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela, Argentina and Mexico
saw their production fall with respect to 2010.
Real income in the agricultural sector shows im-
portant annual variations
Te indicator of defated nominal ava (Table 1c) demons-
trates that the crisis severely afected the sector in 2009,
refecting a drop in real income in lac of 7.4%, almost
double the fall in production volumes (3.9%). Neverthe-
less, in 2010, with the recovery of agricultural commodity
prices, real income in the sector grew by almost 25%,
exceeding the growth that took place during the price
peak of 2008. Tis oscillatory behaviour of real income
in lac is related to international prices. According to the
fao food index, prices fell by 21.4% in 2009 compared to
2008, and then recovered by 18.1% in 2010.
Increasing productivity gaps
Average agricultural productivity, measured as real ava per
agricultural worker, averaged us$3,070 during the period
2000-2009, far below Canadas average productivity of
us$42,965 (Figure 6). Te gap between countries in the
Americas (calculated as the standard deviation) moved
from us$6,626 in constant dollars during the period 1990-
1999, to us$9,842 during the period 2000-2009, indica-
ting that productivity in some countries grew faster than
in others (for more details, see chapter on Agriculture).
2 Destined for export, especially blueberries, cherries
and grapes.
Te convergence hypothesis indicates that countries
that are lagging behind with respect to the leading coun-
tries in terms of agricultural productivity would have
an advantage, since they would beneft more from the
dissemination of technological knowledge and, the-
refore, would experience more rapid growth. In the
Americas, the opposite process is more prevalent, one of
economic divergence, resulting fundamentally from the
diferences between countries in terms of their natural
resource base, level of technology (including fxed and
working capital), human capital (in its broad defnition
to include education, skills, knowledge and training),
and levels of investment in agricultural research and
infrastructure (Hayami and Ruttan, 1970; Evenson and
Kislev, 1975; Antle 1983; Eldon et al., 2002; World Bank,
2007).
In comparing relative growth in agricultural produc-
tivity over the last decade with respect to the previous
decade, at least four groups of countries can be distin-
guished. Te frst group comprises countries that have
maintained an average annual growth of more than 2%
over the past 20 years. Te countries in this group are, in
descending order according to the productivity value of
each agricultural worker: United States, Canada, Argen-
tina, Dominican Republic, Brazil and Costa Rica. Te
second group of countries has made a quantitative leap
in productivity, moving from annual growth rates of less
than 2%, including negative growth during the decade
of the 1990s, to growth rates of more than 2% in the last
decade. Tis group comprises Venezuela, Chile, Mexi-
co, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Honduras, Colombia and
Ecuador, with the most signifcant recovery occurring
in the past two years. In the third group of countries,
growth rates have remained below 2% in the last 20
years, although the majority improved their performan-
ce in the past decade: Dominica, Grenada, Suriname,
St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Belize and Jamaica.
Te fourth and fnal group is made up of Guatemala.
Tis country went from performing very well during
the last decade, to recording almost negative growth
in recent years.
Source: iica (caespa), with data from the World Bank
Notes: *Caribbean includes only countries with a complete
series of data (dom, atg, blz, dma, grd, guy, hti, jam, kna,
lca, tto, vct); ** does not include Canada due to missing
data for 2010; ***Does not include Venezuela owing to a
lack of data on local prices since 2008.
Region 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
1a. gdp (Constant dollars of 2000)
Americas 3,18% 2,61% 0,76% -3,16% 3,58%
lac 5,83% 5,91% 4,29% -1,82% 6,17%
Andean Countries 7,93% 7,65% 5,68% -0,50% 2,95%
Caribbean 8,94% 6,02% 3,36% 0,45% 3,71%
Central America 6,58% 7,18% 4,28% -0,59% 3,55%
North America 2,81% 2,03% 0,09% -3,59% 3,14%
South America 5,22% 6,71% 5,57% -0,26% 7,87%
1b. ava real 1b. vaa real
Americas -0,42% -3,12% 5,58% 0,37% 3,65%
lac 3,99% 4,50% 2,85% -3,89% 6,37%
Andean Countries 3,72% 3,18% 3,12% 0,01% 0,29%
Caribbean 8,12% -1,74% -2,65% 9,62% 3,35%
Central America 4,55% 4,93% 1,67% 0,29% 2,07%
North America** -3,39% -8,61% 7,44% 3,95% 1,22%
South America 4,13% 5,63% 3,84% -7,21% 10,81%
1c. ava Defected 1c. vaa corriente defactado
Americas 1,13% 17,43% 15,67% -11,52% 20,96%
lac 11,93% 20,65% 20,06% -7,42% 24,53%
Andean Countries*** 9,35% 19,38% 17,29% -1,49% 20,10%
Caribbean* 5,49% 2,89% 11,38% -0,22% 9,38%
Central America 6,41% 13,54% 10,94% -1,81% 10,95%
North America** -5,34% 12,60% 9,78% -16,34% 15,90%
South America 14,26% 28,29% 26,92% -7,59% 30,07%
Table 1: Annual growth rates for gdp and ava in the
Americas (2006-2010)
Source: iica (caespa) with data from Comtrade.
Figure 7. Revealed competitiveness of exports by region (2000-2010)
-2
-1,5
-1
-0,5
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Africa East Asia
North America Oceania
Rest of Asia UE27
LAC
LAC and Africa are improving their competiti-
veness in agricultural
3
markets worldwide
lac has maintained sustained growth in its agricultu-
ral competitiveness
4
for more than a decade (Figure 7),
which means that the region, which specializes in the
export of agricultural products, has remained very dy-
namic and has positioned itself better than other regions
in the international market for agricultural goods. With
respect to the subregions of lac, the countries of the
Southern Cone largely account for the positive trend
in competitiveness of agricultural products, although
the subregions of the Caribbean and Central Ameri-
ca are also showing good recovery. Africa, which had
experienced deterioration in its competitiveness, has
recovered considerably based on the high prices recorded
in 2008. On the other hand, North America (excluding
3 Refers to a broad defnition of agriculture by the wto, which in-
cludes sections 0, 1, 2 and 4 (minus sub-sections 27 and 28) of the
Standard for International Trade Classifcation (sitc).
4 Measured by its revealed comparative advantage.
Mexico) and the European Union, which were showing
a slight trend towards improvement in their competiti-
veness since 2002, have been in a stable position since
2008. Te Asian countries (East Asia and the Rest of
Asia) have kept their revealed comparative advantage
stable, while Oceania has experienced a sharp drop in
its levels of competitiveness since 2004, due mainly to
agricultural exports from Australia
5
. Tis region was way
ahead of the other regions around the world in terms of
competitiveness, but lac has begun to lead in this indi-
cator, beginning precisely with the food crisis in 2008.
Finally, the countries of East Asia, including China,
show revealed comparative disadvantage in agricultural
exports, making them more and more dependent on
agricultural imports.
5 This does not mean that agricultural exports from Australia did
not increase, but rather, that they grew at a rate that was much lower
than that of the other regions. For example, agricultural exports from
the Southern Cone of the Americas grew at an average rate of 14%
annually, while exports from Australia grew at a rate of only 5%
annually.
In 2010, all regions of the world declined in competiti-
veness, with the exception of North America and East
Asia, possibly as a result of exchange rates that were more
favourable to exports.
Increasing trade restrictions
Given the increase in international prices of agricul-
tural products, as well as fscal restrictions, the need
and possibilities for fnancial support for agriculture are
decreasing. However, in some countries, there is a move
to protect national production, domestic consumer su-
pply and even employment. Tis is due to the fact that
governments are inclined to establish trade controls and
promote protectionist policies whenever the world eco-
nomy is weak and some countries are experiencing hard
times. One example of this are the measures introduced
in the United States Congress, aimed at granting a 20%
tax credit to companies that re-locate jobs to the U.S.
that are currently overseas, or recent Argentinian policies
restricting foreign trade (fao, 2012).
Following the easing of the 2008 crisis, there has been
an accumulation of restrictive trade measures, which
the Director General of the wto has qualifed as alar-
ming (wto, 2012). In efect, since mid-October 2011,
there have been 124 new restrictive measures on trade,
afecting roughly 1.1% of the merchandise imported by
the G20 countries, or 0.9% of global imports. Most
of the measures applied are corrective actions against
imports that are perceived as damaging
6
, increases in
taxes, import licenses and customs controls.
Although restrictions on exports are being reduced,
many of the measures are technical or administrative
in nature, making them particularly difcult to mo-
nitor. Tese measures are in the form of fnancial and
social assistance support, and for this reason they may
distort market competitive conditions and afect trade.
However, this is not always reported to the wto (wto
2002).
Food prices rising in the short term
Te fao global index of international food prices ave-
raged 201.4 percentage points in June 2012, refecting a
drop of 1.8% compared to the previous month. Tis was
15.4% lower than the peak in February 2011 and 3.6%
6 Referred to as remedial, which includes anti-dumping actions,
subsidies and application of safeguards.
less than the maximum price point achieved in August
2008. By groups of products and in descending order, the
price of vegetable oils fell by 5.6%, sugar by 1.6%, dairy
products by 1.4%, meat 1.3% and cereals 0.3%.
Nevertheless, the downward trend in international
agricultural commodity prices observed during the fve
months prior to June 2012 was reversed as a result of
what is considered to be one of the worst droughts in
the history of the United States, including those that oc-
curred in 1934 and 1988. By the end of July, the drought
had afected more than 50% of the country (ers 2012).
However, sharp declines in production and increases in
the price of grains are expected. To cite one example, the
United States accounts for more than 40% of the worlds
production of maize, but this will fall in 2012 as a result
of the drought. Even though it is difcult to provide
exact fgures, giving the timing of the drafting of this
report, according to preliminary estimates through July
2012, corn yields in the main states of the so-called corn
belt of the United States could fall by 56% in Kentucky,
53% in Missouri, 46% in Indiana, 38% in Iowa, 35% in
Ohio, 37% in Illinois and 20% in Michigan. Tese per-
centages represent reductions in yield of between 2 and
5 tonnes per hectare. In addition to losses in yield, the
drought will reduce the quality of the grains.
Te drought conditions in the U.S. and in other parts
of the world (Western India, Russia and Ukraine) had
an immediate impact on future prices. For example, the
price of maize for delivery in September rose by 58%
between June and early August 2012, wheat increased
by 44%, soybeans (delivery contracts for August 2012)
27% and rice 13%
7
.
Futures prices refect quickly on cash prices, and there-
fore the fao sub-index for international cereal prices in-
creased by 17.02% in July, in comparison to the previous
month. Te sub-index of sugar prices also increased sig-
nifcantly, (11.67%) due to the climatic events in Brazil
(the largest exporter of sugar worldwide), in India and
in Australia. Te behaviour of cereal and sugar prices,
together with the increase of 2.45% in oils, accounted
for the 6.13% increase in July in the worldwide index of
international food prices.
7 Calculations based on data from barchart.com at August 2, 2012
Volatility of international food prices has fa-
llen, but could climb again
Figure 8
8
shows how, during the crisis period, interna-
tional food price volatility increased by up to 7%, three
times the price volatility recorded in the years preceding
the crisis of 2008. It is worthy of note that this price
volatility fell to 3% during the period between June 2010
and June 2012.
It must be emphasized, however, that the factors that
explained the extraordinary increase in price volatility
in 2008 have not disappeared. Rather, these are now
combined with the efects of the drought in the U.S. and
other parts of the world. However, increases in volatility
are expected in the short term, although perhaps not to
2008 levels. For example, as a result of climatic condi-
tions, the indicator of volatility jumped from 1.83% to
2.77% in the last two months.
Outlook
In the long term, the price of agricultural commodi-
ties will continue to trend upwards, and this will be
accompanied by fuctuations resulting from cycles,
seasonality and volatility. For example, as this chapter
is being written, prices are moving upwards as a result
of the drought in the U.S. Nevertheless, in the short
term, when producers respond to the current high pri-
ces, harvests will increase and prices will regain their
long-term trend.
The demand for agricultural products will
continue to grow, although food supply and
agricultural raw materials are not growing at
the same rate.
Within a context of reduced availability of natural re-
sources per inhabitant, the demand for agricultural pro-
ducts for human and animal consumption, as well as
for the production of biofuels is growing. Tis explains
why, on average, prices are projected to be higher in the
following decade than in the previous one. Let us con-
8 In this section, volatility is calculated as the standard 12-month
mobile deviation of monthly logarithmic changes in the fao interna-
tional price index. However, it refects the monthly price variations,
upwards or downwards, around the median. It must be noted that
volatility may be up to three times lower if the components of long-
term trend, medium-term cycles, and seasonality were isolated (see
eclac/fao/iica, 2011)
sider, for example, that China is currently maintaining
very low levels of consumption of food per capita, which
are expected to grow signifcantly in the future with the
increase in income.
Additionally, the increase in the cost of energy afects
the entire production chain of inputs for agriculture,
transportation, processing and marketing of agricultural
products, afecting the marginal costs of production
along the food chain. Te uncertainty with respect to the
future of energy prices also afects investment decisions
(Kilian 2008)
Moreover, it is expected that the dollar will depreciate
rapidly (basically, as a result of a U.S. policy to fnance
its trade defcit), which will contribute somewhat to
the increase in the international prices of agricultural
commodities. A cheaper dollar stimulates world demand
for agricultural products based on the fact that most of
the trading is carried out in that currency (eclac/fao/
iica, 2011).
In the face of growing demand for food and agricul-
tural raw materials, structural factors remain in force
which limit growth in the production of agricultural
products at the required pace. Te agricultural surface
area will be more and more limited (especially when
measured in terms of availability per inhabitant) and
production areas will be expanded in zones with low
agricultural productivity. As mentioned earlier, there
are enormous gaps in agricultural productivity between
countries, which means that there is great potential for
increasing production. However, agricultural yields are
growing at slower rates than in the past. Water is another
scarce resource; when it needs to be pumped for use in
Figure 9. Projections for international prices of agricultural commodities in the oecd
(2002-2004=100)
Source: iica with oecd data available at http://goo.gl/VrqQf
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
19
9
0
19
9
1
19
9
2
19
9
3
19
9
4
19
9
5
19
9
6
19
9
7
19
9
8
19
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
10
2
0
11
2
0
12
2
0
13
2
0
14
2
0
15
2
0
16
2
0
17
2
0
18
2
0
19
2
0
2
0
2
0
2
1
Wheat
Other cereals
Rice
Raw sugar
Oleaginous crops
Figure 8. Volatility of international food
prices (June 1997-July 2012)
0,00%
1,00%
2,00%
3,00%
4,00%
5,00%
6,00%
7,00%
M
ay-98
M
ar-99
Jan
-0
0
N
ov-0
0
Sep-0
1
Jul-0
2
M
ay-0
3
M
ar-0
4
Jan
-0
5
N
ov-0
5
Sep-0
6
Jul-0
7
M
ay-0
8
M
ar-0
9
Jan
-10
N
ov-10
Sep-11
Jul-12
V
o
la
tility
agriculture, the cost of energy for doing so is on the rise.
Finally, the price of inputs and services for production
are increasing, which is a disincentive to production.
Price outlook for 2021
Market conditions and the forces behind the increase
in prices in the long term respond to diferent factors,
based on the product. Te oecd-fao (2012) report ofers
market projections for biofuels, cereals, oilseeds, sugar,
meats, dairy products and milk for the period 2012-2021.
Te report also shows projections for the next decade
in the prices of practically all agricultural commodities
(Figure 9). Sugar will remain at very high levels, at almost
200% above the average prices of the base year 2002-
2004, which is explained by the sustained increase in the
demand for sugar for human consumption and for the
production of ethanol. Brazil still occupies a dominant
position in the international sugar market and therefore
variations in the price of sugar cane will depend on the
decisions taken by that country with respect to this crop
(production of sugar or ethanol).
Prices of secondary cereals are projected to rise in no-
minal terms, up to us$246/mt in 2021, which exceeds
the projected price of wheat. Tis is explained by tighter
world supply and demand for these grains (especially
maize), with respect to the global supply/demand for
wheat. Tis is due to the fact that wheat is destined
mainly for human consumption, while maize is used
largely for animal feed and for the production of bio-
fuels.
Te price of rice will be greatly infuenced by policies
that might be implemented in Tailand and India.
Although prices would rise by 2021 in nominal terms,
they would fall somewhat in real terms as a result of a
greater number of countries exporting grains in South-
East Asia. Tis is added to a slowdown in world demand
brought about by the application of self-sufciency po-
licies in several countries.
Te price of oilseeds will remain high because these pro-
ducts represent inputs for the animal-feed industry. Also,
the demand for meat is undergoing steady growth.
With respect to the market for meats, the more favoura-
ble relationship between the prices for production inputs
and the fnal sale price of meat will improve proft mar-
gins in the livestock sector. Tis will provide a response
to the growing demand for meat and fsh, pushing prices
upwards. Te price of chicken will remain above the
price of other meats. Higher meat prices are not only a
response to higher production costs, but also to stricter
health and safety regulations for food and to standards
for protecting the welfare of animals.
Measures for supporting agriculture
A report appearing in Bridges Weekly (ictsd, 2012)
shows that the measures undertaken by the European
Union in support of agriculture, which were detrimental
to trade, have fallen to record levels. Te amber box
measures (including price support mechanisms) were
reduced in the 2008/2009 period by more than half
with respect to the 2006/2007 period. However, the less
distorting measures, referred to as green box measures,
remained stable. Tis trend will be consolidated as of
2013 with the new Common Agricultural Policy (cap)
of the European Union and as a result of fscal restric-
tions. A similar trend towards reducing local support for
agriculture has been observed in the eu.
Te decrease in subsidies is expected to favour exports
from lac in the short term, especially from countries
with signifcant levels of exports to Europe: Argentina,
Uruguay, Chile, Paraguay and Nicaragua with respect
to meat; Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Uruguay, Brazil,
Belize, Paraguay, Guyana and Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines for grains, and Nicaragua and Uruguay for
dairy products (see odi, 2011).
Policy Recommendations
Te challenge to achieve sustainable growth in agricul-
tural productivity in lac, and to reach, in the future,
levels that are similar to those of developed countries,
will require a coherent and integrated framework of
policies which include a broad range of topics (World
Bank, 2007; G20, 2012, faob, 2011; oecd/fao, 2011;
iica, 2011) such as rational use of national resources,
conservation of biodiversity; promotion of technology;
improvement in human capital; greater investment in
agricultural research; easier access to assets and credit;
improved access to water and irrigation as determining
factors in the productivity of land and stability of crops;
more transparency in the market for inputs especia-
lly in the market for seeds and fertilizers in order to
reduce the high cost of transactions and risks and to
generate economies of scale; and, fnally, investment
in infrastructure such as transportation and communi-
cation, although the latter is not directly related to the
agricultural process.
In addition to long-term state policies, there is a need
to encourage better agricultural practices and greater
participation by the private sector, with special emphasis
on public-private alliances in the areas of research and
agricultural extension, which facilitate the sustainable
and inclusive development of the sector.
It is imperative to follow-up on the action plan of the
G20 Meeting of Ministers of Agriculture on the volatility
of international prices and agriculture which was held
in 2011 (G20, 2011). Tis includes topics such as infor-
mation and transparency of markets, coordination and
international coherence of agricultural policies, as well
as risk management instruments, in order to minimize
the vulnerability of producers and consumers to econo-
mic and climatic impacts, social security networks for
the poorest in society and contra-cyclical measures for
dealing with external shocks, such as sudden increases
in international prices.
Conclusions
Given the limitations in terms of natural resources and
environmental pressures, climate change and greater
price volatility, the main challenge facing the agricul-
ture sector is to increase agricultural productivity in an
environmentally-friendly manner.
Te gaps in productivity that have been noted between
the countries of the Americas represent a signifcant
potential for growth and income, if appropriate long-
term policies are implemented and more investment is
made in agriculture.
Te drought conditions in various parts of the world,
and especially in the United States, have pushed up the
price of maize worldwide, and to a lesser extent, the
price of soybeans and wheat. Tis provides an income
opportunity for countries that produce and export these
commodities, especially those in the Southern Cone;
but at the same time, it is a hard blow to net importing
countries, especially those in Central America and the
Caribbean.
Te extreme climatic conditions, the threat of a collapse
of the euro, possible fscal stagnation in the United Sta-
tes and the slowing-down of emerging economies (see
Chapter 1), suggest that there is a greater environment
of uncertainty and volatility of international prices, and
that this requires appropriate measures at the local and
international levels that are clearly defned as emerging
from the 2011 G20 ministerial meeting on volatility and
agriculture.
Trends
The performance of the agricultural sector has
changed in response to crisis situations and
market demand
Te growth of agricultural production was positive dur-
ing 2010, after the decline experienced in 2009 (-3.89%
in real terms). Tis was primarily due to the good re-
sults achieved by the countries of the Southern Cone
Region.
If we analyse the performance of lacs agricultural sec-
tor during the 1999-2009 period, changes are evident
in the productive structure, some of which have been
reinforced in response to the crisis. Tese changes in-
clude the following:
Agricultural production has grown but the total area
under cultivation is unchanged: During the period 1990-
2009, the region boosted its agricultural production, but
without signifcant changes in the area under cultivation.
Analysis of a sample of 32 countries reveals that in the
great majority there were only slight annual variations
in the area of land used for farming. In fact, only three
countries (Dominica, Nicaragua and Paraguay) show an
average annual increase in the area of agricultural land
between 1% and 2%, while six countries (all in the Carib-
bean plus Costa Rica) showed reductions of between 1%
and 5% (See Figure 10).
Countries have modifed their productive structure to take
advantage of market opportunities: Growing demand for
certain agricultural commodities between 1990 and 2009
led to major changes in the productive structure of sev-
Agriculture
The deceleration in the growth of world trade and increased climatic
variability are the main challenges facing regional agriculture in the
short term
While continuing to produce staple foods, over the last 20 years countries in lac have
specialized in the production of agricultural goods best suited to their productive and market
conditions. More recently, the performance of agriculture has been restricted mainly by
gaps in productivity, a slowdown in the growth of main export markets, and the impact of
climatic phenomena.
Facts
Oleaginous crops have become increasingly impor- *
tant to lacs agricultural production and exports
Improving food security continues to be a key *
national and regional priority particularly for net
food-importing countries.
Positive expectations of record world harvests *
in 2012 have been thrown into doubt due to
droughts in the United States and other regions
of the world.
The increased frequency of extreme climatic *
events is a key factor that adds uncertainty to
the productivity and proftability of the regions
agriculture.
The technology gap continues to grow, both *
among and within the countries of the region, es-
pecially in the most dynamic agricultural sectors
and in family farming.
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Per manent c r ops
A
n
n
u
a
l c
r
o
p
s
Decrease in area of land under cultivation
Specialization in annual crops
Increase in area of land under cultivation
Specialization in permanent crops
Venezuela
Uruguay
Trinidad and Tobago
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Peru
Paraguay
Nicaragua
Mexico
Honduras
Guatemala
Granada
Ecuador
Dominica
Costa Rica
Colombia
Chile
Brazil
Bolivia
Belize
Argentina
Cuba
El Salvador
Haiti
Panama
Guyana Dominican Republic
Suriname Jamaica
eral countries in the region. Some countries have given
priority to perennial crops, while others have increased
the share of annual crops. In Chile, for example, the area
planted with annual crops was reduced by around 4%
annually, while the area under perennial crops increased
by almost the same percentage. Te opposite occurred in
Uruguay, where the area of perennial crops was reduced
by 2% annually and the area of annual crops increased
by 1% annually (see Figure 2). However, between 2005
and 2009, a period characterized by increased volatility
in international prices, there was a deceleration of the
trend in the variation and distribution of agricultural
land that was evident up to 2005. Indeed, if we compare
the variations in the agricultural area during 2005-2009
with those during the period 1990-2009, it is clear that
there were considerably fewer variations in the last fve
years. Te prevailing uncertainty in the markets probably
made it difcult for farmers to make decisions, reducing
specialization or varying the agricultural area.
The region shows limited capacity to respond to
price variations for agricultural commodities
In some countries of the region, farmers reacted to price
variations by increasing the hectares planted with those
agricultural products that experienced greater price in-
creases in international markets. For example, producers
in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay have specialized in
the production of grains and oleaginous crops (annual
crops), which allows them to take advantage of variations
in the proftability of their crops. Tese countries have
shown great capacity to react to market opportunities
by substantially increasing the area planted with crops
that have shown the highest proftability. Tus, between
1990 and 2000, Argentina and Brazil tripled the area
planted with soybean, while Uruguay increased the area
dedicated to annual crops by 10% during 2005-2009.
However, this process did not occur in all the countries,
which may explain why the structure of agricultural
production determines a countrys capacity to respond
to variations in international prices.
By contrast, countries in the Central and Andean regions
have shown a more limited capacity to respond to price
variations, since an increasing proportion of their agri-
culture is based on perennial crops (e.g. fruits, cofee,
banana and palm), and the trend toward specialization in
those crops has continued. Te exceptions are El Salva-
dor and Venezuela, which expanded the areas dedicated
to annual crops, and Nicaragua, which reduced its total
agricultural area during 2005-2009.
In the Caribbean the situation varies, though many more
countries reduced the area planted with perennial crops
in order to produce annual crops, presumably as a result
of the import substitution policies implemented in some
countries of this subregion.
Countries are addressing the crisis by promot-
ing self-sufficiency
In response to the food crisis, several countries of the
region have tried to improve their self-sufciency in
agricultural commodities by increasing the area used to
grow basic foodstufs that are essential to their popula-
tions diet. In this context, some Caribbean and Cen-
tral American countries, that are highly dependent on
rice and corn imports, managed to signifcantly and
rapidly increase production of those crops (see Figure
12). With the exception of Paraguay, the countries that
substantially increased the area planted with corn were
not the traditional maize producers (Canada, Argentina,
Mexico, Brazil and usa), but rather those that were heav-
ily dependent on grain imports.
The productivity gap continues to grow in the
countries of the Americas
Despite the increased productivity of the agricultural
sector, particularly in basic foodstufs, measured in terms
of Agricultural Value Added (ava) per worker, the con-
tribution by individual countries to this indicator varies
greatly, highlighting major diferences between them.
Te gaps in agricultural output among the countries
of the Americas increased by 20% between 2005 and
2009, indicating that productivity in some countries is
growing at a faster rate than in others. Tis is confrmed
Figure 11. Annual variation in the area planted with annual and perennial crops,
1990-2009
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
D
o
m
in
ic
a
N
ic
a
r
a
g
u
a
P
a
r
a
g
u
a
y
B
e
liz
e
B
a
h
a
m
a
s
H
a
it
i
E
l S
a
lv
a
d
o
r
A
r
g
e
n
t
in
a
B
r
a
z
il
G
r
a
n
a
d
a
P
a
n
a
m
a
B
o
liv
ia

G
u
a
t
e
m
a
la
C
h
ile
A
n
t
ig
u
a
&
B
a
r
b
u
d
a
B
a
r
b
a
d
o
s
U
r
u
g
u
a
y
P
e
r
u
V
e
n
e
z
u
e
la

M
e
x
ic
o
G
u
y
a
n
a
R
e
p
D
o
m
in
ic
a
n
a
J
a
m
a
ic
a
C
o
lo
m
b
ia
E
c
u
a
d
o
r
H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s
S
u
r
in
a
m
e
S
a
in
t
V
ic
e
n
t
e
&
t
h
e
G
r
a
n
a
d
in
e
s
C
o
s
t
a
R
ic
a
T
r
in
id
a
d
&
T
o
b
a
g
o
S
a
in
t
L
u
c
ia
S
a
in
t
K
it
t
s
&
N
e
v
is
Source: iica based on data from fao (faostat).
Figure 10. Annual variation in the agricultural area 1990-2009 (%)
Source: iica (caespa) based on fao data (faostat).
by the fact that value added per worker in lac is, on
average, 14 times lower than that of Canada and the
United States, a diference that has continued to grow
in recent decades.
Te lac countries with the highest indices of produc-
tivity were Argentina and Uruguay, with outputs of
us$9,987 and us$9,064 respectively, in terms of value
added per agricultural worker. Tese fgures are signif-
cantly higher than in Bolivia (us$733) and Trinidad and
Tobago (us$1,168) - the countries with the regions lowest
agricultural output indicators underscoring the enor-
mous diferences existing within the region.
The impetus to produce biofuels continues
In 2010, world production of biofuels reached a record
105 billion litres, an increase of 17% compared with 2009
(World Watch Institute, 2011). Factors such as the new
laws and mandates introduced in Argentina, Brazil, Can-
ada, China and the United States, the global economic
recovery in 2010 and high oil prices contributed to this
growth in production.
Te United States and Brazil continue to lead ethanol
production in America, accounting for 57% and 33% of
world production, respectively. Corn is the principal raw
material used to produce ethanol in the United States,
while sugarcane is the main source of ethanol in Brazil.
However, attractive sugar prices during 2011 prompted
Brazil to give priority to sugar production for export, to
the detriment of sugarcane used to produce ethanol. Te
ethanol defcit resulting from this measure was covered
by imports from the United States, in an amount equiva-
lent to 50% of this countrys production (usda, 2012).
With regard to biodiesel, the largest production increases
in America were seen in Brazil and Argentina, reaching
2.3 and 2.1 million tonnes in 2010, respectively (Renew-
ables, 2011).
Agrifood trade has resumed its historical
growth trend
Agrifood trade in Latin America and the Caribbean was
hit hard by the global fnancial crisis in 2009, when it
sufered a signifcant contraction and a reversal of its
decade-long growth trend. Indeed, during 2009 the
region saw a sharp decline in agricultural exports and
imports, which fell by more than 9% and 19%, respec-
tively, but subsequently recovered in 2010, achieving
growth rates of 16% and 15%, respectively (see Figure
13).
Te agricultural sectors share of total exports has
remained relatively stable during the last decade ac-
counting for 20% of total exports in 2010. Imports
of agricultural commodities represented 8% of total
imported goods. Tis refects a positive trade balance,
which reached a fgure of approximately us$107.1 bil-
lion.
Te products responsible for the decline in lacs ag-
ricultural exports in 2009 were grains, oilseeds and
prepared foods, which together account for over 80%
of total agricultural exports. Indeed, that year, grain
exports fell by more than 36% with respect to the previ-
ous year. However, the one exception was sugar, exports
of which increased by more than 50% and continued
their dynamic growth during the following year. In
2010 exports of the main commodity groups also in-
creased, with the exception of tobacco, although most
increased at signifcantly lower rates than the average
for 2007-2008 (see Figure 5).
Over the last two decades, South America has signif-
cantly increased its share of the international food trade,
thanks to the performance of Brazil and Argentina, two
countries that managed to take full advantage of the
huge increase in demand for soybean, essentially from
China
Net food importing-countries have increased
in the last decade
Despite the fact that lac has increased its crop pro-
duction and its share of the global agrifood trade, and
that practically all the lac subregions have reduced
their dependence on imports for their domestic food
supply, there has been a deterioration in the regions ag-
ricultural and agrifood trade balances. Comparing the
period 1995-1999 with the period 2005-2009, we fnd
that the number of countries that are net importers,
both of agricultural commodities and of food, increased
from 11 to 16. Te countries that are simultaneously
Figure 12. Variation in hectares planted with rice and maize, 2005-2009
(%)
Source: iica (caespa) based on fao data (faostat).
Figure 13. Annual variation in agricultural trade of lac(2000-2010)
Source: iica based on data from fao (faostat) and wto.
0
20.000
40.000
60.000
80.000
100.000
120.000
140.000
160.000
180.000
200.000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
M
illo
n
s
U
S
$
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
40
Exports Imports Growth X Agr Growth M Agr
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
c
h
a
n
g
e
Argentina Belize
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Costa Rica
Cuba
Ecuador
El Salvador
EE.UU
Guatemala
Guyana
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mxico
Nicaragua
Panam
Paraguay
Per
Suriname
Trinidad & Tobago
Uruguay
Venezuela
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
15
20
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15
Corn
R
i
c
e
v
Specialization in rice production
Specialization in corn production
Dominican Republic
-40%
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
LAC
Mexico
Chile
Argentina
Brazil
Uruguay
-30%
-20%
-10%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
-30%
-20%
-10%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
LAC Mexico Chile Argentina Brazil Uruguay
-20%
-10%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Mexico
Chile
Argentina
Uruguay
LAC
Mexico
Chile
Argentina
Brazil
Uruguay
LAC
Brazil
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
2007 2008 2009 2010
Cereals Vegetable oils Fruit Sugar Coffee Prepared foods
a) Annual variation in wheat production
net exporters of agricultural products and net food
importers decreased from of 9 to 6 (Valds and Foster,
2012) (see Table 2).
Table 2. lac: Net exporters/importers of food and
agricultural products
Acronym: nmag: Net importer of agricultural products, nmf:
net importer of food, nxf: Net exporter of food, nxag: Net
exporter of agricultural products.
Source: Valds y Foster, 2012.
Outlook
The deceleration in the growth of world trade
and climatic events will increasingly impact
the performance of agricultural production
In 2013, with the possible moderation of price volatility,
the efects of climate and international demand will be-
come increasingly important for agricultural production.
Te drought in the U.S. (particularly in the grain belt)
and in Eastern Europe during 2011 and 2012 has resulted
in low yields and high losses in farm harvests. Further-
more, in several lac countries, many crops have sufered
the efects of the climate phenomenon of La Nia, which
afected harvests at the end of 2011 and beginning of
2012. Te countries that reported increased losses due
to this phenomenon include Brazil (corn), Paraguay
(corn), Bolivia, (cereals), Ecuador (cereals), Argentina
(corn, wheat and secondary cereals) and Mexico (corn,
wheat and beans).
The regions agricultural production will expe-
rience slight variations
Te outlook for agricultural production in the region for
the 2012-2014 period suggests that minor variations will
occur in the production of the main commodities in the
region. Tis situation contrasts with the marked fuctua-
tions seen between 2009 and 2011, and the expansion of
wheat production in 2011 or of oilseeds in 2009 (see Fig-
ures 15 a-d). Stocks of leading agricultural commodities,
with the exception of corn, will remain high, providing
stability and reducing the volatility of international prices.
However, it should be emphasized that major climatic
events, such as the severe drought of 2012 in the United
States, and its subsequent impact on agriculture, could
change that scenario.
In most countries of the region the forecast for
agricultural production is optimistic
After two difcult years (2009 and 2010), estimates of
agricultural production in 2011 and the outlook for 2012
are optimistic. According to a survey of leading authori-
ties on the regions agriculture, conducted by iica
9
, 72%
believe that agricultural production in their countries
will increase in 2012, a fgure much higher than the 57%
who expressed positive views during the previous year.
Conversely, there were fewer negative forecasts, and of
the 28% of respondents who considered that agricultural
production had declined in 2011 in relation to 2010, only
9 According to a survey of LAC agriculture conducted by IICA in
may 2012, in which 25 countries of the region participated.
Figure 14. Variation in agricultural exports of lac (%, 2007-2010)
Source: iica based on United Nations (comtrade) fgures
Classifcation 1995-1999 2005-2009
nmag and nmf 11 16
nxag and nmf 9 6
nmag and nxf 1 0
nxag and nxf 9 8
Total Countries 30 30
Figure 15. Annual variation in the production of main crops in lac (2009-2011 and pro-
jections to 2014)
Source: oecd-fao (2012).
b) Annual variation in rice production
c) Annual variation in oilseed production d) Annual variation in production of
secondary cereals
Grains & Cereals
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
2
0
1
9
2
0
2
0
Wheat Other grains Rice
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
2
0
0
6
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
2
2
0
1
3
2
0
1
4
2
0
1
5
2
0
1
6
2
0
1
7
2
0
1
8
2
0
1
9
2
0
2
0
Oleaginous seeds Protein foods Vegetable oils
Oleaginous Crops
10% had a negative view of the outlook for 2012 with
respect to 2011.
Expectations for the performance of agriculture by sub-
regions are promising, with an increase in production
expected in 2012 from the previous year. Te only excep-
tions are certain countries in the Andean and Southern
subregions, where agricultural production is expected to
fall in 2012 due to factors such as the decrease in the area
under cultivation, commodity prices and changes in cli-
matic conditions (see Table 3).
Table 3. Expectations for national agricul-
tural production in 2012 vs. 2011 (%)
Source: iica based on the 2012 Outlook for Agricul-
ture survey.
Investment prospects in the agricultural sector
are not encouraging
Te positive expectation of an increase in agricultural
output in the region contrasts with the limited pros-
pects of investment in the sector. According to a survey
conducted by iica (2012), 56% of respondents believed
that during 2012-2013 investment in the agricultural
sector would remain unchanged (41%) or would even
decrease (15%).
Although the region currently has many investment
needs to ensure the development of its agricultural
sector, there is consensus that investment in R&D is
a priority. In fact, the region has major limitations in
this regard and the large gap that exists with developed
countries is growing year by year.
Te lac countries must also target investment toward
other areas, particularly food security and adaptation to
climate change. With regard to the latter, although most
lac countries have adopted policies for adaptation to and
mitigation of the efects of climate change on agriculture,
these eforts have been insufcient. Increased investment
is required to achieve results (see Figure 16).
Agricultural commodity prices will remain
high in the long term
After a temporary fall in international agricultural prices,
these are expected to remain high and volatile given that
the structural factors that drive prices upward remain
in place (particularly the growth in demand, which is
outstripping supply) and various short-term factors that
introduce volatility into price movements (especially in-
creased climatic variability and the growing frequency of
extreme natural events). For example, the efects caused
by the recent droughts in the United States, Russia,
Ukraine and Australia could drive wheat prices higher
and would therefore beneft the Latin American produc-
ers of that product (see Figure 17).
Production of biofuels will continue to grow,
but with changes
Production of fossil fuel substitutes will continue to ex-
pand, although two important changes are envisaged. In
the frst place, there will be growing pressure to produce
ethanol because some countries in the European Union,
the worlds leading biodiesel producer (53% of world
production), could change from biodiesel to ethanol
production. Tis is due to the fact that a recent Euro-
pean Commission report afrms that ethanol crops have
a higher energy content than biodiesel crops, making
them more efcient fuel sources. At the same time, the
frst generation of biofuels, which includes ethanol or
oil production based on food crops, will gradually give
way to advanced biofuels or second and third generation
biofuels. Tese include energy produced through direct
combustion of biomass residues, using non-food sources
in marginal lands, such as cellulosic alcohol and biod-
iesel based on algae. However, so far, these technologies
have not been proftable.
The new trade agreements with the Pacific
basin countries will become increasingly im-
portant
In the short term, the prospects for reviving the Doha
Round negotiations of the wto are slim. For this reason,
the lac countries will continue to promote increased
trade based on existing ftas and there will be growing
interest in signing agreements with emerging countries.
Te countries of the region will try to substitute markets
in recession, but will face greater competition. Tey will
also be under growing pressure to increase their pro-
tectionism, as the crisis deepens in Europe and in the
global economy, and until the job markets recover their
dynamism.
In the Pacifc basin, China will become increasingly im-
portant as a trading partner for the lac countries, as its
populations purchasing power continues to grow. During
Subregion
Will
increase
Will
stagnate
Will
decrease
Andean 75 6 19
Caribbean 82 18 0
Central 50 50 0
Northern 100 0 0
Southern 60 20 20
Source: oecd-fao Agricultural Outlook (2012).
Figure 16. Areas of the agricultural sector
that should be considered as priorities for
investment
Source: iica based on the 2012 Outlook for Agriculture
questionnaire.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Research & development
Biotechnology
Adaptation to climate change
Post-harvest management
Improvement in the quality of products
Food security
Family farming
Training
Institutional strengthening
Information about prices and markets
Other
3
2
1
Figure 17. Prices of oilseeds, grains and cereals outlook to 2020
the 20072011 period, China went from being the ffth
market for us agricultural exports to being the leading
market, displacing traditional trading partners such as
Canada or Mexico (usda, 2012). Chinas demand focuses
mainly on agricultural raw materials, especially soybean
and cotton, which account for 75% of us agricultural
exports to China.
Competition to access national and international
agricultural markets will increase substantially
Te countries of the region will continue to promote
the development of national and local markets, thereby
contributing to create a more dynamic agricultural sector.
Tey will also continue to promote the role of Family
Farming as a supplier of foodstufs, both for the markets
and for national food programmes.
In the international sphere, trade liberalization processes
will recover as the world economy revives, with an evi-
dent dichotomy between markets highly concentrated
around commodities on the one hand, and pressure to
expand trade in products with greater value added on the
other, essentially as a result of the growth of the middle
classes worldwide. Competition will become increas-
ingly strong in the food markets, although the trends
toward consolidation and concentration will continue
throughout the production chains and in all segments of
these. Tese processes will be driven by eforts to create
economies of scale, or by the need to take advantage of
the opportunities aforded by changes in national and
international regulations.
Production of biotechnology products will in-
crease, and alternative methods to GMO will gain
ground
Te region is expected to gradually incorporate conserva-
tion and environmental protection practices - such as pre-
cision agriculture and direct planting and to implement
eforts to rescue traditional crops in order to strengthen
food security and nutrition. All this will be accompanied
by a growing use of icts in agriculture.
Biotechnology will become increasingly important as
an efective tool for adapting to climate change and
for generating bio-inputs (bio-fertilizers and biocides).
Similarly, the use of biodiversity for commercial purposes
is expected to grow, in order to promote adaptation to
climate change and food security.
Te region will promote a more sustainable agri-
culture to mitigate the efects of climate change
Faced with mounting evidence of the negative efects of
climate variability and anticipating greater impacts of
climate change, the region has strengthened its concern
for the two-way relationship between agriculture, natural
resources and climate.
Several countries have taken steps to promote the use
of cleaner technologies, rationalize the use of water, ad-
dress the carbon footprint issue and introduce strategies
of mitigation and adaptation of agriculture to climate
change. Tis process has been largely infuenced by a
recognition of the negative impact that current agricul-
tural production models have on natural resources, the
amount of water used by agriculture and how it is used,
the importance of biodiversity and how climate afects
production, impacts the rural milieu and, consequently,
afects rural populations.
Trends toward a greener economy, the development of
carbon markets and more recent strategies to promote the
bio-economy, share a key element: the economic assess-
ment of natural resources and the possibility of trading
environmental services on the markets. Tis approach
contrasts with other alternatives based on concepts such
as good living, the rights of Mother Earth and the cli-
mate debt, which the Government of Bolivia has pro-
moted in the region. Tese trends were refected in the
work of the New Earth Summit and in the discussions
on the draft declaration prepared by the United Nations,
entitled Te Future We Want.
On agricultural production
Implement public policies to attract investment and
promote the participation of the private sector. It is
essential to encourage greater private investment in ag-
riculture and create conditions to ensure that investing
in agriculture is good business. Policies and institutions
are required in order to give legal security to investors
and to risk-taking by the private sector.
Improving productivity in agriculture: Tis task not
only requires eforts to attract investment in agricultural
R+D+i linked to the most important commercial crops,
but also strategies to develop technologies that can be
used by small-scale farmers. Te States must also develop
policy frameworks and tools as priorities for national
development, including better information systems, ef-
forts to strengthen public and private extension work
and measures to improve coordination mechanisms and
governance for optimum management of the diferent
actors associated with national innovation systems.
Technology for adaptation to climate change cannot
wait. Te region must adopt a proactive and preventive
attitude with regard to the development of technolo-
gies, in order to ensure that the main crops responsible
for food security can withstand the efects of climate
change.
On agricultural markets
Resume eforts to successfully conclude the Doha
Round. Te lac countries, particularly the smaller ones,
must understand that strengthening international disci-
plines is the best way to take advantage of the benefts
of trade as a tool for development.
Improve linkages in agriculture. Countries must avoid
the harmful efects of re-primarizing agriculture, and
move forward with the consolidation of market niches
with high value added, strengthening the linkages be-
tween diferent sectors, such as agriculture-tourism-
mining-industry-health.
Support the modernization and transparency of domes-
Box 2: Tizimin, where corn is being
grown in stony soil
Thanks to a unique technology implemented by
the Enerall project in Mexicos Yucatan Peninsula,
grains and other crops are being produced with
high yields in the rocky and highly alkaline soils
of Tizimin, an area where soil conditions make it
virtually impossible to practice conventional and
mechanized agriculture.
The technology package involves the use of ma-
chinery to grind the rocks on and near the surface
and create a substratum, to which organic matter
is added (mainly vegetation from undergrowth).
Benefcial microorganisms are then introduced into
the substratum and irrigation systems are set up.
The resulting conditions make it possible to grow
commercially competitive crops such as corn,
sweet sorghum, sugarcane, soybeans, jatropha and
castor beans.
The project has been in operation for four years
and a surface area of approximately 800 hectares
has been incorporated into production. So far, four
corn crops have been produced, with very high
yields. The process of improving soils is a gradual
one and yields increase when post-harvest waste is
added to the soil.
This experience offers great potential for improving
soil and, faced with the challenges of ensuring food
security and the sustainable management of agricul-
ture, many Latin American and Caribbean countries
that have areas with similar soils, perhaps used only
for subsistence livestock activities, could fnd inno-
vation of this kind attractive. (Villalobos, 2012).
Box 1: Argentina and Brazil consolidate
their position as agrifood powerhouses.
Together, Brazil and Argentina lead world
exports of soy-based products (beans, oil and
meat), accounting for 51% of the total. Both
countries are also leading beef and poultry
exporters. In addition, they rank second in the
world for corn exports, a position that will be
consolidated in the coming years.
Argentina and Brazils growing share of interna-
tional agricultural markets is explained by the
enormous growth in soybean production and
exports in both countries between 1995 and
2011. During that period, soybean production
increased by 198% in Brazil and by 287% in
Argentina, while soybean exports increased by
329% in Brazil and 980% in Argentina. Thanks
to the use of hybrid technologies, conservation
tillage, direct planting and fertilization, Argentina
was able to double its agricultural yields in 10
years and boost production, even though the
area under cultivation was reduced by 37%. Be-
ginning in 2005, cereal production in the country
doubled, reaching 100 million tonnes in 2011. In
the case of Brazil, the importance and growth of
its huge domestic market for agricultural pro-
ducts is noteworthy, though the country is trying
to maintain its share of international trade.
tic markets. Implement policies that encourage competi-
tion in input markets (such as seeds, genetic material,
fertilizers and herbicides), promote the development
of risk management mechanisms and the reduction of
post-harvest losses and waste (which, according to fao,
accounts for between 15% and 60% of production), and
contribute to maintaining prices high.
On production services
Reduce production losses and guarantee food safety.
In this regard, the modernization of Agricultural Health
and Food Safety (ahfs) systems will be crucial to reduce
losses due to pests, diseases and poor management. Tese
systems also help countries to comply with the growing
demands and standards of international markets, and
to manage the risks associated with the proliferation of
invasive species.
Promote the use of icts in agriculture. Te agribusi-
ness sector is being progressively transformed by the
rapid growth of information and communications
technologies, and by the emergence of social networks.
Tese allow for the almost instantaneous exchange of
knowledge and views and facilitate and increase com-
mercial transactions.
On natural resources, climate and sustainable
agriculture
Promote intelligent agriculture and adaptation to cli-
mate change. Countries must work together to develop
policies, strategies and fnancing mechanisms to support
the development of an agriculture sector that can four-
ish in adverse conditions of climate variability.
Devise strategies for the development of bio-economies
and mechanisms to promote sustainable use of biodi-
versity in order to tackle climate change and guarantee
food security. Tis requires the creation or consolida-
tion of regional biosafety initiatives so as to develop the
necessary technical capabilities and avoid trade barriers
in biotechnology products.
Promote sustainable land use and the restoration of
degraded soils. Countries must redouble their eforts to
implement programmes for the restoration of degraded
soils, with the aim of improving their production po-
tential and agro-environmental sustainability, thereby
contributing to improve their food security indices.
Conclusions
Production levels in the agriculture of lac have re-
sponded favourably to the conditions created by high
international prices, the incipient recovery in the Unit-
ed States economy and the new demand originating
in Southeast Asia (especially China), despite the bleak
prospects for the euro zone economies and the shocks
of extreme climatic events.
World trade has weakened during 2012, but global
demand for agricultural products from lac is not yet
showing a signifcant contraction. Tis is probably due
to the United States dependence on imports - particu-
larly from countries of the tropical belt and Mexico
and the infuence of Chinas demand for commodities
from the Southern countries.
High international prices continue to provide an in-
centive for the expansion of annual crops in the main
agricultural commodities. However, they also represent
a challenge for countries with a tropical climate, which
are increasingly dependent on imports of those basic
products.
Eforts to improve the productivity of agriculture (to
produce more with fewer natural resources), in order
to provide sufcient food (to guarantee food security)
and to produce in a more environment-friendly way
(so that development is sustainable), will be a major
focus of the agriculture agendas of the countries of
the region.
Livestock
Continued expected growth and development of the industry will create
additional pressure on Latin Americas ecosystems, biodiversity, and
natural resources.
Te industrys potential to improve the economic welfare of the region could be seriously
hindered by growing concerns over its environmental impact, as well as factors including:
inadequate marketing and transportation infrastructure; lack of access to communication
and information systems to support decision making; lack of investment in livestock research;
persistent outbreaks of animal diseases; and the lack of adequate access to veterinary services.
Livestock inventories in * lac countries have grown
dramatically over the last decade. lac accounts
for nearly 14% of world inventories of all major
livestock species (cattle, pigs, sheep and goats,
poultry, and dairy cows).
lac * poultry inventories have grown at the bliste-
ring pace of 5.3% annually to register a 35.6%
increase over the last decade. lac now accounts
for 14% of world poultry numbers.
Brazil accounts for the largest share of all Latin *
American livestock numbers, including half of all
beef and dairy cattle and pigs and about 40% of
poultry.
Remarkable gains in * lac meat and milk production
effciency have contributed to the growth in pro-
duction over the last decade with yield increases
in milk, poultry, pork, and beef of 22%, 15%, 14%,
and 7%, respectively, which substantially exceed
those in the U.S. and the rest of the world.
Facts
Trends
Rapid meat and milk production gains
10
lac meat and milk production has grown at double digit
rates over the last decade, much in excess of the United
States and surpassing world growth rates in all but sheep
meat production (table 1). lac now accounts for a larger
10 International data on livestock and products are notori-
ously questionable and highly inconsistent across data sources.
For that reason, to the extent possible, this chapter relies on
data from oecd-fao 2011 as supplemented by data from the
faostat (fao 2012a and 2012b) database for consistency. Data
from usda (2012) are used when necessary because of lack of
coverage or timeliness of the oecd-fao or faostat data.
percentage of world beef, sheep meat, and poultry meat
production than the U.S. and almost the same share of
world milk production (table 1). lac poultry meat pro-
duction grew at an amazing 84.8% between 2000 and
2011 and now accounts for 23% of world production.
Brazilian poultry meat production more than doubled
over the last decade so that Brazil now accounts for about
56% of lac production.
Milk production increased by nearly 30% in lac between
2000 and 2011, boosting the regions production to 81.1
million tonnes, just under the level of production in the
United States (table 1). With the largest number of dairy
cows, Brazil is also the largest milk producing country
in lac. Brazilian milk production increased nearly 30%
over the last decade. About 82% of Brazilian dairy farms
Production 2011 % Change (2000-11)
Share of World
Production
LAC U.S. World LAC U.S. World LAC U.S.
------------ Million tonnes ------------ ------------------- % ------------------ ----------- % ---------
Beef 17,4 11,2 64,7 24,8 -4,4 9,0 26,6 17,2
Pork 6,9 10,0 111,4 37,3 19,8 21,6 6,3 9,2
Sheep
meat
0,4 0,1 13,1 5,0 -31,0 15,3
2,9 0,6
Poultry 23,0 19,5 100,1 84,8 19,1 44,2 22,9 19,5
Milk 81,1 89,0 720,9
a
28,0 17,1 24,5
a
11,0 12,4
Table 4. Meat and milk production in lac, the United States, and World in 2011, percentage change from
2000 to 2011, and share of world production
a = Data for 2010 from fao (2012a).
Source: oecd-fao (2011). .
lac u.s. World
Meat Yield Change Meat Yield Change Meat Yield Change
kg/head % kg/head % kg/head %
Cattle 222,8 6,9 341,0 4,2 205,3 2,5
Swine 82,6 15,1 92,3 5,3 79,4 1,5
Sheep 13,8 1,8 29,9 -0,7 14,2 0,2
Poultry 2,0 14,1 2,2 14,9 1,7 4,7
Dairy 1.544,1 22,2 9.232,7 14,9 987,6 5,1
Table 5. Effciency of meat production in LAC: Meat yields (weighted average) 2010 and % change, 2000-
2010
Source: Calculated using data from fao (2012a).
produce less than 50 liters/day but account for only 20%
of Brazilian milk production while 3% of the dairy farms
produce in excess of 200 liters/day and account for 60%
of the production (idf, 2010). Te number of Argentin-
ian dairy farms has been declining in recent years at an
average rate of about 4.5% a year (idf, 2010). Two foreign
dairy companies, Schreiber Foods of the United States
and Bom Gosto of Brazil have invested heavily in the
Uruguay dairy industry and began operation at the end
of 2011 (idf, 2010).
Productivity advances boost production
Te rapid growth in lac production is the result of
growth in both livestock inventories and production
efciency in many countries. Although still below those
in the U.S. and about equal to the world average, the
average meat yield per animal slaughtered annually in
lac has increased at rates much in excess of those in the
U.S. and the world (table 2). At 1,544.1 kg/cow/year,
milk productivity in lac in 2010 was about 83% below
the level in the U.S. but 56% above the world average.
However, lac milk productivity increased by more than
22% over the last decade compared to only about 15% in
the U.S. and 5% globally.
Brazil continues to play leading role in the
region
Inventories of most livestock in 2010 across lac were
quite unequally distributed with Brazil accounting for
the largest share of all species, including half of all cattle
(52%), dairy cattle (53%), and pigs (47%) and a lower
share of poultry and sheep inventories (42% and 22%)
(fao 2012a). Te trends for meat and milk production
across lac countries are similar to those of inventories
except that Brazil does not dominate by such a wide
margin in most cases (fao, 2012a). Despite accounting
for half of lac dairy cattle, Brazil accounts for only 39%
of lac milk production. Te reason is that milk produc-
tion efciency in Brazil (kg/head/year) lags much behind
other lac countries. Brazil ranks 24th in milk production
efciency in the region with an annual average milk yield
that is about 75% below the yield currently achieved in
Argentina, the top yielding country in lac, and 22%
below the average milk yield across the entire lac (fao,
2012a). Dairy Partners Americas (dpa), a joint venture
between Nestl, the worlds largest food and beverage
company and Fonterra, a New Zealand-based coopera-
tive and the worlds largest exporter of dairy products, in
several Latin America countries has teamed up with Brazil
Foods and Itamb, two leading Brazilian food producers,
to share best practices and assist Brazilian farmers to ac-
celerate milk production while improving milk quality,
safety, and sustainability (Nestl, 2011).
Brazils meat production efciency also lags other coun-
tries in lac but is substantially higher than the average
yield across all lac countries. Nevertheless, except in the
case of sheepmeat, Brazils meat and milk production
efciency rate has been growing substantially faster than
those in the top yielding countries. With large and grow-
ing livestock inventories and relatively rapid growth in
production efciency, Brazil will increasingly dominate
livestock, meat, and milk production in lac.
LAC consumers shifting to poultry and pork
from beef and sheepmeat
lac consumers have increasingly moved away from
the consumption of beef and sheepmeat towards the
consumption of other protein sources, including poul-
try meat, pork, eggs, and dairy products (table 3). Te
growth of the commercial poultry and pork industries
and the associated growth in consumption have been no-
table phenomena and powerful forces for change in the
Latin American livestock industry. Per capita consump-
tion of poultry has increased at double-digit percentage
rates across many Latin America countries, including
countries like Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and
other countries where supplies of other protein sources
available for consumption have declined on a per capita
basis (table 3).
Te rapid adoption and spread of more efcient poultry
and pork production technologies have made it possible
for many countries to export more of traditional sources
of dietary protein like beef and substitute growing sup-
plies of poultry and pork in domestic consumption. Te
average per capita consumption of eggs in Latin America
jumped nearly 17% between 2000 and 2007 to 9.4 kg/
hab11 (fao, 2012a). In 2009, Mexico led the world in per
capita egg consumption at 354 eggs/year, much above
the U.S. at 247.7 eggs/year, followed by Colombia (230
eggs/person/year) and Argentina (222 eggs/person/year)
(Mendes, 2011).
11 The most recent fao data for per capita egg consump-
tion is 2007. Obviously some changes have occurred in the
last few years but the data is indicative of egg consumption
trends in the region.
Argentina slips to second in per capita beef
consumption
Per capita beef consumption in Argentina, the worlds
top per capita beef consumer in 2000, experienced a 15%
decline from 45.2 kg/person to 38.5 kg/person in 2011,
slipping to second place in the world behind Uruguay
at 51.7 kg/person (table 3). Meanwhile, Argentinas per
capita consumption of poultry grew by 31%. Uruguays
per capita beef consumption also declined slightly over
the last decade while its per capita consumption of poul-
try jumped by nearly 46%. Even Brazil, where per capita
beef consumption grew by 6% over the last decade, ex-
perienced a dramatic 62% increase in per capita chicken
consumption. Te story has been much the same in
other major beef consuming countries in Latin America.
Strong production performances in Chile, Colombia, El
Salvador, Panama, and Ecuador substantially boosted
their per capita consumption of pork between 2000 and
2011 (usda, 2012a). Chile now has the highest per capita
consumption of pork in Latin America (table 3).
Dairy products have grown in popularity
Argentina consumes the highest amount of fuid milk
per capita in Latin America at 283.8 kg/person in 2011,
about the same as in the United States (usda, 2012a).
Uruguay exports the majority of its milk production and
has slipped to second place in Latin American per capita
milk consumption (gts, 2011). Uruguay is the leading
per capita consumer of all fresh dairy products at 158.5
kg/person (table 3).
Table 6. Per capita consumption of meat and dairy products, 2011, and percentage change 2000-11,
selected lac countries
Beef Pork Chicken Sheepmeat Dairy
a
Kg/hd change Kg/hd change Kg/hd change Kg/hd change Kg/hd change
% % % % %
Uruguay 51,7 -5,6 8,0 2,7 22,2 45,9 1,6 -82,7 158,5 -41,7
Argentina 38,5 -14,8 6,2 2,8 30,0 31,0 1,2 -18,1 44,3 1,0
Brazil 28,,2 6,1 10,9 1,0 42,1 61,6 0,4 -6,8 61,8 -5,8
Chile 14,9 -3,6 17,4 38,8 30,7 29,9 0,6 -12,7 99,7 29,7
Mexico 11,8 32,4 14,9 -19,4 30,5 41,9 0,7 -0,5 46,6 29,3
Other lac 16,4 -1,5 11,4 44,8 32,2 44,7 0,8 -0,8 111,5 29,3
lac 17,6 2,0 8,9 15,2 30,7 51,6 0,6 -11,6 71,0 13,6
u.s. 25,8 -15,2 21,0 -8,5 45,0 6,4 0,4 -21,7 80,6 -8,5
World 6,5 -4,2 12,2 6,6 12,6 26,9 1,6 2,4 61,7 2,4
a
Fresh dairy products as defned by oecd-fao (2012).
Source: oecd-fao (2012).
Argentina Brazil Chile
Costa
Rica
Mexico Nicaragua Paraguay Uruguay LAC
------------------------------------------------------ Change % -------------------------------------------------
Beef -11,5 218,1 1/ 14,3 -28,9 359,4 256,9 110,9 115,9
Export share 12,0 20,5 5,0 23,1 11,0 90,2 49,1 66,9 19,7
Pork 180,0 386,9 757,6 220,7 77,2 -89,6 1/ -47,6 358,3
Export share 2,7 17,0 28,3 13,0 4,9 1,3 1,4 0,1 11,6
Sheepmeat 498,2 40,3 -5,8 1/ 123,7 1/ 1/ -4,5 -14,2
Export share 9,9 0,0 23,4 0,0 0,2 0,0 0,0 58,4 6,3
Poultry 1/ 256,9 256,7 8,6 18,2 -61,1 0,0 1/ 282,8
Export share 19,7 26,7 16,1 3,0 0,0 0,3 0,0 13,7 17,2
Table 7. Percentage change in meat and dairy product exports, 2000-11 and export share of domestic supply,
2011, selected lac countries
LAC meat exports up, Argentina beef exports
down
Across lac countries, exports of beef have more than
doubled, exports of pork have nearly tripled, and ex-
ports of poultry have increased nearly fve times since
2000 (table 4). At the same time, the export shares of
lac domestic supplies of beef, pork, and poultry have
also increased substantially to 19.7%, 11.6%, and 17.2%,
respectively (table 4). A major exception has been the
export performance of Argentinas beef sector with de-
clines of nearly 12% since 2000 and 60% from the high
in 2004 following its recovery from the foot and mouth
disease crisis of 2001. Argentina has dropped to ninth
place among world beef exporters, accounting for only
3% of world beef trade (usda, 2012a). In contrast, Ar-
gentina has risen to sixth place among world chicken
exporters (primarily breasts and legs) on the strength of
an 86% increase in production over the last decade and
a huge increase in exports from virtually nothing in the
late 1990s (table 4). To hold down consumer prices, Ar-
gentina imposes an export tax on beef and a restrictive
export quota on corn. Te beef export tax severely limits
beef exports while the corn export quota holds down
production costs in the poultry industry and contributes
to the rapid rise in Argentinas poultry production and
exports (MercoPress, 2011).
While Argentina beef exports have lost steam, exports
of beef by its neighbours have grown rapidly. Brazilian
beef exports have more than tripled since 2000 and now
account for over 20% of Brazils domestic beef supplies
(table 4). Likewise beef exports from Uruguay have more
than doubled while those of Paraguay have increased 3.5
times and those from Nicaragua more than 4.5 times
over the same period.
Brazil leads in poultry and pork exports
Brazil is now the worlds leading exporter of poultry
meat, accounting for nearly a third of world trade, just
slightly ahead of the United States (oecd-fao, 2011).
Brazilian poultry exports have increased 3.5 times over
the last decade and now account for 27% of its domes-
tic poultry supplies. Brazil also leads the way in pork
exports, accounting for 71% of all lac pork exports and
8.5% of world pork trade in 2011 (oecd-fao, 2011). Ex-
ports account for 17% of Brazilian pork supplies. A U.S.
ban on pork imports from Brazil that was dropped in
January of 2012 hampered growth of the Brazilian pork
industry for about a year and a half while Brazil worked
to guarantee its pork would comply with U.S. sanitary
standards (Kiernan, 2012). Brazilian pork exports have
also been hampered by disputes with Russia, its top ex-
port destination, over veterinary rules violations. With
the lifting of the Russian ban and markets in China
opening to Brazil, its pork exports are expected to recover
over the next few years.
Chile is also becoming a force in the world pork and
poultry markets, registering dramatic increases in exports
of both since 2000 (table 4). Chile is now the second
largest exporter of pork and the third largest exporter
of chicken meat in Latin America and exports 28.3%
of its domestic pork supplies and 16.1% of its domestic
chicken meat supplies.
Latin American countries have been primarily net im-
porters of dairy products accounting for nearly 15% of
world whole and skim milk powder imports (oecd-
fao, 2012). Rapid population growth in the region has
boosted demand for dairy products but economic crises
in many Latin American countries have created erratic
import growth patterns (Blaney et al., 2006). Mexico
has been the largest importer of both fuid and non-fat
dry milk in Latin America but its imports of both have
been on the decline over the last decade (usda, 2012a).
Brazil was a net importer of dairy products until 2004
when exports surpassed imports (idf, 2010).
Deforestation continuing at alarming rates
Te progress of deforestation around the world is driv-
en by multiple factors (Pacheco et al., 2011). In Latin
America, commercial agricultural expansion, primarily
crops like soybeans and cattle production, remains the
main cause. In other areas of the world, deforestation
is associated with subsistence agriculture. Deforesta-
tion threatens Latin Americas vast biodiversity. Of the
worlds 10 most bio-diverse countries, fve are in Latin
America (Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Peru).
Deforestation causes an estimated 62% of carbon emis-
sions and other environmental damage in Latin America
compared to 16% globally (Nash, 2012). Te conversion
of tropical forests to agricultural uses leads to emissions
of other greenhouse gases, chiefy methane and nitrous
oxide. Latin Americas agricultural emissions of these
two gases grew 35% between 1990 and 2005 (the last year
data are available) compared to 16% worldwide (Nash,
2012). One positive note is that the rate of growth of
emissions relative to the growth of the agricultural gdp
in Latin America declined by 21% over that same period
compared to 15% globally (Nash, 2012).
Growing and persistent disease outbreaks ac-
company livestock production growth
Increasingly frequent livestock disease outbreaks plague
the development of Latin American livestock production
Note: 1/ = Large percentage change from a small number.
Source: Calculated from data in oecd-fao (2012) except the numbers in italic, which are calculated from data
in usda (2012), and those in bold calculated from data in fao (2012a).
systems and often pose serious human health hazards.
Latin America remains high on the list of regions where
recurring foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks are com-
plicating eforts to establish sustainable and proftable
livestock systems. A recent outbreak of foot-and-mouth
disease in Paraguay reportedly cost their livestock indus-
try tens of millions of dollars in lost cattle and beef ex-
ports (upi, 2012). Te spread of foot-and-mouth disease
also spreads economic hardship particularly among the
poorest Latin American farmers when the few animals
they raise as their chief source of income and protein are
lost to the disease. fao and the World Organization for
Animal Health (oie) announced recently that they are
joining forces to combat foot-and-mouth disease (fmd)
on a global scale (fao, 2012c).
In the Latin American swine industry, circovirus (pcv2),
teschovirus, paramyxovirus, Classical Swine Fever (csf),
and gastro-enteritis are among the most prevalent and
persistent diseases. csf has proved to be highly persis-
tent with recent outbreaks in Brazil, Guatemala, and
Nicaragua despite the faos Intercontinental Programme
designed to eradicate the disease by 2020 (Martins,
2011). Avian infuenza has not become pandemic in
Latin America but concerns persist. A recent outbreak of
the H7N3 bird fu virus in the western state of Jalisco in
Mexico infected about 3.4 million chickens and forced
the destruction and disposal of a reported 2.5 million
head, reduced raised chicken and egg consumption, and
raised their prices in the country (afp, 2012).
Outlook
LAC comparative advantage in livestock pro-
duction
Te future of animal production in Latin America will
depend on regional and global demand for animal pro-
tein for human consumption, technological progress in
animal and meat production efciency, success in abat-
ing the rise in animal diseases, and government policies
aimed at protecting the environment and mitigating the
efects of rising food prices.
Global agricultural production needs to increase by
60% over the next 40 years to meet the expected ris-
ing global demand for food (oecd-fao, 2011). Global
demand for meat is expected to grow at one of the high-
est rates among major agricultural commodities. Latin
America will need to play a major role in meeting the
growing world food demand. Of all the land worldwide
potentially suitable for expansion of livestock and crop
production, about 28% is in Latin America, more than
in any other region except Africa (Nash, 2012). Te avail-
ability of extensive grasslands and forests that can be
converted to pasture gives Latin America a strong and
growing comparative advantage in livestock production
because of the relatively higher cost of livestock produc-
tion in intensive systems.
Benefits of livestock production vs. costs of en-
vironmental impact
Te potential for economic growth and enhancement
of food security among Latin Americas rural poor from
continued expansion of livestock production must be
balanced against the costs of continued environmental
degradation. Te factors driving deforestation in Latin
America are a matter of growing debate with logging,
cattle production, and soybean production as the lead-
ing suspects (see, for example, Barona et al., 2010).
Whatever the causes, a recent study by the Brazilian
National Space Institute (inpe) concluded that 82% of
the area deforested in the Brazilian Amazon was occu-
pied by cattle pasture in 2007 (May, Millikan y Gebara,
2011). About 0.3% to 0.4% of the forest land in Latin
America is lost to pasture annually (fao, 2009). Contin-
ued expansion of pasture in South America may prove
increasingly untenable because the consequent soil ero-
sion and compaction, weed intrusion, and declining soil
fertility could reduce the productivity of pasture grass
and the viability of raising livestock (Carr, Bilborrow,
and Barbieri, 2003). Expansion of pasture for livestock
within integrated crop-livestock systems (icls) in Latin
America, however, ofers potential economic benefts,
including: (1) economies of scale that allows costs to be
spread across multiple outputs, (2) risk-reduction from
diversifcation, and (3) lower crop yield variability and
overall higher yields (Matha, Alves, and Contini, 2011).
Relative price changes will likely drive producer adop-
tion of specialized or more diversifed livestock-crop
production systems.
Until land becomes a limiting factor in these areas,
however, large-scale intensifcation and diversifcation,
however desirable for the environment, are not likely to
happen without the incentives or disincentives resulting
from efective government or international agency inter-
vention. One approach that shows promise is ecosystem
service payments (esp) to producers for carbon capture
and biodiversity conservation by public agencies and
private groups seeking to secure critical natural resources
or ofset environmental impacts (Milder, Scherr and
Bracer, 2010). While encouraging sustainable produc-
tion behaviour, such payments may also have potential
to alleviate rural poverty in areas of Latin America where
continued deforestation is occurring.
Another possibility is programmes to certify animal
products from livestock produced on farms and ranches
that comply with environmental regulations and follow
sustainable production techniques as environmentally-
friendly to meet growing consumer concerns about the
envrionment, health, animal welfare, and ethical issues
(Ibrahim, Porro, and Mauricio, 2010). Te higher prices
that certifed products might command in the market
could foster sustainable production behavior.
Potential for improved grasses and production
intensification
A recent study by ciat concludes that the potential of
high quality forages for sequestering atmospheric co2 is
second only to native forests and maybe even higher in
areas with high rainfall (Peters, 2012). Tus, with 80% of
all agricultural land used for fodder production in Latin
America, the study suggests that improved grasses could
successfully help mitigate climate change while helping
restore degraded pastures like those in the Brazilian Cer-
rado (Palmer, 2012).
A growing body of literature suggests that Brazil and
other Latin American countries have the potential to
increase cattle production signifcantly on existing pas-
ture without clearing more forest (see, for example,
Tollefson 2010). Nevertheless, cattle producers in Latin
America are not adopting technological changes, such as
the intensifcation of cattle production, on a scale that
is likely to reduce pressure on forests in Latin America.
One problem is that
in most years since early 2006, livestock feed prices have
been rising at a more rapid pace than the price of meat so
that feeding cattle has become increasing less proftable
relative to pasture feeding (fgure 1). Te incentive to
raise cattle on pasture rather than in confned systems has
become particularly strong since late 2010. Te relatively
high cost of capital, particularly of feeder cattle for fat-
tening, and increased fnancial risk are also considered
to be major constraints to the widespread adoption of
more intensive and mixed production systems (Pereira
et al., 2012).
Kaimowitz and Angelson (2008) argue persuasively
that the solution to the deforestation problem in Latin
America does not lie in livestock intensifcation and
other technologies that increase productivity. Tey fnd
that as long as new land is abundant in Latin America,
new technologies that make livestock production more
proftable will simply attract additional investment and
lead to further degradation of the environment. In the
absence of efective government land-use policies that
reduce the availability of tropical forests for the expan-
sion of livestock production, the adoption of capital and
labour-intensive techniques rather than land-abundant
extensive systems in Latin American cattle production
will not become economically viable until land becomes
scarce and most of the forest is gone. Kaimowitz and
Angelson conclude that the growth in world demand for
beef and the export response of Latin American countries
will likely intensify the risk that any new livestock and
pasture technologies adopted will simply become part of
a set of interacting forces leading to continuously high
levels of deforestation in the Amazon.
Production intensification likely more cost
effective in Central America
In Central America, livestock expansion will be increas-
ingly limited by land availability, especially given the
rate of population growth among the rural poor and
the relative land-efciency of grain production to meet
growing food needs in that region (Carr, Bilborrow, and
Barbieri, 2003). Intensifcation of livestock production
will likely become more cost efective in the region lead-
ing to lower rates of deforestation and environmental
impact of livestock production. At the same time, eco-
nomic growth in Central America will likely lag that of
the larger South American economies so that Central
American meat demand growth will also likely lag be-
hind that of South America.
Meat production will grow but at a slower
rate
lac meat production will continue growing rapidly over
the next decade but at a slower rate than in the previ-
ous decade (table 5). With substantially lower growth
in meat production forecast for the U.S., other devel-
oped countries, and many developing countries, lac
countries will likely continue to increase their shares of
world livestock inventories and meat supplies, add to
domestic meat consumption, and expand their shares
of world meat exports. Key factors in the expected per-
0
50
100
150
200
250
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Carne (FAO) Maiz (IMF) Razn de precios: carne al maiz
Figure 18. World meat and corn price indices , 2000-2012
fao Meat Price
Index
imf Maize Price
Index
Meat to Corn Price Ratio
formance of the lac meat industry include the growing
comparative advantage of South American countries in
extensive cattle production, expected relative growth in
per capita incomes facilitating a growing shift in con-
sumer diets to include more animal protein, policies
designed to encourage production, the declining price
of livestock relative to the cost of feed, and the grow-
ing rate of globalization. Te less rapid pace expected
for meat production will likely accompany a less rapid
growth in per capita meat consumption as well across
Latin America.
Southern Cone countries will continue advan-
cing the regions livestock industry
Brazil accounts for over half all lac beef production
and is expected to see production increase by about
11% over the next decade compared to 38% over the last
decade. Te production increase is expected to allow a
6% gain in per capita consumption and achieve record
exports as the country explores new export markets such
as Indonesia and China (table 5). Brazil will also likely
experience continued recovery in the eu beef market as
more Brazilian cattle farms are enrolled in its traceabil-
ity program. Several factors are combining to enhance
productivity increases in Brazilian cattle production, in-
cluding a subsidized credit program designed to promote
investment in genetics, pasture, machinery, and cold
storage capacity as well as improved genetics through
cross breeding programmes in the Center-West region
and other government programmes aimed at subsidiz-
ing investments in new technology and more efcient
production processes. Lack of adequate infrastructure to
support continued expansion of production in remote
areas will continue to limit growth.
Argentina cattle inventories and beef production are
expected to recover rapidly from the worst drought in
50 years that hit most of the cattle producing areas in
that country. Te consequence is an expected 12% in-
crease in per capita consumption and a 65% increase in
beef exports over the next decade despite government
eforts to control beef prices through export restrictions
(ami, 2010). Even so, the domestic market is expected to
continue to absorb nearly 90% of Argentinas beef pro-
duction over the next decade (oecd-fao, 2011). Uruguay
surpassed Argentina as the largest Latin American beef
exporter in 2010 and is expected to continue its beef
export push over the next decade. With Uruguays beef
production expected to increase by over 20% while the
export share of production remains at about two-thirds,
per capita beef consumption in Uruguay is expected to
increase by about 14%.
Brazil also accounts for almost half of all pork produc-
tion in lac and is expected to register further growth
of about 19% by 2020 as domestic and export demand
strengthen (oecd-fao, 2011). Brazil is expected to con-
tinue exporting about 16% of its pork production by
focusing on new markets in China and other Asian
countries. Te U.S. may become a strong market for
Brazilian pork exports following the 2010 decision by
the U.S. Department of Agricultures Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service (aphis) to add the Brazilian
State of Santa Catarina to the list of regions recognized
as free of foot-and-mouth disease (fmd), rinderpest,
swine vesicular disease (svd), classical swine fever (csf)
and African swine fever (asf) (U.S. Government 2010).
Strong investments in production capacity and tech-
nologies to enhance productivity and a growing export
orientation that doubled pork production in Chile over
the last decade are expected to support continued growth
in its pork production, consumption, and exports over
the coming decade. Te opening of the Chinese market
to imports of Chilean pork in 2011 will likely continue
to support growth in Chilean pork exports (Cubillos,
2012).
Chiles per capita consumption of chicken grew by nearly
30% over the last decade on the strength of a nearly 50%
increase in production. Chicken is now clearly the most
popular meat in the country, accounting for 45% of
total meat consumption. Chiles per capita chicken con-
sumption at 30.7 kg/person in 2011 was second only to
Brazils 42.1 kg/person in Latin America and is expected
to grow by about 27% over the next decade to 38.9 kg/
person (table 5). Chile only accounts for about 3% of
Latin American poultry meat production but already
accounts for 16% of the regions exports and is expected
to achieve an additional 45% increase in exports over
the next decade.
Growth of Brazilian poultry industry expected
to slow considerably
Brazilian poultry production doubled over the last de-
cade but is expected to expand by only about 16% by
2020 with much slower growth in both consumption
and exports of 8% and 21%, respectively, compared to
62% and 257%, respectively, over the last decade. Growth
of the Brazilian chicken industry faces several other ma-
jor threats in years to come, including: (1) the continued
overvaluation of the Brazilian currency, (2) depressed
demand from Europe amid its growing fnancial crisis,
(3) continuing problems with major import partners like
Russia that have been slow to re-list Brazilian poultry
plants and South Africa which has applied antidumping
tarifs on Brazilian chicken imports, and (4) the growing
cost of feed (Silva, 2012).
Continued growth in LAC dairy production
Milk production in Latin America is expected to con-
tinue increasing rapidly from 78.7 million tonnes in 2011
to 93.8 million tonnes in 2020, a 20% increase. With
higher expected energy and feed prices, the pasture-
based milk producing system of Latin America will likely
strengthen its comparative advantage over grain-fed sys-
tems (oecd-fao, 2011). Argentinas production of liquid
milk and fresh dairy products are expected to pick up
steam and grow by 30% and 13%, respectively, over the
next decade compared to 10% and 12%, respectively,
over the last decade (table 5). Investment and improved
management efciency are expected to drive Argentinas
milk production gains. A major limiting factor will be
high land prices and competition for land by the soy-
beans sector.
Not all countries in Latin America are expected to see
rapid dairy production gains over the coming decade. In
Mexico, after several years of strong growth, production
has leveled of. By 2015, Mexican milk production is
expected to be only 3% higher than in 2011 (oecd-fao
2011). Te slower current and expected growth is the
result of several risk factors, including higher feed costs,
infrastructure constraints, economic recession, lower
consumer purchasing power, higher taxes and higher pe-
troleum prices (San Juan 2010). Mexico is a major mar-
ket for U.S. exports of non-fat dry milk (nfdm), butter,
cheese, and fuid milk. Te Mexican government, dairy
producers, and the dairy industry are jointly investing
to increase production and to promote dairy consump-
tion. In Uruguay, widespread adoption of measures to
Note: The meat-to-corn price ratio index was calculated as the meat price index divided by the corn price
index multiplied by 100.
Source: fao (2012d) and imf (2012).
Table 8. Projected percentage growth in meat and dairy product production, per capita consumption, and
exports in lac, (Selected LAC countries, the United States and World, 2011-2020)
Uruguay Argentina Brazil Chile Mxico
Otros
LAC
LAC U.S. World
-----------------------------------------------------% Change -----------------------------------------------------
Beef
Production
20,1 25,9 11,3 19,2 18,2 22,5 16,5 11,3 13,6
Consumption/capita 13,9 12,2 -0,6 3,9 10,8 9,2 4,2 1,7 3,4
Exports 21,3 65,0 34,4 -1,1 2,7 12,8 30,0 31,6 16,6
Pork
Production
10,0 30,1 18,7 25,7 11,1 26,1 20,1 9,6 16,3
Consumption/capita 13,4 13,3 12,8 16,3 4,5 13,0 10,1 -1,8 5,7
Exports -3,1 207,2 13,5 25,6 25,6 4,0 18,4 27,1 13,4
Sheepmeat
Production
-10,3 -16,4 4,6 -0,3 31,5 37,7 17,0 1,0 19,4
Consumption/capita 76,3 -25,7 -0,2 1,5 3,5 15,1 5,2 -2,9 8,7
Exportaciones -67,6 4,9 -100,0 -32,1 -25,5 24,7 -33,4 0,8 8,6
Poultry
Production
20,6 39,7 16,4 43,1 30,2 39,8 25,6 17,3 22,3
Consumption/capita 30,8 22,8 8,3 26,8 20,1 24,4 15,5 8,6 11,3
Exports -70,8 66,8 20,7 45,5 11,1 11,8 24,8 16,4 18,1
Dairy Products
a
Production 11,1 12,8 14,7 11,5 24,4 25,4 20,9 1,0 23,0
Consumo/cpita 7,6 4,2 8,1 3,5 16,1 11,9 11,4 -6,4 11,9
a
Fresh dairy products as defned by oecd-fao (2011).
Source: Calculated from data in oecd-fao (2011).
increase milk productivity, including feed supplements,
improved pastures, investments in irrigation and other
technologies, is expected to turn an erratic milk produc-
tion pattern into slow but steady growth of almost 2%
a year over the next decade and boost production of all
fresh dairy products from the low levels of recent years
(table 5).
Promoting the continued development of the livestock
sector is critical to supporting overall economic develop-
ment and advancing food security and poverty reduction
in Latin America. A large body of economic literature
demonstrates that increased agricultural productivity
in a developing country leads to lower food prices and
generates a surplus of products and production inputs
that stimulate economic growth and help alleviate pov-
erty. Pica, Pica-Ciamarra, and Otte (2008) fnd that
the livestock sector is particularly important in that
process. Tey conclude that relieving the fundamental
constraints to livestock sector development must be a
key component of economic development programmes
and policies in Latin America and other developing areas
of the world. Promoting development of the livestock
industry in Latin America, however, poses risks to an
already fragile environment as well as potential hazards
to human health. Tus, policies to encourage the sustain-
ability of the livestock sector must accompany eforts to
enhance the economic impact of the sector.
Promoting the overall development of the li-
vestock sector in Latin America
Whether as a large-scale commercial venture or a small
family concern, developing a livestock operation, like
any other business, requires risky capital investments.
Key investments are also required all along the supply
chain from transportation infrastructure to marketing,
distribution, warehousing, port, and other services to
facilitate the transmission of consumer demand and
market price signals upstream to investors. Much of
Latin America is in critical need of a more focused sup-
ply chain approach to development of its livestock sector
to identify and eliminate bottlenecks to growth and
eliminate risks that undermine development eforts.
Macroeconomic policies to stabilize markets, reduce
distortions in prices and exchange rates, and boost per
capita incomes must be key components of that process.
Open markets and free trade agreements can allow Latin
American countries to take advantage of their compara-
tive advantage in livestock production and gain access
to markets in Europe, Russia, China, the United States,
Asia, and elsewhere where demand for meat is strong
and growing. At the same time, market information
services are critically needed to support decision-making
at all levels of the supply chain. Lack of access to critical
market information is a particular problem for small
landholders in their eforts to access commercial markets
and negotiate with buyers.
Research and innovation to boost productivity and
reduce costs of production is a necessary component
of eforts to promote the growth and maintain the
global competitiveness of the Latin American livestock
sector. Unfortunately, the rate of public funding for
agricultural research and development has been on the
decline in Latin America for decades from an annual
growth rate of 8% in the late 1970s to less than 1% in
the 1990s (Beintema and Stads, 2010). Public research
funding to beneft livestock has been particularly ne-
glected in Latin America over the years (Jarvis 1986
and Upton, 2004). Tere is some evidence of increased
public spending on agricultural R&D in Latin America
in recent years but crop production is the primary ben-
efciary. About 42% of public funding for agricultural
research is now reportedly spent in Brazil and much of
the remainder in Argentina and Mexico (Beintema and
Stads, 2010). In many other Latin American countries,
public funding of agricultural research has continued
to decline.
Private frms account for a large share of the investments
in improved animal genetics used by many lac produc-
ers (Stads and Beintema, 2009). Some lac countries pro-
vide tax incentives to private research and development
(R&D) companies while others require involvement of
the private sector in publicly funded research initiatives.
Even so, a recent study by Fuglie et al. (2011) indicates
that private sector investment in food industry R&D
amounted to only 0.28% of Latin Americas aggregate
gdp compared to 1.64% globally and that animal agri-
culture accounted for only 16.1% of that research.
Clearly, Latin American countries must consider the
opportunity costs to their livestock industries and their
entire economies from continuing to neglect the growing
research needs of their livestock industries. Some critical
areas of urgently needed research to promote livestock
production in Latin America include:
animal health and disease control including preven-
tive actions to minimize risks and impacts of disea-
ses;
efcient animal husbandry and management prac-
tices;
animal genetics and breed improvement;
development of better pastures, forages, and other
feed sources such as crop by-products to enhance
animal nutrition and reduce costs; and
a broad range of economic research to identify ba-
rriers to the efcient functioning of markets all along
the supply chain.
Promoting the livestock sectors contribution to
food security and poverty alleviation in Latin
America
Eforts to increase livestock production have little impact
on the rural poor in Latin America who depend on live-
stock as a mainstay of their livelihood because they are
necessarily focused on survival rather than proftability.
An estimated 28% of the poor in Latin America depend
on livestock as an important contribution to their live-
lihood (Torton et al., 2002). Clearly, poor livestock
producers are in need of most of what is required to
promote the overall development of the livestock sec-
tor in Latin America. However, the potential benefts
of a growing livestock sector are beyond the reach of
small livestock producers for many reasons as has been
widely documented and discussed (see, for example,
Pica-Cimarra, 2005). Some of the most important bar-
riers to enhancing the contribution of livestock to food
security and reducing poverty in Latin America relate to
the lack of access to technology, credit, resources, mar-
kets, information, and training. Little progress in using
livestock as a vehicle to improve the incomes and level
of living of the rural poor is likely to be achieved until
efective policies and programmes are put in place to
deal with these more pervasive and intractable problems
facing the rural poor.
For example, in Central America, where decades of rapid
population growth and demands for increasing food
supplies have encouraged widespread and unchecked
deforestation and degradation of productive soils, the
adoption of silvopastoral systems has been promoted
as a means of improving the proftability of small live-
stock production while augmenting nutrient cycling,
enhancing soil processes, supplying forage for livestock,
and enhancing biodiversity. However, despite extensive
promotion of such systems as a means of bufering de-
forestation and improving pasture productivity, silvopas-
toral systems and technologies are not being adopted
on a wide scale in Central America (Dagang and Nair,
2003). Dagang and Nair (2003) suggest that the problem
is likely poorly understood barriers to farmer adoption,
including the perceived risks of adoption and the poten-
tial impact on food security. Other suggested barriers to
adoption by small livestock producers include a lack of
knowledge about unfamiliar plants and their nutrient
and water requirements and the need for a substantial
initial investment (fao, 2006).
Promoting and strengthening the development of as-
sociations of small and medium-sized producers could
be an efective means of integrating small and medium-
sized producers into commercial markets and supply
chains. Working together through such associations
and other cooperative arrangements, producers could
efectively consolidate livestock numbers available for
sale, manage market information for decision making,
increase proft margins, reduce the cost of purchased
inputs, exploit niche markets, adapt technology and
livestock management techniques for local conditions,
and otherwise develop their productive capacity and
market power (Dinjkman and Steinfeld, 2010; Ibrahim,
Porro and Mauricio, 2010).
Various measures are needed for small producers in Latin
America to more fully beneft from opportunities avail-
able from the continuing growth of livestock markets in
the region, many of which could be facilitated through
cooperative producer arrangements, including:
improvements in the infrastructure and the develo-
pment of reliable transport and marketing systems
between rural areas and commercial markets;
better access to communication and information
systems to support decision-making;
enhanced access to credit, new technologies, and new
production inputs and other resources;
expanded agricultural extension services to provide
critically needed training and technical assistance in
livestock breeding, production, marketing, manage-
ment, and new technology adoption; and
better access to improved veterinary services to eradi-
cate diseases that can create economic hardship.
Promoting sustainability and mitigating the
environmental impact of livestock produc-
tion
A frequently debated policy question is whether the
benefts of a growing Latin American livestock industry
in terms of its contribution to economic development
and prosperity in the region outweigh its environmental
costs. Without a greater emphasis on sustainability and
additional and more efective pro-environment measures,
continued growth and expansion of livestock produc-
tion in Latin America no doubt will enlarge its already
substantial environmental footprint across the region.
Public and private actions to reduce the environmental
costs of livestock expansion will not only help protect the
regions ecosystems, biodiversity, and natural resources,
they will also enhance the returns to public and private
investments in the future growth of the industry.
One set of policies cannot address the environmental
challenges of livestock production in all areas of Latin
America. In areas of extensive deforestation, one study
found that conversion of forestlands to pasture is driven
predominantly by price incentives (fao, 2006). In these
areas, particular attention to designing appropriate price
mechanisms is needed to encourage environmentally
appropriate behaviour. Te same study, however, found
that in areas with medium deforestation, poverty drives
the continued conversion of forests for livestock produc-
tion. Smallholders often expand into marginal forest
lands to make up for the declining fertility and produc-
tivity of their existing lands. In these areas, ecosystem
services payments and policies designed specifcally to
alleviate poverty may play key roles in stemming the
impact of livestock production on the environment.
Taking into account regional diferences in the livestock-
environment interface, other needed measures in Latin
America include the following12:
identify and transform policies that encourage be-
haviours within the livestock industry that lead to
environmental degradation, such as subsidies that
promote overgrazing and the practice of giving land
titles to those who clear forests (see fao, 2006 for a
more lengthy list of such policies);
design and implement policies that incentivize appro-
priate resource stewardship such as ecosystem service
payments (esp) that have been shown to be efective
in some areas of Latin America;
explore opportunities to encourage the livestock in-
dustry to internalize its environmental impact costs
such as taxes or grazing fees on public lands;
develop an integrated strategy to prioritize the use of
land in areas at greatest environmental risk through
land use planning, zoning, and restrictions combi-
ned with measures to encourage a shift of livestock
production to suitable lands and to enhance the pro-
ftability of the intensifcation of production;
combine the development of new technologies and
sustainable management techniques like silvopastoral
12 A more detailed and specifc set of suggestions can be found in
fao (2006) and Steinfeld, Gerber, and Opio (2010).
systems to enhance livestock productivity and reduce
the environmental impact of livestock production
with research to identify barriers to their adoption
and design of policies to remove them;
design innovative fnancing mechanisms to promo-
te large-scale adoption of integrated crop-livestock
system technology;
establish environmentally-friendly meat certif-
cation programmes to enhance the proftability of
sustainable livestock production systems; and
enhance enforcement of already existing laws afec-
ting the livestock-environment interface such as
Brazils Forestry Code.
Conclusions
Te remarkable growth of the lac livestock and products
industry over the last decade is expected to continue in
the coming decade albeit at a slower pace. Livestock will
continue to contribute importantly to food security,
poverty alleviation, and overall economic growth in the
region. Brazil will continue to dominate the industry
and productivity advances will become increasingly
important in the industrys growth. Disease issues will
continue to plague the growth and development of the
industry.
Te confict between the development of the industry
and its environmental impact will require a more ag-
gressive but balanced approach, including investments
in a broad range of research and infrastructure, disease
abatement, education and training and other measures
to enhance productivity and proftability along with
policies, education, and various incentives to transition
the industry to greater sustainability and lower environ-
mental degradation. Any approach adopted will need to
be adapted to the wide diferences in the economic and
environmental diversity across countries in the region.
Fishing and Aquaculture
The growing importance of aquaculture in lac
Although aquaculture in Latin America and the Caribbean still faces obstacles including a
low level of state support, it is becoming an important alternative to lend greater stability to
regional fsheries production. In many countries of the region, however, the fsheries sector is
still heavily dependent on traditional fshing, which is showing signs of collapse or decline
while undermining the sectors potential to provide job stability, food, and export revenues.
Although aquaculture accounted for only 14.1% of *
the total commercial catch in the region in 2010,
farmed fsh represented 40.3% of the total landings
worldwide. It is projected that in 2012 world aqua-
culturewill account for 50%of thelandingsdestined
for human consumption.
In 2010, wild fsh landings in the region experienced *
a severe drop, ending a decade of signifcant reduc-
tions in captures of the main species as well as in
those targeted by artisanal fshermen.
Despite the growing infuence of aquaculture in the *
region, small-scale fshing is still an irreplaceable
source of employment in lac. Overall, the sector
generates between 1.3 and 1.4 million jobs, the vast
majority of which are in coastal artisanal fsheries.
In 2008-2010, South America maintained its lea- *
dership as the leading contributor to lacs traditio-
nal fsh landings (85.1%) and in its total aquaculture
production (83.9%).
The high level of dependence of developed coun- *
tries on fsh imports, combined with the moderate
growth of domestic markets in the region, ensures
strong future demand for fsheries production, and
especially aquaculture, in lac.
Facts
Trends
Fish landings from capture fisheries have de-
creased significantly in LAC while aquaculture
production has grown moderately
Regional aquaculture continued growing at a moder-
ate pace in 2010 (2.2% compared to 2009), reaching
a record 1.92 million tonnes, valued at us$7.85 billion
(fao, 2012a). Meanwhile, extractive fshing decreased by
23.4% compared to 2009, reaching 11.71 million tonnes,
the lowest volume since 1983. As a result, lacs share of
the world wild catch in 2010 reached only 13.2%. Tus,
between 2000 and 2010, regional extractive fshing and
the regions total landings decreased by an average 5.1%
and 4.1% per year, respectively, while aquaculture grew
at an average 8.6% annually. Te average annual varia-
tion in extractive fshing and the total catch was nega-
tive in the period 2000-2005 and deteriorated further
between 2005 and 2010. Te same pattern was observed
in aquaculture production, where growth rates decreased
from 12.5% per year in 2000-2005 to only 4.9% in the
period 2005-2010.
Fisheries and aquaculture continue to lose dy-
namism
Te reduction in fsheries landings in lac is worrying
and refects problems in the availability of some species
that are important for regional fsheries (especially an-
chovy, Chilean herring, and Chilean jack mackerel). Tis
has occurred in a context of climate change and lack of
fnancial resources for scientifc studies. Te trend also
reveals structural problems in aquaculture in many coun-
tries (regulatory issues; the lack of a long-term vision
and efective development strategies; lack of availabil-
ity of new technologies; slow progress in research; few
incentives for small producers, etc.). At the same time,
although global seafood markets are expanding, world-
wide wild fshing produced only 88.6 million tonnes in
2010 (between 2000 and 2010 global extractive fshing
declined by 0.5% annually, as the result of a drop of 0.8%
in countries excluding China, partially ofset by a 0.5%
annual increase in China) and aquaculture production
reached 55.9 million tonnes in 2010, growing by 6.3%
annually in the previous decade (5.5% in China; 7.8%
in the rest of the world).
Te catch of pelagic species has fallen at a faster
rate than other species
Extractive fshing in lac is concentrated in four pe-
lagic species (Anchovy, Chilean herring, Chilean jack
mackerel and South American pilchard), which together
accounted for more than 50% of the total catch in 2001-
2010. In this period, the catch of these species decreased
by an average 414,000 tonnes per year, which meant
that their catch in 2010 was only 57% of the volume
landed in 2001. Meanwhile, the catch of other species,
an important part of which are produced by artisanal
fshermen, showed an average decline of 18,000 tonnes
annually in the same period. Considering the six most
important species, the catch in lac decreased by 367,000
tonnes per year and the catch of other species fell by
66,000 tonnes annually, refecting a strong pressure on
fsheries resources which sustain the livelihoods of many
artisanal fshermen in the region. Tese facts should be
highly considered by public authorities responsible for
the sustainability of artisanal fsheries, which remain an
important and irreplaceable source of employment and
food production in much of the region.
In 2010, extractive fshing in lac was concentrated in
South America (82%) and Central America (16%), with
only 2% of the catch coming from the Caribbean.
Aquaculture has reached record levels of produc-
tion
Aquaculture production increased 129% in the last de-
cade, from 839,000 tonnes in 2000 to 1.92 million tonnes
in 2010. Te 2010 fgures included a record 602,000
tonnes of freshwater fsh (an average annual increase
of 9.1% in the period), 503,000 tonnes of crustaceans
(12.5% annual growth), and 314,000 tonnes of molluscs
(16.3% annual growth). Despite a decrease in production
of diadromous fsh (salmon and other species) in 2010
compared to 2009, production of these species grew
moderately over the decade (an average 3.3% annually).
Meanwhile, production volumes of marine fsh were
of little signifcance (3,100 tonnes in 2010; an average
1.7% annual increase in the period) due to the lack of
new technologies and difculties in obtaining permits
for fsh farms.
Marine aquaculture accounted for 56.6% of the sectors
total regional production in 2010, with the remainder
comprised of fsh farmed in freshwater. Te 34 coun-
tries and territories in the region that had aquaculture
production in 2010 (46 countries landed wild species)
cultivated 86 species, while wild fshing is based on the
exploitation of 464 species. Central America and South
America each cultivate 62 species of fsh while the Carib-
bean cultivates 18 species.
Te greater dynamism of regional aquaculture, as com-
pared to extractive fshing meant that in 2010 this activ-
ity accounted for 14.1% of total landings compared to
4.1% in 2000 and 1.2% in 1990. Almost 86% of aqua-
culture production in lac (2010) comes from South
America, 12% from Central America and 2% from the
Caribbean.
Wild fsheries and aquaculture continue to show
high degrees of concentration in the region
Figures from 2010 reafrm the concentration of fshing
in only a few countries and species in the region. Tree
nations (Peru, Chile and Mexico) contributed 72% of
wild landings. Adding Argentina and Brazil, the contri-
bution rises to 86%. Meanwhile, the 10 most important
species represent 70% in capture fsheries.
In the case of aquaculture, Chile, Brazil, Ecuador and
Mexico accounted for 81% of total production in 2010,
and the fve most important species contributed 67% to
totals farmed. To date, aquaculture in lac relies mainly
on non-native species due to market factors and the
availability of technologies, among other reasons.
Figure 19
Fisheries and aquaculture products price
index, 2006-2011
International fish markets continue to be very
dynamic
World fsh trade has continued its upward trend, with
total exports of about 32.6 million tonnes worth us$97.12
billion in 2009. Preliminary estimates for 2010 and
2011 show strong increases, with exports expected to
have reached some us$126.1 billion in 2011, and with
forecasts of around us$138 billion for 2012. In 2009,
lac accounted for about 12% of world export values
(us$11.47 billion) and 17% in volume terms (about 5.5
million tonnes). Te region is a major net exporter of
fsh products, with a surplus of some us$8.51 billion in
2009, a fgure representing an important contribution to
the balance of payment in many countries. Tis surplus
increased by an average of us$257 million annually (in
2010 constant currency) between 1984 and 2009. How-
ever, only Central and South America show positive
trade balances. Since 2001, the Caribbean has become
a net importer of fshery products, importing us$237
million (2010 constant currency) in 2009. lac as a whole
imported about us$3.15 billion worth of fsh products
in 2009, with imports rising progressively since 1984 at
a rate of us$85 million per year.
In 2009, lac exported mainly fresh and frozen fsh and
shellfsh (64.3% of the total value), as well as fshmeal
and fsh oil (22.7%). By volume, however, exports of fsh
and shellfsh represented only 38.8% of the total, while
fshmeal and fsh oil accounted for 51.4%. Meanwhile,
imports to lac in 2009 were mainly comprised of fresh
and frozen fsh (46.9% of the total value), canned fsh
(24.9%), dry, salted and smoked fsh (12.5%), and shell-
fsh in various preparations (9.8%).
Te average value of the regions fsheries exports has in-
creased moderately in the past 20 years, reaching us$2.2
per kilo in 2009. Te opposite occurred at a global level,
with average exports decreasing slightly to us$3.2 per kilo
(2010 constant currency). However, since 2001 a moderate
but steady rise in average prices for world and regional ex-
ports has been observed. lac export prices are lower than
the world average, due to the high proportion of fshmeal
and fsh oil. In contrast, the ex-farm value of regional
aquaculture products (us$4.1 per kilo) widely exceeded
the world average (us$2.0 per kilo) in 2010. In this case,
the region is surpassed only by Oceania, with an average
value of us$5.5 per kilo during this period.
In general, fsh markets continue to be dynamic and
have absorbed increasing global fsh production at prices
which, as in the case of other foods, increased substan-
tially in 2010 and 2011, especially for products of extrac-
tive fshing (Figure 19). Tere is also a growing demand
for fshmeal and fsh oil, produced mainly from extrac-
tive fsheries, products that fail to meet global needs.
Tus, these raw materials, which are a basic component
in animal diets, currently face competition from sub-
stitutes, some of which, such as derivatives of soy and
various vegetable oils, have been the focus of intense
research and development eforts in recent years.
Governments and small-scale producers face
both old and new challenges
Climate change afects the availability and distribution
of fsh stocks in ways still not well understood. At the
same time, it also modifes environmental conditions
for aquaculture. Dealing with these changes, as well as
the increasing acidifcation of the oceans which is en-
dangering biodiversity, and implementing new systemic
approaches to reduce losses in traditional fsheries, re-
quires greater investment by governments and producers
alike. Investment is also needed to implement, enforce
and monitor new biosafety and management standards
aimed at ensuring the sustainability of fsheries and aqua-
culture. Clearly, these problems are beyond the ability of
small and medium-size producers to solve on their own.
Te same applies in the case of larger-scale operators,
facts that compel governments to devise public policies
and participatory strategies, while ensuring biological,
environmental, economic and labour sustainability.
117
124
136
126
137
154
114
115
120
119
149
119
132
148
131
136
137
156
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
155
160
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Total
Aquaculture
Fishing
P
ric
e
in
d
ic
e
s
, 2
0
0
2
-2
0
0
4
=
1
0
0
Source: fao, Food Outlook, May 2011
New types of productive activities should recei-
ve greater attention
Sport fshing, the cultivation of ornamental fsh and re-
stocking of coastal waters are highly promising activities
in many countries and deserve greater attention, both
from the public and private sector, in order to create em-
ployment opportunities and/or promote sustainability. In
this context, there are important programmes in the con-
tinental waters of Argentina, Cuba, Brazil, and Mexico.
Te case of sport fshing is especially interesting because
of its association with tourism, while the production of
ornamental fsh on a small scale can become a potential
source of income for small rural communities or urban
workers who can grow them in their own homes with
limited investment and existing technology.
Perspectives
Countries of the region must improve sectoral
governance to make the best use of their fishe-
ries and aquaculture potential
Preliminary fgures from the fao show that the total
world catch of 148.5 million tonnes in 2010 could rise to
approximately 154 million tonnes in 2011 (90.4 million
tonnes of wild fsh, and signifcant 63.6 million tonnes
of farmed fsh). Tus, the average global availability of
fsh per person in 2011 might have been some 18.8 kg/
year (51% contributed by extractive fshing and 49% by
aquaculture). If the total catch reaches the projected 157.3
million tonnes in 2012 (2.1% increase with respect to 2011,
fao, 2012b), the availability of fsh per person should
reach 19.2 kg/year, with almost 50% provided by aqua-
culture. Tis level of contribution by aquaculture should
continue to grow in the coming decades as fsh farming
becomes established as the dominant source in total land-
ings and of fsh used for human consumption.
Global demand for fsh products will continue to rise.
Most developed countries will continue demanding
more fsh products than their feets or fsh farms can
provide, and consequently they will depend more heavily
on imports. lac can contribute signifcantly to the future
global supply based mainly on aquaculture production,
since no signifcant regional developments are expected
in extractive fshing. Adding the growing demand in
domestic markets, there is a promising picture that jus-
tifes signifcant increases in lacs aquaculture produc-
tion, which should translate into more jobs, food and
income.
Once more, governments must decide if they will face
these challenges and opportunities, generating the con-
ditions to support small and medium-scale aquaculture
and fsheries, as well as large companies. As noted above
(eclac/fao/iica, 2011), governance in the sector must
improve substantially, both to create new production
and employment opportunities, and to support pro-
ducers with limited resources. Tus, for example, new
approaches to training small producers are required, be-
cause progress to date in this area, with a strong paternal-
istic bias, has not yielded the expected results. Without
clear government leadership and intervention, fshing
and, in particular, regional aquaculture will not be able
to approach its production potential, ensure job stability,
or strengthen food security.
Small producers lack incentives to adapt to
new circumstances created by globalization
and consumer demand
Technological progress has historically been the driv-
ing force behind fsheries and aquaculture development.
Currently, however, and for the foreseeable future, the
market and consumer demands are and will remain the
most relevant factors afecting production changes and
forcing fshermen and fsh farmers to meet new require-
ments or risk losing sales opportunities. In addition, the
globalization of markets will force small and medium-
sized producers to improve productivity and efciency,
even though they specialize in fresh fsh supplies for do-
mestic consumers, as fresh products increasingly compete
with alternatives such as frozen or canned fsh, whether
locally produced or imported. Terefore, it is essential to
incorporate more and better technologies at all stages of
the fsheries chain and promote improvements in man-
agement and export standards to meet new demands.
However, these goals are difcult to meet in practice
due to existing problems that hamper the incorporation
of new techniques and equipment. For example, small
and medium-size producers usually receive only a small
fraction of the price paid by the fnal consumer (perhaps
20-35%), a fact that discourages producers from mod-
ernizing their production processes. Moreover, quality
improvements in products, resulting from the incorpora-
tion of new technologies, are not usually rewarded with
higher prices. Meanwhile, traders and intermediaries
capture the most signifcant part of sales income, mostly
due to limited transparency in local markets. Tey take
advantage of market asymmetries, information gaps and
the physical isolation of many fshing villages and fsh
farms to impose their terms and conditions, generating
a vicious cycle that condemns small-scale production
to technological stagnation and the loss of competi-
tiveness. Tis situation, combined with the increasing
scarcity of fshing stocks and the internationalization of
markets, severely jeopardizes job stability among artisa-
nal fshermen and fsh farmers with limited resources.
Tese realities and increasing demands for food safety
certifcations, product uniformity, portioning, packag-
ing, labelling, traceability and other attributes, challenge
the capabilities of small producers, forcing them to re-
consider their organizational and productive strategies.
As a result, there is an urgent and broad need for govern-
ment help to overcome these obstacles.
New production alternatives are advancing in
the region, but state support is needed to in-
crease interaction with small producers
Te breeding of fngerlings and the production of mol-
lusc seeds require facilities, investments and techniques
that are not usually within the reach of the small pro-
ducer. As a result, small-scale production requires reli-
able and competitive sources of these products from
third parties. Fingerlings and seeds are also needed in
restocking programmes to supplement the availability
of natural resources, sustain levels of extractive fshing
and give greater sustainability to fshing communities
that have seen their resources decline. Although there
might exist private suppliers of juveniles and seed, their
capacity can limit the development of new initiatives,
which is why governments should adopt proactive poli-
cies to provide these inputs. Te restocking of coastal
waters, a technique widely used in Asia and on the rise
in some countries (founder in Chile, sea bass in Brazil,
etc.), should be implemented throughout lac because
of its high potential impact. Currently, it is also possible
to catch certain species a few months before achieving
their market weights/sizes and raise them in captivity
until they are ready to be sold, thus combining fshing
and aquaculture in an efort to obtain better quality
products, higher prices and/or a more stable supply. In
the case of sea urchins, for example, by taking specimens
from the wild and raising them in a controlled environ-
ment for only a few months, their edible weight can be
almost doubled; their favour and colouring improved,
and their freshness at point of sale ensured.
In the future, restocking programmes and farmed pro-
duction of wild caught species will be favoured by the
availability of lower-price fsh feeds which will replace
fshmeal and fsh oil either partially or totally with sub-
stitutes of plant origin and/or synthetic products.
In addition, technological developments in the medium-
term should improve the efciency of aquaponics closed
systems that integrate fsh farming and hydroponics by
using metabolic waste from the fsh to feed the plants,
improving in parallel water quality, which is maintained
in suitable conditions for animal life. Also, the increasing
demand for biofuels, pigments and medicinal products
has created new opportunities for the use of seaweed
and microalgae grown and/or extracted from the natural
environment. In some cases, seaweed is already used for
bioethanol production, while various types of microalgae
are grown in open pools or closed systems to produce
astaxanthin, other pigments and antioxidants, ethanol
or biodiesel. All these techniques are still developing
and, along with integrated multi-trophic systems where
the waste from one species is recycled to become fertil-
izer or food for another, should create opportunities
for employment and investment in small communities.
Finally, as has already been mentioned, there are interest-
ing possibilities of producing ornamental fsh for export
and domestic markets in lac countries, which could give
rise to new small-scale employment opportunities.
Is there a lack of conditions for aquaculture in
the region or are new strategies needed?
Tere are countries in the region that have good pros-
pects for the development of aquaculture, but either
ignore this opportunity or have not made it a national
priority. Tis is the case of Argentina and Brazil, both of
which have important fshing and marine activities but
lack a well-developed marine aquaculture industry. Te
same is true in most of the Caribbean where, despite a
reduction in extractive fshing activities and the potential
of aquaculture to contribute to economic and social
development and food security, fsh farming has not yet
acquired greater importance. In Argentina it is desirable
that local governments allocate higher priority to aqua-
culture in general, while in Brazil, further aquaculture
development could help to reverse a massive defcit of
seafood in the domestic market that currently exceeds
us$1 billion annually. In the Caribbean, countries should
increase their cooperation and specialization in products
or services to generate economies of scale for large, ef-
fcient companies that meet at least part or all of the
regional demand. Tere are many common problems
and challenges in the region, but there are also many
opportunities, which is why this approach is realistic. For
example, companies could produce products or services
under commonly accepted standards in one or more
Caribbean territories/countries to meet the total demand
of the region (or part thereof ) for mollusc seed; juvenile
fsh; disease-free specimens for reproduction; fsh feed,
vaccines, etc.; technical/professional schools; undergrad-
uate degrees; specialized laboratories; institutions for re-
search and development; export consortiums, etc. Under
this scheme, each territory could import and/or export
the inputs and/or services that are most in demand or
that it can produce most efciently, thereby beneftting
all nations through higher levels of competitiveness, an
increase in employment and food production, and a
reduction of imports from third parties. Tis strategy
should receive further attention, especially considering
that 13 of 18 Caribbean nations were net importers of
seafood products in 2009 (producing a net trade def-
cit of us$222 million and 101,000 tonnes by volume).
In Central America all nations are net exporters, while
in South America fve of 13 countries (including Brazil
and Venezuela) are net importers, producing a net trade
defcit of us$877 million in 2009.
Countries should make the best use of their
wild species and diversify aquaculture pro-
duction
Te limitations of extractive fshing of traditional species
in the region suggest that their future exploitation should
be based on three main ideas: (1) Better levels of man-
agement of resources to ensure their sustainability, (2)
Reduced discards of by-catches, and (3) Improved utili-
zation and less post-harvest losses. In the frst case, the
implementation of good practices and better manage-
ment by the state is essential. In the other two areas, the
initiative is mainly in the hands of producers that require
guidance and training. In aquaculture, the current trend
in lac is towards more diversifed production, incorpo-
rating more native species for cultivation. Although it is
expected that exotic (non-native) species will continue
to dominate total harvests for at least another decade or
more, the cultivation of native species should increase,
especially from the next decade onwards. For this to
happen, interested parties (states, universities, centers
of development, etc.) should coordinate their eforts,
concentrating studies and tests on a limited number of
species. Only in this way will they be able to answer the
many unknowns that are delaying the expansion and
diversifcation of the aquaculture sector.
Develop ad hoc norms and policies aimed at
small and medium-size producers
Governments should design norms, regulations and
policies aimed at small-scale aquaculture and fsheries
producers with limited resources. Such producers are
numerous in lac but are clearly at a disadvantage com-
pared to larger operators, and cannot grow easily under
current conditions in almost all countries and territories.
Not only is it difcult for them to initiate aquaculture
or fsheries activities, dealing with bureaucracies, pa-
perwork and requirements that can drag on for several
years, but even once these activities are incorporated, it
can be equally challenging to be a legal operator. An ad
hoc policy would help to give sustainability, and even in-
crease employment opportunities. Without such norms,
small-scale fsherman and aquaculture producers will
continue to operate in a legal void that for decades has
condemned many to a life of economic, educational,
legal and social marginalization with poor development
prospects. Improvements in sectoral governance are a
prerequisite for enhancing the development of fsheries
and aquaculture in lac, and to give sustainability to
small-scale fshermen and aquaculture producers.
Improve sector governance and long-term planning
Most government actions in the sector are generally
aimed at meeting the immediate needs of fshermen
and aquaculture producers who face a variety of pressing
daily problems, while public institutions lack clear long-
term goals and objectives (10-15 years). Tus, normally,
regional institutions lack clear guidelines and informa-
tion about new opportunities, and progress is subject to
ups and downs while the waste of precious and scarce
resources becomes unavoidable. Given this situation, it
is essential to generate long-term plans and strategies,
in particular as regards the most vulnerable producers.
On the basis of these strategies, governments should de-
velop annual plans while simultaneously implementing
evaluation mechanisms, if possible overseen by external
entities, to ensure the best use of resources and the ef-
fectiveness of public programmes. Tis planning process
should include the frequent and rigorous evaluation of
results. Such methods should also be applied to training
programmes, research and development initiatives, and
the collection of sector information.
Promote best practices in all steps of the pro-
duction chain
Te need to ensure resource and environmental sustain-
ability in the medium and long-term, while meeting
new consumer demands, makes it important to ap-
ply best production and management practices at all
stages of the production cycle. Governments should
ensure the widespread application of such practices
and, if necessary, should support and empower small
producers to implement them. Te fao has already
developed a number of valuable proposals in this re-
gard, which should be given greater emphasis (fao 1995,
1997, 2009), along with the faos ecosystem approach
to fshing and aquaculture. Regional bodies such as
the Aquaculture Network of the Americas (raa) and
the Latin America Continental Fisheries Commission
(copescal), among others, can help to support these
important eforts.
Markets should be formalized and more trans-
parent
For years now, small-scale fshermen and fsh farmers,
along with consumers, have been severely afected by
market problems throughout the lac region. As a result
of the lack of information, of public markets to sell their
products and marketing failures, producers fetch low
prices while the consumer receives poor quality prod-
ucts at high prices. For this reason, it is necessary to fx
commercial asymmetries that favor intermediaries and
provide incentives to modernize production operations.
More and better information to guide producers in their
endeavours to meet demand at reasonable prices is also
needed. To achieve this end, the creation of formal mar-
kets, with timely information on prices and volumes
sold, should be encouraged. Tis would improve the
negotiating capacity of the producer and will help him
to gradually capture a greater proportion of the price
paid by the consumer. In the longer term, the process
will also help drive the introduction of technological
and competitiveness improvements.
Finally, quality standards should also be established for
diferent products sold in fsh markets. Each product cat-
egory (premium, fresh, industrial quality, etc.) should
have clearly established and well-known attributes, so
that producers and consumers alike know what to ofer
and demand for various uses. Tis process of categoriza-
tion should generate remuneration diferences related
to quality, which reward the best product with higher
prices, thus encouraging productive modernization and
the pursuit of excellence.
More formalized commercial transactions, quality stan-
dards for regulating marketing and production, and
transparency should also help to control prices and in-
crease sales. lac governments should take responsibility
in solving these important problems afecting small-scale
producers, or continue to waste eforts and resources on
measures to support production that have only limited
impact because of these unsolved issues.
Prioritize the continuous evaluation of fishery
resources
Te reduction in catches and employment of artisanal
fshermen is a clear motivation for governments to im-
prove knowledge and management systems relating to
fshery resources, including the strengthening of the
statistical systems currently in use.
Improve training methodologies and widen
their scope
Te new approach to fshing, the diversifcation of
aquaculture, and the emerging productive alternatives
already mentioned, in addition to the growing demands
of consumers and markets, require small and medium-
size producers to be better trained and organized. For
this reason, and to guarantee environmental sustain-
ability, governments should design and implement more
efective policies and training programmes. In the case
of small scale fsheries and aquaculture producers, aside
from matters related to production, there are major
organizational, managerial, commercial and fnancial
shortcomings which must be emphasized in new training
programmes. In particular, it is important to generate
business awareness in small-scale producers, educating
them in trade and fnancial matters in order to promote
their capacity for economic independence in the me-
dium and long-term, once training is completed. To
achieve this, diferent models have already been used in
the agricultural sector in various countries of the region
(funder Honduras and in Peru, for example).
Te importance of good governance and the failures de-
tected in the region make it necessary to develop training
programmes for public ofcials and representatives of
regional organizations involved in the sectors manage-
ment and development. Tis will help to improve the
performance and sustainability of fsheries and aquacul-
ture in the region. Te similarity of the problems faced
by many countries allows for the creation of regional
training courses of a more or less general nature that can
thereafter be adapted to local needs. A group of instruc-
tors can ofer the same course in various countries, or
the courses can be adapted to local realities and taught
by experts from individual nations. Te important thing
is to train ofcials responsible for public policies so that
they have an adequate understanding of global and local
realities, as well as the technical problems at all stages
of value chains.
Training must be understood as an on-going process and
is, therefore, a long-term issue. Moreover, to ensure the
efectiveness of training programmes, it is necessary to
assess their results in order to measure their contribu-
tion to the sectors development. In this regard, these
evaluations should be carried out by independent, ex-
ternal agents and the results made available in the public
domain.
Finally, the creation and/or strengthening of trade union
organizations and producer associations should be en-
couraged, to facilitate the training of their representa-
tives, so that they become efcient mobilizing agents
to generate new policies and implement them with the
support of their membership.
Training activities can be encouraged, making them
prerequisites for access to loans and/or other fnancial
benefts for producers. Government employees may also
be encouraged to undergo training if this is made a re-
quirement for job promotion.
Conclusions
In light of the decrease in extractive fshing and the sys-
tematic increase in aquaculture, states should continue
to explore measures that improve governance and facili-
tate the realization of the sectors potential to increase
employment, contribute to food security and improve
the general well-being of the region.
Producers of limited resources require educational and
fnancial assistance plans as well as norms specifcally
designed for their operation and survival, as otherwise
they will not be able to meet the new market require-
ments including good production practices and sustain-
ability. In this regard, governments are also urged to solve
market and marketing problems that negatively afect
the income of small producers and the fnal consumer.
Measures to address these problems include establishing
formal markets, developing quality standards recognised
by all stakeholders and providing timely information on
prices, quality and quantities.
Given the magnitude of the current shortcomings in the
Caribbean region, combined with the small size of many
countries and the fact that several of them are net seafood
importers, cooperation could help to address problems
that these countries are unable to solve individually. It
is also necessary to raise awareness about the potential
of marine aquaculture in countries such as Brazil and
Argentina that have so far largely neglected the develop-
ment of this important productive alternative
Forests
Forests play a key role in food security and climate change
mitigation
Te answers to two of humanitys greatest global challenges hunger and climate change
- are found in our forests. Forests are a source of nutritious food and permanent income
that allow rural populations to purchase other types of foods. In addition, forests play an
important role in climate change mitigation.
The countries of the region have been actively *
involved in the development and implementation
of national programmes that strengthen forest
management practices associated with climate
change mitigation. In some countries, reducing
emissions from deforestation and forest degra-
dation has become one of the most important
priorities of national forest management.
The fnal document of the United Nations Con- *
ference on Sustainable Development, titled The
Future We Want (June 2012), highlighted the so-
cial, economic and environmental benefts of fo-
rests, and emphasized that the range of products
and services provided by forests help to create
opportunities that address many of the most
pressing problems of sustainable development.

During the recent meeting of the Latin American *
and Caribbean Forestry Commission (March
2012), the national delegations analysed the im-
portance of forest management in regard to two
main issues: climate change and food security. In
this context, family and community agriculture
are expected to play a key role in forestry develo-
pment in the region.
Some countries in the region have developed suc- *
cessful models of forest fnancing. For example,
Chiles system of securitization has created a
favourable environment for private investment
and started the process of reversing the decli-
ne in the rate of forestation. However, in general,
the forestry sector has still not attracted enough
attention of the fnancial system and private in-
vestors for activities such as the management of
natural forests or reforestation on a small and
medium-scale.
Facts
Trends
Countries of the region are starting to develop
and implement programmes to reduce emis-
sions from deforestation and forest degrada-
tion (REDD)
Te Fourth Assessment Report of the United Nations
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (ipcc)
stated that the forestry sector is responsible for about
17% of the global emissions of greenhouse gases and is
the second largest source of emissions after the energy
sector. Te main cause of emissions in the forestry sec-
tor is deforestation associated with land use changes.
At the 13th session of the Conference of the Parties of
the United Nations Framework Convention on Cli-
mate Change held in 2007, countries were requested to
explore actions, identify options and develop eforts to
avoid the causes of deforestation.
In 2008, the United Nations established the collaborative
initiative on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation
and Forest Degradation (un-redd), which included
three Latin American pilot countries (Panama, Bolivia
and Paraguay). Later, in 2010, Ecuador was incorporated
as a benefciary country, bringing the total direct con-
tribution to the four countries to around us$18 million.
Te un-redd programme is a joint efort between fao,
undp and unep.
Another ten countries in the region have since joined
the initiative: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Guyana, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, and Su-
riname.
Te fao is also working on redd in Mexico, Peru
and Ecuador with resources from the Finnish govern-
ment.
In addition to the un-redd initiative, the Central
American Commission on Environment and Develop-
ment (ccad), with the support of the giz, is imple-
menting the redd Regional Programme in eight Cen-
tral American countries and the Dominican Republic,
with total investment of around 12 million euros.
Norway has signed a cooperation agreement worth us$15
million to promote redd in Mexico. Guyana also has an
agreement with Norway with the same objective. Peru
has created a redd group comprised of members from
civil society and the state and it has ratifed the goal of
voluntarily reducing the rate of net deforestation to zero
by 2021. Uruguay has a national strategy for climate
change developed with the participation of the forestry
sector and Dominica has initiated activities to participate
in the global mechanism redd+. In 2010, Honduras
National Institute of Conservation and Development
of Forests, Protected Areas and Wildlife created the De-
partment of Forests and Climate Change. Suriname is
participating in a redd+ programme of capacity build-
ing in the framework of the Forest Carbon Partnership
Facility (fcpf).
In Colombia, the Inter-American Development Bank
is supporting the implementation of a mechanism to
encourage measures and efective actions to mitigate
carbon emissions by companies and public institutions,
as well as to generate access to fnancing for conservation
and carbon sequestration projects (idb, 2011).
In summary, the countries of the region have become
strongly involved in the implementation of interna-
tional agreements relating to climate change mitigation
through the reduction of emissions associated with land
use changes and forest degradation.
Countries are continuing to promote sustaina-
ble forest management and the development of
forestry activities in association with family
farming
Tere are several examples of sustainable forest man-
agement in Latin America and the Caribbean. fao has
documented some of these cases in Brazil, Chile, Guate-
mala, Peru, Bolivia, Honduras, Mexico, the Dominican
Republic, Nicaragua and Colombia (fao and Junta de
Castilla y Len, 2011). Most of these cases correspond
to forest management processes developed by rural and
native or indigenous communities that receive economic
benefts from the implementation of sustainable projects.
Examples of forest management by private companies in
Peru and Chile were also discussed. While these private
sector initiatives are clearly seeking economic proftabil-
ity, they show efcient forest management at an organi-
zational and operational level. Tey have also helped to
develop local social-environmental awareness.
Tere are diferent approaches to the management and
governance of forest resources in the region, which is
evident in the diferent policies, laws and national forest
programmes. However, the region is characterized by the
pursuit of greater appropriation of the benefts and uses
of forest resources for local communities.
In this regard, an important topic discussed at the last
meeting of the Latin American and Caribbean Forestry
Commission (lacfc), held in March 2012 in Paraguay,
was the importance of promoting a more efective inte-
gration of forest management, forestry and agroforestry
systems in the productive activities of family agriculture.
Only a few indigenous and rural communities are exclu-
sively forest-based communities, while in the majority
of cases farmers and settlers develop forestry, timber and
agricultural activities simultaneously.
Te trend towards greater integration of productive ac-
tivities including forest management, agriculture, live-
stock, aquaculture and fsheries, is seen in the design
of public policies and operational guidelines for forest
management. Tis has created an important opportunity
for the development of agro-silvo-pastoral systems.
Forest cover is lost or degraded, in part, due to
the economic and social dynamics of the region
that foster the intensive use of forestry products
and changes in land use
Currently, some forests are used only for obtaining non-
timber forest products (ntfps) and providing environ-
mental services. However, a large part of the forests in
Latin America and the Caribbean continue to be used
primarily as a source of wood. In other cases, wood
is a by-product in processes of land use change given
that forest exploitation does not compete economically
with other forms of land use that are fnancially more
attractive.
Te surface area covered by forests in Latin America and
the Caribbean is declining. It is estimated that the loss
of forest cover in the region is 3.95 million hectares per
year (0.40%). Te loss of forest cover worldwide is 0.13%
per year (see Table 9).
Of the 3.95 million hectares that are lost annually, 3 mil-
lion ha corresponds to native forests, which represents
75% of the annual loss of native forests worldwide.
Population growth, urbanization and poverty are some
of the main socio-economic dynamics that afect the
regions forests.
Te population of Latin America and the Caribbean
grew from 286 million in 1970 to 588 million in 2010.
Meanwhile, the net consumption13 of roundwood in the
same period rose from 228 million cubic metres in 1970,
to 476 million cubic meters in 2010 (0.81 m3 per person
per year). Te regions population is projected to reach
729 million by 2050, with demand for roundwood reach-
ing some 590 million cubic meters, implying an increase
of annual net consumption of about 24% compared to
2010 (lacfc, 2012a).
Tis is a region with a relatively high level of urban-
ization. It is estimated that in 2010, about 80% of the
population was already living in cities. Te increase in
consumption of roundwood in the region is also related
to population growth. Migration to urban centres re-
duces the pressure on forests in rural areas, but it may
increase the demand for wood for civil construction and
furniture in the cities, thereby increasing demand for the
13 Sum of the volume produced and the volume imported minus
the volume exported.
extraction of wood from the forests. Since 1995 (when
70% of the total population of Latin America and the
Caribbean lived in cities), a clear correlation between the
growth of the urban population and the net consump-
tion of wood boards, which are important raw materials
for civil construction, has been noted in the region.
Urbanization, as a result of internal migration, can also
accelerate processes of land ownership concentration in
rural areas because people who migrate to the cities aban-
don their lands or sell them. Indirectly, this contributes
to the development of extensive farming, which in turn
increases pressure on woodland areas.
One of the main problems facing Latin America and
the Caribbean is the high concentration of wealth and
the persistence of poverty. Although the level of poverty
and destitution has gradually been reduced in recent
years, this reduction has stagnated since the 2008 global
fnancial crisis. In 2010, it was estimated that one third
of the population of the region was living in poverty and
about 13% of the population was destitute.
In rural areas poverty levels are substantially higher. It is
estimated that more than 50% of the rural population is
poor and about 30% is destitute.
Although not all deforestation can be attributed to pov-
erty and indigence, there is evidence that deforestation is
correlated, directly or indirectly, with the level of poverty
in the rural population.
Tis means eforts to reduce deforestation in the region
face an important social and economic challenge in rural
areas.
Table 9. Rate of annual change in forest area
(2005-2010)
Forest area (1,000
ha)
Rate of annual
change
2005 2010 1,000 ha/year %
Caribbean 6 .728 6.933 41 0,61
Central America 86. 233 84.301 -404 -0,47
South America 882 258 864 351 -3.581 -0,41
Total 975.309 955.585 -3.945 -0,40
Source: fra, 2010
Note: Central America includes Mexico.
The integration of the region in global markets
of goods and services reduces opportunities for
conservation and sustainable management of
forests due to the states limited capacity for
intervention
Tere is a tendency towards an increase in the participa-
tion of the region in the value chains of global exports.
Tis can be explained by the increase in the price of raw
materials, but also by the tendency of Latin America
and the Caribbean towards specialization in the export
of these materials, serving a growing global demand. In
2010, around 35.6% of the total value of exports from
the region was generated by exports of primary com-
modities.
Tis trend is also seen in the forestry sector, where ex-
ports of roundwood, wood boards and even charcoal,
have increased substantially in recent years, although
with strong annual variations.
Also, in 2010, developing and emerging economies re-
ceived half of the total foreign direct investment world-
wide. In the region, net foreign direct investment (nfdi)
has been increasing gradually, but with large annual
variations. Between 1980 and 2010, net foreign direct
investment varied from us$ 500 million to us$100 bil-
lion a year.
Tere is no consolidated data for the region on foreign
direct investment in the forestry sector. However, the
available data implies a substantial increase in nfdi in
natural resource-based economic activities. From 2005
to 2009, investment in economic activities related to
natural resources increased in percentage terms by more
than double, representing around 37% of the total nfdi
in the region.
Both the increase in exports of raw materials and great-
er direct investment in productive activities related to
natural resources, provide an opportunity to strengthen
the regional economy based on the use of its natural
resources. Making this opportunity into a competitive
advantage requires strengthening the capacity of the state
to regulate and control land use changes and forest ex-
ploitation, promoting sustainable forest development.
Perspectives
Paying local populations for environmental servi-
ces provided by forests will promote the conserva-
tion and proper management of forest resources
Payment for environmental services (pes) provided by
forests is a way to increase their value and improve the
proftability of forestry activities, as well as to promote
sustainable management and thus avoid continued forest
deterioration.
Currently, there are a signifcant number of pes experi-
ences in the region, the majority of which are related to
water supplies. Te experiences show a great diversity of
methodologies in the implementation of payment, but
in the majority of cases the amount paid corresponds to
a set value which has no relation to the cost of the service
provided.
Te fao has documented 27 experiences of compensation
for hydrological services provided by forests in countries
of Central America and Caribbean (fao-facility, 2010).
Tese initiatives are aimed mainly at small properties and
show strong involvement by local communities, which
has facilitated their implementation.
While Costa Rica is the country in the region with the
broadest experience in pes, Colombia has also developed
an institutional framework. In Mexico, which has imple-
mented various programmes using public funds, 1,056
requests for compensation for forest protection were ap-
proved between 2007 and 2011 for an amount totalling
us$15.6 million (70,851 benefciaries) in an area covering
51,859 hectares (Lara et al. 2011).
Ecuador has a government programme called Forest Part-
ner (Socio Bosque), which involves payment for environ-
mental services from protected forests. Brazil, El Salvador
and Peru also show institutional development or have de-
veloped policies aimed at encouraging pes. Paraguay has a
specifc law for the payment of environmental services.
Most of the legal mechanisms that govern pes schemes
have been approved in the past four years (with the excep-
tion of Costa Rica), which shows greater social awareness
about the importance of forest resources that goes beyond
the products they provide (fao/oapn, 2009).
An important aspect that must be worked out to allow
the implementation of pes mechanisms in the region is
the clear defnition of property rights for environmental
services.
In general terms, based on the experiences in the region,
the payment for environmental services of forests has
generated a positive behavioural change in those who
pay and receive payment about the importance of the
conservation of forest resources and the sustainability of
their environmental services. However, the coverage of
pes programmes is still very limited.
Te forestry sector will acquire greater partici-
pation in national economies and constitute an
important source of income in the household eco-
nomy
Te contribution of the forestry sector to the gdp in the
region varies between 2% and 3%, according to a fao
survey of countries prior to the meeting of lacfc. For
example, in Ecuador the forest sector contributes 2.3% of
gdp. In Guatemala the contribution is about 2.6% and in
Chile it is approximately 3% of gdp. Honduras informed
lacfc that the contribution of the forest sector to its gdp
varies between 6% and 10%, making it an exception in
the region (lacfc, 2012b).
However, these percentages do not represent the real
magnitude of the contribution of the forestry sector to
national economies. Tat is because these percentages
refer, in most countries, only to silvicultural activities in-
cluding the extraction and sale of wood from the forest.
Tey do not include, for example, the secondary process-
ing of wood products or the generation of employment
in activities related to the transport of raw materials and
value-added products.
Tey also do not include the environmental services of
forests, which are important for the general well being
of the population and the development of productive
activities.
Te percentages do not refect the use of wood products
(for building and frewood) and non-timber products (for
food, medicine, fbres, etc.). Nor do they consider the
small-scale sale of wood and non-wood products from the
forest, which constitute an important source of income
for some farmers.
Te countries of the region generally recognize the
importance of non-timber forest products, which con-
tribute to the incomes of farmers and local communi-
ties. Trade in these products is usually informal, so it
is difcult to estimate the volume in quantitative or
monetary terms or the quality of the production. Peru,
for example, estimated that of the total exports of for-
est products (which reached us$ 400 million in 2010),
38% corresponds to non-timber forest products, such as
colouring matter of animal origin, seeds, fruits, rubber,
resins and palm hearts, among other products. Given
the importance of these products in Peru, the govern-
ment granted forest concessions in public forests for the
exclusive production of ntfps.
In Chile, it is estimated that the export of ntfps reached
nearly us$53 million in 2010. While this value represents
only 1% of annual exports of the forestry sector, over
the past few years ntfp exports have increased steadily.
It is also estimated that they generate employment for
200,000 people in the rural sector (lacfc, 2012b).
Te sustainable management of forests for timber and
non-timber products, and the payment for environ-
mental services, should increase the contribution of the
forestry sector to gdp, increasing its economic impor-
tance and, also, generating higher income for farmers
in rural areas.
Awareness about the importance of forests for
climate change mitigation and national socio-
economic development will promote their pro-
per management and conservation
Te countries of the region are taking measures to im-
prove the conservation and management of forests due
to greater appreciation for the environmental services of
forests and an increase in the participation of the forest
sector in national and family economies.
Many countries have initiated the implementation of
national redd programmes, designated forest areas for
the conservation of biodiversity and other environmental
services, and promoted sustainable forest management,
including forest certifcation.
In the period 2005-2010, the area of forests in the region
aimed at the conservation of biodiversity increased at
a rate of 3.1 million hectares a year (fao, 2010f ). Tis
represents 50% of the biodiversity conservation areas
declared annually at the global level, totalling 6.3 mil-
lion hectares.
Currently, there are around 133 million hectares desig-
nated for biodiversity conservation in the region, 60 mil-
lion hectares for the conservation of soil and water, and
120 million hectares for the provision of social services;
that means about one third of the total area of forests in
the region are, in one form or another, being protected
to be used for purposes other than the exploitation of
timber.
Nearly 13 million hectares of forest in the region has
already been certifed, of which more than 6 million
hectares are located in Brazil. Tis includes areas with
natural forest and plantations.
Te recognition of the importance of forests for climate
change mitigation and for socio-economic development
is shown in the reduction of the rate of deforestation in
Latin America and the Caribbean. Te rate of annual
deforestation between 1990 and 2000 was estimated at
4.89 million hectares. Between 2000 and 2005, this fell
to 4.84 million hectares and by 2010 it had shrunk to
3.95 million hectares. In the Caribbean, the surface area
with forest cover grew at 0.61% a year between 2005
and 2010. Tis trend in the reduction of the rate of
deforestation is expected to hold in the coming years,
thus demonstrating the importance of forests in Latin
America and the Caribbean.

Generate greater awareness at the national
level about the importance of forests for socio-
economic development
A large segment of the population in the region does not
value the importance of the conservation of forests or their
proper management. For example, the urban population
does not fully understand the link between the conserva-
tion of forests in rural areas and the quality of life in cities.
In addition, not all farmers understand the importance of
forests for agricultural production systems.
Tis lack of understanding about the importance of for-
est resources translates into conficting public policies.
For example, some policies may promote the change of
land use in forested areas while others encourage the
sustainable management of forests and forest conserva-
tion. Meanwhile, some policies promote agricultural
and livestock development in areas that are protected or
where sustainable forest management is encouraged.
In order to make the population understand and value
forests, governments should focus their eforts on in-
forming, training and educating people about the role
and functions of forests and their importance in provid-
ing timber and non-timber goods, as well as in providing
environmental services.
For example, an important issue is the need to reduce
emissions due to deforestation and forest degradation,
which is important in eforts to mitigate the efects of
climate change.
A better-informed population will make better use of
natural resources and promote, through authorities and
institutions, the implementation of more consistent so-
cial, economic and environmental public policies.
Develop a national land management strategy
that includes the forestry sector
Te urgent need to increase food production in certain
countries, and the increasingly limited availability of
natural resources, primarily soil, must be addressed to
avoid unsustainable situations and social conficts.
Te debate about these issues should occur within the
framework of a process of national land management
involving the forestry sector.
Specifcally, it is necessary to defne more precisely and
through broad national agreement those forest areas
that should be protected and managed for the produc-
tion of timber and non-timber products, the generation
of environmental services, the recovery of forest cover
according to the suitability of land use, and the develop-
ment of forest plantations.
Tis system should be supported by national guidelines,
programmes, incentives, disincentives and mechanisms
to ensure its proper implementation.
Promote the integration of forestry and agri-
cultural activities at the family and community
level
National promotion and incentive mechanisms should
also be refected at the level of agricultural production
units in rural areas. Te sustainable and integrated use
of natural resources should be promoted at the level of
family and community agriculture, including agricul-
ture, livestock, aquaculture, forestry and natural forest
management.
To achieve this, agricultural policies should promote the
development of forestry activities, and policies should
aim to promote the integrated and diversifed manage-
ment of farms and other agricultural activities. Agricul-
tural extension programmes should include the option
of technical assistance regarding forestry issues.
Public policies that promote the integration of family
agriculture and forestry production systems will improve
incomes and bring benefts for farmers, while at the same
time promoting better use of the forests.
Establish national systems of payment for en-
vironmental services that benefit local popu-
lations
Te payment for environmental services of forests is an
important mechanism to promote the proper manage-
ment of forest resources, their conservation, and the
recovery of degraded areas as well as the development
of forest plantations and other forestry activities. From
a macroeconomic perspective, the payment for environ-
mental services generates the redistribution of national
income and the transfer of resources to the rural environ-
ment, promoting more equitable social and economic
development.
For this reason, environmental services should belong
to the owners of the forests and must be tradable in the
market. Tis requires legislation and institutions based
on the understanding that payments constitute recogni-
tion of the market value of a service, which is efectively
provided by the owner of a forest that is protected or
properly managed.
Te income received by forest owners from the environ-
mental services produced by their forests will increase
their incomes, improve the proftability of forestry and
could change social behaviour in favour of proper forest
management.
Generate flows of resources and investments
towards family agriculture for the development
of productive forestry activities
While the payment for environmental services increases
the fow of resources to the farmer who owns the forest
and carries out forestry activities, the development of
such activities in the frst place requires investment.
One of the most pressing problems of forestry activity is
the lack of funding, including resources from the state
or the private sector, which is especially true for family
agriculture (fao, 2012). Currently, private banking sys-
tems and national development banks do not contrib-
ute signifcantly to the expansion of small-scale forestry
activities. While there are some experiences that have
yielded positive results, such as mechanisms of credit,
special funds, credit guarantees, trusts and other funds,
these are not widely applied for the development of
forest activities in family agriculture.
It is important to generate funding mechanisms adapted
to the characteristics and scale of family agriculture and,
at the same time, the characteristics of certain forestry
activities.
Continue to strengthen the capacity of the state
for forest management and administration
Te forest sector cannot develop only through the avail-
ability of greater resources for fnancing and investment,
through the implementation of land use planning pro-
cesses, or through societys recognition of the strategic
importance of forests for socio-economic development.
It requires stronger forest governance. Tis means there
should be an organization responsible for public forest
Table 10. Area of forest by primary use in lac
(2010)
Forestry plantations
Area
(million ha)
Production 110
Protection of soil and water 60
Multiple use 151
Unknown or none 357
Subtotal 678
Biodiversity conservation 133
Social services 120
Others 6
Forestry plantations 18
Total 955
Source: fra, 2010
management at the highest possible level, with organi-
zational structures and decentralized functions to enable
the involvement of local levels of government. Tere
should also be formal spaces for civil society to partici-
pate in dialogue and agreements to infuence the design
and implementation of forest policies.
An important aspect of strengthening forest governance
is the creation of inter-sectoral and inter-institutional
spaces for dialogue, in which forest administrators can
participate to promote the sustainable management of
forest resources and their inclusion in public policies in
other sectors that also have an impact on forests.
In order to strengthen forest governance, forestry, ag-
riculture and environmental regulations should be
reviewed and updated so that they contribute to the
conservation and protection of forests.
Instruments for monitoring forest resources are extreme-
ly important. Institutions responsible for forest manage-
ment should be able to know, if possible in real time, the
impact caused by deforestation and forest degradation.
Monitoring systems and instruments could help guide
actions and programmes that provide incentives for the
proper management of forests. In addition, such systems
could form part of global forest monitoring eforts and
the information collected used in the development of
initiatives for the conservation of forest resources. In this
regard, systems should consider the possibility of peri-
odic evaluations and, above all, the measurement of the
qualitative and quantitative changes of forest resources.
International reporting on the state of forest resources is
also important so that the data collected at the national
level may be verifed.
All of the above should be part of a coherent national
forestry strategy, which combines the management of the
forestry sector with aspects of governance in other sectors
which have an infuence on forest management.
Promote regional systems based on national
strengths to face common challenges
Joint action by countries to face common threats to for-
est resources should be strengthened. Te use of systems
that allow proper communication, early warning and
coordinated responses may reduce risks from pests and
disease, fre, extreme weather events and trafc of genetic
resources, among others.
In this regard, South-South cooperation could be pro-
moted by identifying the strengths of one country that
could beneft other countries in the region. In Latin
America and the Caribbean there have already been
some excellent experiences that have developed to share
new practices and knowledge.
With respect to genetic resources from forests, it is im-
portant to continue eforts to properly study resources in
order to improve the national and international strategies
aimed at their protection and access, under appropriate
conditions and with shared benefts.
Tere is also space for joint action in the development of
forest inventories by countries in subregions, simultane-
ously generating forest information and optimizing the
use of resources and information.
Conclusions
Te annual rate of deforestation in the region is ap-
proximately three times higher than the annual rate of
forest cover loss worldwide. However, the rate has been
reduced by around 20% in the last fve years compared
to the previous fve-year period.
Tis reduction is due to diferent reasons. Among them,
the increase in the area of forests designated primarily
for uses other than timber exploitation, and a greater
understanding of the importance of forests as providers
of goods and environmental services. Tis last is evident,
for example, in the eforts made by countries to reduce
emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,
and to assess and pay for the environmental services
of forests.
It is still pending to promote the greater integration of
forestry with agricultural activities and the sustainable
use of natural resources at the level of family agricul-
ture.
Other areas that need to be further developed include
land use planning, strengthening forest governance,
information campaigns, and the monitoring of forest
resources, among others.
In this context, South-South cooperation is important
for strengthening forest governance systems and meeting
common threats to forest development.
Section iii:
Rural Well-Being
and Institutional
Framework
Rural Well-being
Rural Areas in Transition
Latin American rural areas have changed signifcantly during the last two decades, with
important transformations in agricultural production, territorial dynamics and governance
structures, as well as increasing awareness about environmental issues.
The rural population in * lac has decreased since rea-
ching a peak of 130 million in 1990. It was estimated
at 120 million in 2010 and is expected to fall to 115
million in 2015.
During the last two decades, ruralurban migration *
has slowed; although net migration persists, but
at decreasing average rates. Net rural migration
causes a reduction in the absolute size of the rural
population.
The main factor driving rural migration is persistent *
rural-urban inequality; moreover, rural migration is
selective, since the larger migration is found among
women and youths with more education.
The increasing rural-urban linkages facilitate re- *
gular, seasonal or occasional commuting of urban
residents to work in rural areas.
The boom in primary activities in rural areas creates *
income and employment, but in most cases those
are captured by residents in urban areas.
Facts
Introduction
Te objective of this years chapter on rural well-being
is to review the main structural changes and develop-
ment gaps observed in Latin American rural areas in
recent decades, with a focus on demographic and labour
market changes, in order to identify trends and policy
challenges.
Trends
Changes in the rural labour market
Four signifcant transformations have been observed
during the last decade in the Latin American rural labour
market: a decreases in the importance of agricultural
employment, an increase in employment of women
(especially in non-agricultural activities), an increase of
waged labour vis--vis lower self-employment, and more
agricultural workers living in cities.
Increase of rural non-agricultural employment. Te
reduction in the importance of rural agricultural em-
ployment in Latin America started to attract attention
during the middle of the 1990s (e.g. Klein 1992; Reardon
et al., 2001; eclac, idb, fao, & rimisp 2004; Dirven
2004 and Kobrick & Dirven 2007). A pioneer study
was that of Klein (1992), who demonstrated using
data from the 1990 population census that the main
sector of employment for 24% of the rural labour force
was not agriculture and that the diversifcation towards
non-agricultural activities was a growing trend.
Te trend has deepened since then, but at diferent
speeds. During the last decade, the proportion of the
rural labour force employed in agriculture decreased
in 11 of the 14 countries for which information is avail-
able (Table 3), with the most signifcant reductions in
Chile, Costa Rica
14
, Mexico and the Dominican Repub-
lic. However, agricultural employment remains high in
many countries; for example, it is above 60% in Bolivia
(77%), Brazil (68%), Colombia (66%), Ecuador (69%),
Honduras (63%) and Peru (73%). In the other extreme
we fnd Costa Rica, Mexico and the Dominican Repub-
lic, with less that 40% of rural employment in agriculture
and primary sectors (Table 3). Tose fgures are evidence
of structural change in the rural labour market, but at
diferent speeds between countries.
Increase in rural employment of women, but participa-
tion still low. Te participation of women in the rural
labour market has increased, but in many cases only
slowly, and overall participation is still low. During the
last decade the share of women in total rural employ-
ment increased in 11 countries, with the most important
gains in Chile, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic and
Panama. In the rest of the countries it did not change
signifcantly (Brazil, Ecuador and Mexico) or decreased
slightly (Colombia and Peru). In most cases the share
of women in rural employment is below 40% (except
in Bolivia and Peru) and in many cases it is below 30%
(Chile, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador,
Guatemala, Honduras and Panama).
In most countries more than half of women employed
in rural areas are working in non-agricultural activi-
ties; in some cases the proportion is above 70% (Costa
Rica, El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala,
Honduras, Mexico and Panama). Te share of women
employed in agriculture is only higher in Bolivia (81%),
Brazil (61%), Ecuador (62%) and Peru (70%).
Tere are noticeable diferences in the insertion of wom-
en in rural labour markets between the Andean Region
(mainly in agriculture) and Mesoamerican countries
(mostly outside of agriculture). In the frst case (Bo-
livia, Ecuador and Peru), the dominance of agricultural
employment among women could be explained by the
prevalence of traditional agrarian systems in which the
roles of women are central. In the Mesoamerican case,
the dominance of non-agricultural employment could
be explained partially by the increase in non-traditional
agricultural activities, in many cases export-oriented,
14 The last year of data available in Costa Rica to maintain
comparability with 2001 is 2009 since the household survey
changed in 2010.
which create employment in processing activities that
are not counted as agricultural; for example, processing
of tropical fruits and vegetables.
Increase in salaried employment. Tere have also been
changes in the types of insertion in the rural labour mar-
ket. In the agricultural sector a common change is the
increase in the proportion of salaried employment along
with a reduction in the share of self-employment and
non-remunerated family labour (Bolivia, Chile, Costa
Rica, El Salvador and Mexico). In some countries there
is an increase in the importance of self-employment, but
mainly as a result of the reduction in non-remunerated
family labour (Brazil, Guatemala, Panama and Peru).
Finally, in another group of countries there is a reduc-
tion in the importance of salaried labour along with
an increase in self-employment (Colombia, Honduras,
Panama and Paraguay). Tis trend deserves more at-
tention since it is not in line with expected structural
changes.
As expected, a reduction of non-remunerated family
agricultural employment is observed in all countries,
but the reductions are small in some countries (Bolivia,
Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Para-
guay and Peru).
In spite of these changes, the dominant type of rural ag-
ricultural employment continues to be self-employment;
this is the case in Brazil (51%), Colombia (47%), the
Dominican Republic (79%), Ecuador (37%); Honduras
(50%), Panama (71%), Paraguay (57%) and Peru (43%).
Salaried rural employment dominates only in Chile
(67%), Costa Rica (65%), El Salvador (40%), Mexico
(45%) and Uruguay (47%).
In non-agricultural rural sectors the most frequent
change is the increase in the importance of salaried la-
bour and the reduction of self-employment (Bolivia,
Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay
and Peru). As in agriculture, however, in some countries
there is a reduction in salaried labour with an increase in
self-employment (Colombia, Honduras and Panama).
Te dominant employment condition in non-agricul-
tural sectors is salaried labour, with the proportion of
salaried workers above 70% in Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica,
Mexico and Uruguay. Only in Colombia and Honduras
is the dominant employment condition self-employed.
Increase in agricultural employees with urban resi-
dence. Another on-going structural transformation in
some countries is the increase in the urban residence
among agricultural workers. In 2000 this proportion
was already high in Brazil and Chile (above 20%) and
in Uruguay (above 40%), and during the last decade
it has increased in 10 out of the 12 countries for which
comparable information is available. Te most impor-
tant increases took place in Chile, Guatemala and the
Dominican Republic.
Te increase in urban residence among agricultural
workers is facilitated by the closer rural-urban integra-
tion that results from good transportation infrastructure.
However, two caveats remain. First, in many cases a sig-
nifcant proportion of agricultural employment among
urban residents takes place in the fshing sub-sector, as
is the case in Chile, Ecuador and Panama (Rodriguez
& Meneses, 2010). And, second, in many countries the
urban population is calculated considering residence in
human settlements defned as urban according to ofcial
defnitions, but located in territories that are essentially
rural (Dirven et al. 2011).
Demographic transition
In all countries of the region the age structure of the rural
population has changed in line with changes observed at
the national level. Te most noticeable changes are the
fall in the proportion of the population below 15 and
the increase in the share over 65 (Table 2)
Te information available helps to identify three groups
of countries. Te frst group includes those countries
with high demographic transition. Tis group is led
by Uruguay and Chile and could also include Mexico,
Brazil, Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic. Be-
tween 1970 and 2010 countries in this group had reduc-
tions of over 14 percentage points in the proportion of
population below 15 and in some cases almost doubled
the proportion in the age group 15-65. In 2010, Uruguay
and Chile had a lower share of their population below
15 (around 22%) and a higher proportion aged 15-65
(around 66%) and over 65 (more than 10%).
Te group of countries with low demographic transi-
tion is headed by Guatemala and Honduras, along with
Bolivia, Nicaragua and Paraguay. In 2010 Guatemala
and Honduras had a higher proportion of the popula-
tion below 15 and a lower proportion in the other two
groups. Nicaragua and Paraguay showed a similar situ-
ation in the three age groups and Bolivia in the frst
two groups. Countries in this group have a longer rural
demographic bonus than countries with higher demo-
graphic transition.
Te rest of the countries (Ecuador, El Salvador, Panama,
Peru and Venezuela) have an intermediate demograph-
ic transition, especially regarding the proportion of the
population in the frst two age groups. Te higher degree
of variation occurs in the percentage of the population
in the group over 65, with Panama and Ecuador around
7% and Peru and El Salvador around 5%.
Tere are also regional diferences in the age structure of
the rural population, especially between South American
and northern Central American countries. For example,
in 1970 the share of the rural population over 65 was
above 5% only in Chile and Uruguay and by 2010 the
share was over 10% in both countries. On the other hand,
in El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua the
share was still below 5% in 2010. Similarly, in 1970 all
countries with more than 50% of the population in the
group aged 15-65 were South American (Bolivia, Brazil,
Chile, Ecuador, Peru and Uruguay). On the contrary, in
all Central American countries, plus Mexico, Colombia,
the Dominican Republic and Paraguay, the larger share
corresponded to the group below 15. Te transition to
the groups 15-65 and over 65 was completed in 2000,
except in Guatemala and Honduras (Table 2).
Mixed results in the reduction of rural-urban
gaps in poverty and the indigence rate
It is estimated
15
(eclac, 2011) that in 2011 174 million
people in the region were poor (30.4%) and 73 mil-
lion were indigent (12.3%). Relative to 2010 there was
an absolute reduction of 3 million in the number of
poor, but the number of indigent increased by the same
amount. Te net result was a reduction in the poverty
rate, from 31.4% to 30.4%, and an increase in the indi-
gence rate from 12.3% to 12.8%. Te main factor behind
the increase in indigence was the increase in food prices
(eclac, 2011).
A closer look shows that during the last two decades
there was a downward trend of rural poverty and indi-
gence, both in absolute and relative terms (Figure 20).
Te most signifcant reduction took place between 2002
and 2007 in line with an expansive cycle of the economy
(eclac, 2009, 2010 & 2011). During that period the
15 At the time of fnishing this chapter no data was available in urban
and rural categories.
Figure 20. Latin America and the Caribbean: indicators of rural poverty and indigence
(Number of people and % of the rural population)
6,2
-3,9
-5,3
3,3
-5,8
-4,9
0,8
-11,8
1,3
-0,7
-1,3
-7,9
1,1
2,5
1,2
-7,9
-1,8
-5,7
-2,2
-3,7
-0,6
-20,6
0,4
-2,8
-8,3
-2,4 -2,8
-8,2
-9,1
-3,7
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
BO 02-07 BR 01-09 CL 00-09 CO 02-10 CR 02-09 EC 04-10 SV 01-10 HN 02-10 MX 00-10 PA 02-10 PY 01-10 PE 01-10 DO 02-10 UY 07-10 AL 02 10
Variacion de la brecha de pobreza Variacin de la brecha de indigencia
0,0
20,0
40,0
60,0
80,0
100,0
120,0
140,0
160,0
1990 1994 1997 1999 2002 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1990 1994 1997 1999 2002 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
0,0
10,0
20,0
30,0
40,0
50,0
60,0
70,0
1990 1994 1997 1999 2002 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
0,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
20,0
25,0
30,0
35,0
40,0
45,0
1990 1994 1997 1999 2002 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Millions of people in poverty, urban areas
Millions of people in poverty, rural areas
Millions living in indigence, urban areas
Millions of indigent people, rural areas
Incidence of poverty urban
Incidence of poverty
Rural-urban gap
Incidence of poverty urban
Incidence of poverty
Rural-urban gap
number of poor decreased by 14 million and the number
of indigent by 11.3 million, which translated into reduc-
tions of 9.8 and 8.4 percentage points in the poverty and
indigence rates, respectively.
Progress in the reduction of rural poverty stopped be-
tween 2007 and 2009, due to the economic crisis (eclac/
fao/iica, 2011), with increases both in the number of
poor and indigent, as well as in the rates relative to the
rural population.
By 2010 the poverty levels had returned to their 2007
rates, but not in the case of indigence. Moreover, it is
likely that the increase in indigence (in absolute and
relative terms) that occurred at the regional level during
2011 also impacted rural areas.
Improvement in rural poverty and indigence indicators,
however, did not translate into a signifcant reduction
of the gaps relative to urban rates. In fact, since 2007 -
coinciding with the end of the expansive regional cycle
brought about by the crisis the regional gaps in-
creased, with the most adverse evolution in indigence
(Figure 20, right side). In 2010 the gaps between rural
and urban indicators were higher than in 2007, the year
when these gaps reached their lowest historical levels.
Te evolution of rural-urban gaps in rates of poverty and
indigence reveals several important trends. For example,
in Chile and Costa Rica, which already had low rural
poverty and indigence rates at the beginning of the last
decade, the reduction in these gaps meant that rural rates
reached levels similar to urban rates. Uruguay is another
special case, since both rural poverty and indigence rates
are lower than urban rates; therefore, the evolution be-
tween 2007 and 2010 (there is no data on rural poverty
before 2007) would indicate that the gap narrowed in
favour of urban areas.
Te opposite situation to that of Costa Rica and Chile
took place in Honduras and Paraguay. In both coun-
tries, the incidence of rural poverty and indigence is
high and the gaps with urban rates did not change
signifcantly.
A third situation is that of Brazil, El Salvador, Mexico
and Peru, which all achieved important reductions in
rates of rural poverty and indigence, thereby narrowing
the gap with urban areas. Te most noticeable cases are
Brazil and Peru. In the latter case, the poverty rate in
2010 fell to 26.7% from 53.3% in 2001 (detailed data on
poverty and indigence rates by country can be found in
the Statistical Appendix).
The poverty rate is higher among the indig-
enous population
Data presented in the last section shows a relatively posi-
tive evolution of rural poverty during the last decade.
However, a more detailed analysis reveals diferences
in the rate of poverty, depending on the ethnicity of
household heads (this section of the chapter) and the
insertion of household members in the labour market
(the following section).
Household surveys from fve countries (Bolivia, Chile,
Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico and Panama) confrm that
the poverty rate is higher among the rural indigenous
population. Te diference between indigenous and non-
indigenous populations is higher in Guatemala, Ecuador
and Panama and over the last decade it decreased only
in Ecuador and Chile.
In fact, Chiles rural indigenous population has a lower
poverty rate, and this is also the only country where this
rate was below 20% at the end of the last decade. How-
ever, the higher rates persisted in Bolivia and Panama
(over 70%) and Guatemala (over 80%).
Te gap between indigenous and non-indigenous pov-
erty rates decreased during the last decade only in Bolivia
and Chile. In the former case the gap fell considerably
between 2001 and 2007 (13.2 percentage points), because
of a combination of a reduction of poverty among the in-
digenous population and an increase in non-indigenous
poverty. In Chile both rates fell, but to a higher degree
among the indigenous population. At the same time, in
the other three counties the gap increased. In Guatemala
the increase (6.1 percentage points between 2000 and
2006) was the result of a reduction in poverty among
the rural non-indigenous population; poverty among
the indigenous population remained around 80%. In
Ecuador and Panama poverty fell in both groups, but the
gap widened because it fell more in the non-indigenous
population.
The poverty rate is higher among households
which depend on agricultural income or trans-
fers
Following the approach developed in previous reports
(eclac/fao/iica, 2010, 2011), households are classifed
Source: eclac
Notes: bo (Bolivia, ps), br (Brazil), cl (Chile), co (Colombia), cr (Costa Rica), ec (Ecuador), sv (El Salvador),
hn (Honduras), mx (Mexico), pa (Panama), py (Paraguay), pe (Peru), do (Dominican Republic), uy (Uruguay),
la (Latin America). z
Figure 21. Incidence of poverty among rural households, according to ethnic condition
of household heads (% of total households in each group)
Figure 22. Incidence of poverty among rural households, according to household type
(% of households in each group)
Source: Agricultural Development Unit, eclac, based on data from household surveys by eclacs Statistical
Division.
Source: Agricultural Development Unit, eclac, based on data from household surveys by eclacs Statistical
Division.
Note: The fgures above the bars are the poverty rates among the total of rural households.
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
2001 2007 2000 2009 2004 2010 2000 2006 2001 2010 2002 2010
Bolivia Chile Ecuador Guatemala Mexico Panama
Incidence of indigenous poverty Incidence of non-indigenous poverty Gap Gap reduction
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
URU CHI COS BRA PAN MEX ECU DOM PER PAR GUA BOL HON
Total Agricultural Non-Agricultural Pluri-active Dependent on transfers
into four categories: a) agricultural households, those
whose employed members get 100% of their labour in-
come from agriculture; b) non-agricultural households,
those whose employed members get 100% of their labour
income from non-agricultural activities; c) pluri-active
households, those whose employed members earn income
both from agricultural and non-agricultural activities;
and d) transfer-dependent households, those whose income
comes entirely from transfers (i.e. they do not have la-
bour income).
In eight of the 13 countries studied the poverty rate is
higher among household that depend entirely on in-
come from agricultural labour. Tis is the case especially
in countries with a higher rate of poverty among rural
households. On the other hand, in countries with a
lower rate of poverty among rural households, poverty
rates are higher among transfer-dependent households
and lower among households that combine agricultural
and non-agricultural labour incomes.
Te most homogeneous group is that of countries with
a high poverty rate among rural households (Paraguay,
Guatemala, Bolivia and Honduras). Tese countries
share a high proportion of agricultural households (over
40%) and high poverty rates among that group (over
70%); in three of those countries (Paraguay, Guatemala
and Honduras) the lower poverty rate occurs among
non-agricultural households (rates close to or higher
than 40%)
In countries with a lower overall poverty rate among
rural households (Uruguay, Chile and Costa Rica) the
lower rate is found among pluri-active households, which
are households that combine income from agricultural
and non-agricultural sources. In Uruguay poverty rates
do not difer signifcantly among household groups;
however, in Costa Rica and Chile the higher poverty
rates correspond to transfer-dependent households (37%
y 18%, respectively).
The group of counties with rural household poverty
rates between 20% and 50% is the most heterogeneous
group. The highest poverty rates are found among agri-
cultural households in Brazil, Panama, Peru and Mexico;
and among transfer-dependent households in Ecua-
dor and the Dominican Republic. Among pluri-active
households, the lowest poverty rates are found in Brazil,
Ecuador and the Dominican Republic; and among agri-
cultural households in Panama, Peru and Mexico.
Perspectives
Structural change will continue to occur at dif-
ferent speeds
16
Four groups of countries can be identifed by combining
information about rural employment in agriculture and
the poverty rates among rural households (Figure 23).
Tis classifcation provides an approximation that allows
us to draw some conclusions about structural change in
rural economies of the region. In interpreting the results
it should be noted, however, that they are derived from
aggregate data and therefore do not allow a more detailed
analysis of the rural economies in each country.
Te frst group includes countries where more than 50%
of the labour force is employed in agriculture and more
that 50% of rural households are poor. Tis group could
be characterized as traditional agrarian rural economies,
and it includes Paraguay, Guatemala, Bolivia and Hon-
duras. All these countries have low demographic transi-
tion (see above) and self-employment is the dominant
form of employment in the agricultural sector.
16 This section is based on results from Rodrguez & Me-
neses (2010).
Te second group includes Chile and Uruguay, where
more than 50% of the labour force is employed in agri-
culture but less that 20% of rural households are poor;
they are countries with rural economies dominated by
non-traditional agricultural activities. Te third group
can be defned as having a diversifed rural economy; it
difers from the former group in the lower percentage
of rural employment in agriculture, less than 30%, and
shares the lower rate of rural poverty. Te diversifca-
tion of the rural economy results from the development
of non-traditional agricultural activities, which create
linkages with non-agricultural sectors, as well as from
non-agricultural activities (e.g. rural tourism). Te only
country in this group is Costa Rica. All three countries
have high demographic transition and salaried work is
the main form of employment in agriculture.
Finally, the fourth group includes countries with in-
termediate rates of rural household poverty (between
20% and 50%) and a high variation in the percentage
of rural employment in agriculture. Tey are countries
that could be characterized as having rural economies in
transition, and include Brazil, Panama, Mexico, Ecuador,
the Dominican Republic and Peru. Tese countries show
diferent levels of demographic transition and it is not
possible to discern among them a dominant form of
employment in agriculture.
Source: Rodrguez & Meneses (2011)
Notes: br (Brazil), cl (Chile), cr (Costa Rica), do (Dominican Republic), ec (Ecuador), gt (Guatemala), hn
(Honduras), pa (Panama), py (Paraguay), uy (Uruguay).
Figure 23. Types of rural economies
Table 11. Main characteristics of the types of rural economies
Main household attributes
Types of rural economies
Agrarian
traditional
Non-traditional
agriculture
Diversifed In transition
Poor households Agricultural Transfer-
dependent
Variable
Group of households with lower poverty Non-agricultural Diversifed Diversifed Variable
Main income source of poor households Agricultural self-
employment
Agricultural
salaries
Agricultural
salaries
Variable
Main income source of non-poor
households
Agricultural
salaries
Agricultural
salaries
Non-agricultural
salaries
Variable
Education of household heads High High High Variable
Dominant condition of employment in
agriculture
Self-
employment
Salaried Salaried Variable
Agricultural self-employment High Low Low Variable
Agricultural salaried employment High High Low Variable
Non-agricultural salaried employment Low High High Variable
Percentage of women in rural labour force Major Minor Minor Intermediate
Agricultural employment with urban
residence
High Low Intermediate Variable
Demographic transition High High High Variable
Source: fao/eclac/iica based on Rodriguez & Meneses (2010, 2011).
BO
BR
CL
CR
DO
EC
GT
HN
MX
PA
PY
UY
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
0,0 10,0 20,0 30,0 40,0 50,0 60,0 70,0 80,0
Percentageof rural agricultural employment
R
u
r
a
l h
o
u
s
e
h
o
ld
p
o
v
e
r
t
y
r
a
t
e
MX
Te group characterized as traditional agrarian rural
economies includes countries with a high proportion of
agricultural households (more than 40%) and the high-
est combined proportion of self-employed and non-
remunerated workers in agriculture. Te main income
source is self-employment in agriculture among poor
households (except in Guatemala) and non-agricultur-
al salaried employment among non-poor households
(except in Paraguay). Tis group includes the highest
proportion of women heads among transfer-dependent
households (around or above 60%) and transfer income
comes mostly from remittances. Te percentage of agri-
cultural employment with urban residence is low (under
10%) and the weight of agriculture in gdp is the highest
(over 10%) among the countries included in the study
(around 13% in Bolivia, Guatemala and Honduras and
around 20% in Paraguay) (see Table 11).
In countries characterized by having rural economies
dominated by non-traditional agricultural activities, ag-
ricultural wages are a more important income source
than self-employment, both among poor and non-poor
households. Transfers are also an important income
source, especially for poor households. In Chile the
main sources of transfer income are pensions and other
transfers, which include income from social protection
programmes (for example, family subsidies, pensions
and unemployment insurance); that is, more formal
sources of transfer income than in traditional agrarian
rural economies.
Education of household heads in rural economies domi-
nated by non-traditional agricultural activities is the high-
est among all countries, both among poor and non-poor
households. Te weight of agriculture in gdp is around
5% and the proportion of agricultural workers with ur-
ban residence is also the highest among the countries
studied (above 40%). Moreover, urban residence of rural
landowners seems important, since almost a third of
income of urban agricultural households comes from
employers income (see Table 11).
Te case of Costa Rica (diversifed rural economy) difers
from the former group in the percentage of employment
in agriculture, which is low, and hence in the importance
of agricultural labour in the composition of rural house-
hold income, which is dominated by non-agricultural
salaried employment, both among poor and non-poor
households. Te participation of women in the rural
labour market is low (as in Chile and Uruguay), but it
is mainly in non-agricultural activities. Transfer income
is also important for the poor - as in Chile and comes
mainly from institutional sources (for example, pensions
and other social programmes). Education of household
heads is also high among all types of households. In
addition, the percentage of agricultural workers with
urban residence is lower than in rural economies domi-
nated by non-traditional agricultural activities and the
main income source of agricultural urban households
is self-employment (see Table 11).
Finally, among countries characterized by having rural
economies in transition there is a high degree of heteroge-
neity. In the Dominican Republic and Mexico the share
of the labour force employed in agriculture is similar
to that of a diversifed rural economy. In Brazil and
Ecuador the share is similar to that of a rural economy
with predominance of non-traditional agriculture. And
in Panama it is in an intermediate position (51% of rural
employment in agriculture). Te weights of agriculture
in gdp vary, from 4% in Mexico to 10% in Ecuador.
Small-scale family agriculture is also important in these
countries. Te combined percentage of self-employment
and non-remunerated family workers is over 50% in
Ecuador and Mexico and higher than 70% in Brazil,
the Dominican Republic and Panama.
Te results summarized in Figure 22 illustrate two fac-
tors that are relevant from the perspective of structural
change in rural areas. Te frst is the lack of a direct as-
sociation between a high share of rural employment in
agriculture and rural poverty. Tis situation is illustrated
by the cases of Uruguay and Chile. Te transformations
inside the agricultural sector through the development
of non-traditional agricultural activities that generate
higher value added - for example, in the case of Chile,
to take advantage of natural comparative advantages
and opportunities in international markets is a type
of structural change that can contribute to reducing
rural poverty. In these cases the higher formality in the
labour market is also important, allowing for gains in
productivity and income from good international ag-
ricultural prices (for example, in the case of Uruguay)
to be translated into higher incomes and lower poverty
among the rural population.
Te second factor refers to structural change through
diversifcation of the rural economy which is illustrated
by the case of Costa Rica, and to a certain extent by the
Dominican Republic and Mexico. All these countries
have relatively diversifed rural economies, judging by
the distribution of employment between agricultural and
non-agricultural activities. And poverty is considerably
lower compared with the group of countries character-
ized by having traditional agrarian rural economies. Te
most illustrative case is Costa Rica (higher non-agri-
cultural employment and lower rural poverty), where
service-related tourism activities (e.g. rural tourism and
eco-tourism) developed considerably over the last two
decades, and where, as in Chile, there has been a sig-
nifcant development of export-oriented non-traditional
agricultural activities.
Also relevant is the fact that lower household poverty
rates are found both in countries with high and low rural
agricultural employment, which is evidence of diferent
paths of rural structural change.
Given the high heterogeneity that characterizes rural
Latin America (shown by the four proposed categories
for rural economies), it is highly possible that a more
detailed analysis of the countries will reveal a combina-
tion of these categories; for example, regions with charac-
teristics similar to those of rural economies in transition
or non-traditional agriculture in countries like Paraguay
and Bolivia; and also regions with characteristics of tradi-
tional agrarian or rural economies in transition in Costa
Rica, Chile and Uruguay. Terefore, aggregate data from
several countries provides a preliminary idea about the
situations that can be found within countries.
Rural non-agricultural employment will keep
growing and urbanization will continue
Te trend of increasing non-agricultural rural employ-
ment will continue because of the diversifcation of
production within the agricultural sector and in rural
economies. Te changes in the productive structure of
rural economies can result from the development of na-
tional economies or be induced by productive develop-
ment policies. Te frst case can happen when a dynamic
national economy creates employment opportunities for
the rural labour force (creating incentives for the increase
of rural salaries) or creates demand for new goods and
services (e.g. rural amenities).
An example of the second type of transformation took
place in the region as part of structural adjustment
processes; for example, when countries modifed their
agricultural development strategies seeking more trade
openness and specialization in non-traditional export
oriented products with higher value added. Tis is the
case of Costa Rica, Chile and Mexico, for example, where
the type of agricultural activities promoted under such
policies (for example, counter-seasonal fruit production
in Chile; tropical fruits and ornamental plants in Costa
Rica; horticulture and vegetables in Mexico) have an
important component of primary production, but also
create employment in secondary sectors (e.g. processing,
packing and transportation) and services (e.g. agricultural
production-support services).
Te reduction of the rural population will also continue,
not only because of net migration (see above), but also
because of the reduction in rural fertility rates - which are
still lower vis--vis urban areas and because improve-
ments in rural-urban connectivity will make it easier
to live in urban settlements and commute to work in
rural areas. Tis phenomenon is already observed in some
countries of the region (e.g. Chile and Uruguay) and is
expected to continue.
Selective net migration of the rural population (women
and educated youths) creates important challenges for
the future of rural economies, especially for those that
still have a demographic bonus. Te situation can wors-
en in the absence of structural changes that promote
the diversifcation of their rural economies and create
more and better employment opportunities. Tis fact
is relevant for countries with traditional rural agrarian
economies, which are precisely the ones that have a larger
demographic bonus, as they are in an early stage of de-
mographic transition.
Te reduction of rural poverty remains linked to
the overall performance of the economy and to
proactive public policies
Last years report highlighted that during the economic
crisis of 2007-2008 poverty among rural households
evolved in line with the performance of the economy
and of the agricultural sector. In general, rural poverty
rates increased in countries where the agricultural sec-
tor performed poorly and gdp growth was weak. On
the other hand, the poverty rate decreased in countries
with growth both in the agricultural sector and real gdp.
Good performance of the economy and of agriculture is
therefore important to avoid an increase in rural pov-
erty (eclac/fao/iica, 2011). Te increase in the rate of
extreme poverty at the regional level during 2011 and the
perspectives for weak economic growth could lead to an
increase in rural poverty and indigence in 2012.
On the other hand, eclac (2011) stressed the importance
of the increase of labour income for the reduction of pov-
erty, both between 2002 and 2007, which was the period
previous to the crisis, as well as in 2008-2010 during the
recovery period. In both cases the reduction of poverty
came mostly from the increase of labour income. Other
income sources also contributed, especially transfers, but
to a lower degree, and had a more relevant role in the
post-crisis period. On the other hand, transfer income
and salaries made important contributions to the varia-
tion in average rural household income in the post-crisis
period (eclac/fao/iica, 2011).
From a longer-term perspective, strategies for agricul-
tural development and for the transformation of rural
economies contribute to the reduction of rural poverty.
Echeverri and Sotomayor (2010) stress that a distinctive
feature of successful cases in the reduction of rural pov-
erty is that countries have a coherent macroeconomic
policy framework, implemented through sectoral policies
(and in some cases multi-sectoral and territorial), which
work in a relatively coherent fashion, and are subject to
a continuous process of improvement. Tey highlight
the green export-oriented agricultural development
strategy of Costa Rica; export-oriented agribusiness strate-
gies coupled with programmes targeted towards family
agriculture in Mexico and Brazil; and export-oriented
strategies for small agriculture in Chile, combined with
important targeted transfer programmes.
Echeverri and Sotomayor stress that all these cases involve
a mix of factors: an agriculture sector that works as a
driving factor and that contributes efectively to poverty
reduction, along with other economic and social activities
which allow self-employment (e.g. tourism, handicrafts,
and services), and which add to the efect of migrations,
remittances, rural employment (agricultural and non-
agricultural) and social transfers, in the reduction of rural
poverty.
eclac (2009) also has emphasized that the countries
which have progressed more in the reduction of extreme
poverty at the national level are those that have prioritized
progress in rural areas. Te report highlights the cases
of Brazil, Chile and Costa Rica as the countries with
the most noticeable advances in accomplishing the Mil-
lennium Development Goals (mdgs) regarding extreme
poverty. Te document identifes three main trends in
rural poverty: a) countries with slow progress in rural
areas also have slow progress at the national level; b)
countries with higher progress in reducing extreme pov-
erty nationally have prioritized the development of rural
areas; and c) countries that have achieved this goal, or
are close to achieving it, show similar advances in urban
and rural areas.
New challenges for rural areas
Climate change and the pressure to develop sources of
renewable energy are two factors that will play an increas-
ingly relevant role in rural areas. In the frst case, bio-
energy, especially the production of bio-fuels, is causing
important changes in rural social and economic structures
through processes that have already started, but whose
real impacts will be known only in the medium-term. In
the region the most notable cases are the production of
sugarcane bioethanol in Brazil and soybean biodiesel in
Argentina, as well as Colombia, with development (and
potential) both in sugarcane bioethanol and palm oil
biodiesel. Te potential in other countries is low (Dufey
& Stange, 2011).
Climate change will also bring signifcant consequences
for rural areas, both as a result of factors that contrib-
ute to it (e.g. deforestation, degradation or exhaustion
of resources), as well as the efects caused by changing
climatic conditions (e.g. higher frequency and intensity
of droughts, more episodes of torrential rains in short
periods of time, late or early snowfalls).
It is estimated that Latin American emissions of ghg
account for 12% of the global total, and that two thirds
of those emissions come from agriculture and land use
changes. On the other hand, the consequences of cli-
mate change in the region, in terms of the increase in
climate variability, have already had an important impact
on agriculture and rural society. Tere is no doubt that
climate change will force countries to adopt measures of
adaptation, both technological and cultural.
Implications for public policies
Te transformation processes and trends outlined in the
previous sections have important implications for rural
development policies in at least three diferent areas: a)
productive development policies; b) labour market and so-
cial protection policies; and c) policy implementation.
Productive development policies
Te development of countries is, in essence, a process of
structural change. At its last meeting (San Salvador, August
26 31, 2012), eclac emphasized that structural change
is also key to reducing development gaps and advancing
towards higher equality and that productive development
policies are crucial to accomplish those objectives (eclac,
2012b).
Structural change can be benefcial when it combines two
inter-related areas: i) a higher relative participation, both
in production and consumption, of knowledge intensive
sectors; and ii) the diversifcation towards sectors with high
growth in internal and external demand, so that this de-
mand can be met with internal production and that exports
and imports grow in a balanced way, without generating
unsustainable balance of payment pressures (eclac, 2012b).
We consider that productive development policies should
play a central role in the promotion of structural changes
that contribute to reducing structural lags in rural areas in
terms of poverty and development in general.
In the previous section we identifed two types of structural
changes in rural areas that have contributed to reducing
poverty. Te frst type takes place through changes within
the agricultural sector, when non-traditional agricultural
activities are developed that generate higher value added,
taking advantage of natural comparative advantages (e.g.
climate) and opportunities in international markets. Te
second type takes place through the diversifcation of the
rural economy, either with the development of forward
and backward linkages with other productive sectors, or
through the development of new primary, secondary and
service activities.
Te challenges for productive development policies vary ac-
cording to the degree of structural change identifed in rural
economies. Tus, those countries with traditional agrar-
ian rural economies face the double challenge of reducing
poverty and diversifying their rural economies. And given
the importance of self-employment and non-remunerated
labour in agriculture, policies to support small-scale family
agriculture should also have high priority; in fact, those
policies should be the main axis of policies to diversify
the rural economy. Examples of such policies are those
promoted by Brazil to favour family agriculture through
public purchase programmes of food destined for school
programmes.
In rural economies dominated by non-traditional agricul-
ture a key challenge is to intensify the diversifcation of the
rural economic base in order to achieve higher value added
in agricultural production and more productive linkages
through agro-food chains; for example, by strengthen-
ing the governance of agro-food chains and supporting
the development of non-agricultural activities linked to
agriculture, such as rural tourism. Tese types of policies
should allow the creation of more employment opportuni-
ties outside of agriculture, especially for women and young
people, who usually show little interest in agricultural em-
ployment, in particular as the level of education increases
(Dirven, 2002). Te more diversifed rural economies face
similar challenges in terms of deepening the diversifcation
of the rural economic base and the promotion of linkages,
especially to increase the participation of women in the
rural labour market.
In countries with rural economies in transition the range
of policy options is wider, depending on initial conditions.
For example, policies to reduce poverty and increase the
diversifcation of the rural economy, including the strength-
ening of current agricultural activities, could have prior-
ity in countries with a higher proportion of employment
outside agriculture. On the other hand, the development
and strengthening of linkages between agriculture and
other economic sectors could have priority in countries
with a higher proportion of agricultural employment.
Moreover, since small scale family agriculture continues
to be important in all countries in this group, it should
continue being a priority sector for agricultural and rural
development policies. But, in contrast to traditional agrar-
ian rural economies, policies to support small scale family
agriculture should be linked to the objective of diversifying
the rural economy; for example, they should be territorial
rural development policies more than sectoral agricultural
development policies.
Rural structural change could also be promoted through
the introduction of new technologies; for example,
to motivate entrepreneurship, especially among the
younger and more qualifed members of the population
(eclac/fao/iica, 2011). One important characteris-
tic of new technologies especially new information
and communication technologies is that they can
allow stages to be skipped in terms of technological
development, opening windows of opportunity for
rural economies. Tis is the case, for example, of the
fast penetration of mobile phones in rural areas that
were not previously connected to traditional landline
networks. Te access, appropriation and use of these
information and communication technologies are part
of a system in which complementarities are very impor-
tant (eclac, 2012b). However, taking full advantage of
these technologies requires policies to break adoption
barriers related to low income and educational levels, as
well as to the low participation of farmers in networks
and value chains.
Labour market and social protection policies
Te evidence presented in this chapter indicates that the in-
crease of rural non-agricultural employment and the trans-
formation or the rural economy generally go hand-in-hand
with the increase of salaried employment. In particular,
salaries are an important component of household income,
especially for non-agricultural and non-poor households.
Te growing importance of salaried employment high-
lights the increasing relevance of labour market policies in
the rural sector (these policies usually have had an urban
bias), including both policies that have a direct impact in
the quality of employment, as well as those related to the
enforcement of labour legislation. It is also important to
stress the impact of the worsening labour market conditions
on rural labour incomes, and therefore on rural poverty,
an issue that was addressed in the previous report (eclac/
fao/iica, 2011).
A study conducted by fao/rlc, with support from eclac
and ilo, on rural labour market and poverty policies in
Latin America (Soto & Klein, 2011, 2012), points out that
the characteristics of labour market institutions and labour
market processes explain, in part, the poverty conditions
of the population that lives and works in rural areas; for
example, weaknesses in the design and application of la-
bour market institutions, minimum wage legislation, social
protection, labour unionization, and labour contracting
arrangements, among others. Te study also underlines
labour market processes that contribute to poverty among
rural workers, such as child labour and discrimination
against women.
Labour market policies are part of a larger set of social
policies that complement productive development policies
in the quest for equality, especially regarding employment
with full benefts (eclac, 2012b). Tese policies also are
important to guarantee that the reduction of productivity
gaps, the diversifcation of productive structures and the
aggregated increase of value added contribute to reduc-
ing salary gaps and widening social protection. Moreover,
structural changes which contribute to formalizing rural
employment and increasing productivity of salaried labour
also facilitate dialogue among actors in the rural labour
market, a process that helps to strengthen institutional ar-
rangements that enhance social rights.
Finally, two factors highlighted in the previous section point
to the importance of rural social protection policies: the
increase in the proportion of the population over 65 and
the high poverty rate among transfer-dependent households
(i.e. without labour income).
Chile, Costa Rica and Uruguay illustrate those two situa-
tions. All three countries are in advanced stages of rural de-
mographic transition and have low rural household poverty
rates, but show the highest poverty rates among transfer-
dependent households. Te intensifcation of demographic
transition processes and the increase in life-expectancy will
place growing challenges on social protection, especially
regarding income and health, which can be aggravated by
the low levels of afliation to social security that prevail
among the rural population (eclac, 2010).
Concluding remarks on policy integration and new
approaches to rural development
In conclusion we stress the importance of greater integra-
tion among public policies in the rural area, including
policies not covered in this chapter. Some policy areas that
should be more integrated with agricultural productive
development policies include: a) social protection policies;
b) policies for mitigation and adaptation of agriculture to
climate change; c) food security policies; and d) national
digital agenda policies.
Integration requires going beyond sectoral approaches that
treat agricultural, productive and social issues as separated
policy domains. Tese new approaches have been emerg-
ing in the region as an answer to changes in rural areas
and persistent development gaps some of which were
reviewed in this chapter and also as a response to the
criticism about the convenience of defning urban and rural
areas based on exclusive criteria (i.e. rural is whatever is not
defned as urban) (Dirven et al. 2011).
Te new approaches usually highlight the convenience of
considering rural development as a spatial category, and be-
cause of that they are identifed generically as territorial ap-
proaches to rural development. Two diferentiating features
of such approaches are multi-dimensionality and a polycentric
view of institutional arrangements. In general, these new
visions strive to give more transparency and legitimacy to
policymaking, promote decentralization in decision mak-
ing and recognize the heterogeneity that characterizes rural
areas (Echeverry & Sotomayor, 2010).
B
o
l
i
v
i
a

(
P
S
)
B
r
a
s
i
l
C
h
i
l
e
C
o
l
o
m
b
i
a
C
o
s
t
a

R
i
c
a
D
o
m
i
n
i
c
a
n

R
e
p
u
b
l
i
c
E
c
u
a
d
o
r
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
7
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
9
2
0
0
2
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
9
2
0
0
2
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
3
2
0
1
0
1
,
8
3
2
.
8
2
,
1
1
9
.
0
1
4
,
4
1
9
.
8
1
6
,
1
3
3
.
1
6
7
3
.
1
7
4
3
.
6
4
,
5
1
8
.
1
4
,
3
4
4
.
9
5
5
4
.
4
7
4
2
.
9
1
,
0
3
2
.
8
1
,
1
9
5
.
2
2
,
0
1
5
.
7
2
,
1
3
1
.
7
8
5
.
7
7
8
.
6
7
6
.
6
6
8
.
2
6
4
.
9
5
2
.
3
5
9
.
6
6
5
.
6
3
8
.
4
2
5
.
7
4
1
.
7
3
4
.
1
7
0
.
8
6
8
.
7
1
4
.
3
2
1
.
4
2
3
.
4
3
1
.
8
3
5
.
1
4
7
.
7
4
0
.
4
3
4
.
4
6
1
.
6
7
4
.
3
5
8
.
3
6
5
.
9
2
9
.
2
3
1
.
3
1
,
0
2
4
.
0
1
,
1
2
0
.
4
9
,
0
7
4
.
0
1
0
,
1
2
2
.
7
5
3
1
.
5
5
3
1
.
6
3
,
2
0
4
.
4
3
,
1
7
2
.
5
4
1
5
.
3
5
1
4
.
4
7
9
8
.
4
8
6
7
.
7
1
,
3
0
1
.
9
1
,
4
0
0
.
0
5
5
.
9
5
2
.
9
6
2
.
9
6
2
.
7
7
9
.
0
7
1
.
5
7
0
.
9
7
3
.
0
7
4
.
9
6
9
.
2
7
7
.
3
7
2
.
6
6
4
.
6
6
5
.
7
8
6
.
9
7
6
.
7
8
0
.
1
7
2
.
7
7
2
.
4
5
9
.
7
7
2
.
1
7
6
.
7
4
6
.
8
3
3
.
1
5
1
.
6
4
4
.
1
7
3
.
1
7
2
.
1
1
3
.
1
2
3
.
3
1
9
.
9
2
7
.
3
2
7
.
6
4
0
.
3
2
7
.
9
2
3
.
3
5
3
.
2
6
6
.
9
4
8
.
4
5
5
.
9
2
6
.
9
2
7
.
9
8
0
8
.
8
9
9
8
.
6
5
,
3
4
5
.
9
6
,
0
1
0
.
4
1
4
1
.
6
2
1
2
.
0
1
,
3
1
3
.
6
1
,
1
7
2
.
4
1
3
9
.
2
2
2
8
.
5
2
3
4
.
4
3
2
7
.
3
7
1
3
.
8
7
3
1
.
6
4
4
.
1
4
7
.
1
3
7
.
1
3
7
.
3
2
1
.
0
2
8
.
5
2
9
.
1
2
7
.
0
2
5
.
1
3
0
.
8
2
2
.
7
2
7
.
4
3
5
.
4
3
4
.
3
8
4
.
3
8
0
.
7
7
0
.
8
6
0
.
6
3
6
.
7
3
3
.
7
2
9
.
0
3
5
.
5
1
3
.
1
9
.
1
8
.
2
7
.
9
6
6
.
6
6
2
.
2
1
5
.
7
1
9
.
3
2
9
.
2
3
9
.
4
6
3
.
3
6
6
.
3
7
1
.
0
6
4
.
5
8
6
.
9
9
0
.
9
9
1
.
8
9
2
.
1
3
3
.
4
3
7
.
8
1
,
5
7
1
.
6
1
,
6
5
1
.
2
1
1
,
0
4
8
.
1
1
0
,
9
9
7
.
6
4
3
6
.
9
3
8
8
.
6
2
,
6
9
1
.
1
2
,
8
4
9
.
0
2
1
2
.
8
1
9
1
.
1
4
3
1
.
1
4
0
8
.
0
1
,
4
2
6
.
4
1
,
4
6
3
.
7
5
.
3
4
.
2
2
2
.
7
2
4
.
7
6
2
.
4
6
7
.
0
3
9
.
3
3
4
.
3
5
9
.
1
6
4
.
5
1
3
.
9
1
4
.
8
3
1
.
6
3
3
.
1
1
.
0
3
.
0
2
.
5
2
.
1
2
.
4
3
.
3
5
.
3
6
.
8
6
.
6
7
.
5
2
.
1
1
.
6
4
.
4
2
.
0
3
5
.
7
3
3
.
3
4
4
.
8
5
1
.
2
3
0
.
4
2
8
.
3
4
2
.
0
4
6
.
7
2
6
.
5
2
3
.
8
7
9
.
3
7
9
.
3
3
3
.
1
3
7
.
3
5
7
.
9
5
9
.
6
2
9
.
9
2
2
.
0
4
.
8
1
.
5
1
3
.
4
1
2
.
2
7
.
9
4
.
2
4
.
7
4
.
3
3
0
.
8
2
7
.
6
2
6
1
.
2
4
5
1
.
1
3
,
3
7
1
.
8
5
,
1
3
5
.
4
2
3
6
.
2
3
5
5
.
1
1
,
8
2
7
.
0
1
,
4
9
5
.
8
3
4
1
.
6
5
5
1
.
9
6
0
1
.
7
7
8
7
.
1
5
8
9
.
3
6
6
7
.
9
4
2
.
8
4
7
.
2
6
9
.
5
7
2
.
5
7
4
.
8
7
5
.
6
4
3
.
1
3
6
.
3
7
0
.
9
7
1
.
5
5
2
.
8
5
1
.
0
6
1
.
1
6
4
.
2
1
.
2
3
.
8
2
.
2
2
.
4
2
.
3
2
.
4
3
.
7
3
.
4
5
.
4
6
.
3
1
.
3
2
.
9
2
.
6
2
.
0
4
1
.
4
3
5
.
1
2
3
.
1
2
1
.
6
2
1
.
5
2
1
.
3
4
4
.
1
5
2
.
7
2
1
.
8
2
0
.
2
4
4
.
4
4
3
.
8
3
0
.
2
2
7
.
8
1
4
.
7
1
3
.
9
5
.
2
3
.
5
1
.
4
0
.
7
9
.
0
7
.
6
1
.
9
2
.
0
1
.
4
2
.
2
6
.
2
6
.
0
S
o
u
r
c
e
:

A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
a
l

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

U
n
i
t
,

e
c
l
a
c
,

b
a
s
e
d

o
n

s
p
e
c
i
a
l

t
a
b
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
s

o
f

h
o
u
s
e
h
o
l
d

s
u
r
v
e
y
s

f
a
c
i
l
i
t
a
t
e
d

b
y

e
c
l
a
c
s

S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
a
l

D
i
v
i
s
i
o
n
.
I
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r
s
T
o
t
a
l
r
u
r
a
l
e
m
p
l
o
y
m
e
n
t

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
N
o
n
-
a
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
M
e
n

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
R
e
la
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
o
t
a
l
(
%
)

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)

N
o
n

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
W
o
m
e
n

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
R
e
la
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
o
t
a
l
(
%
)

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)

N
o
n

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)

S
a
l
a
r
i
e
d

(
%
)

E
m
p
l
o
y
e
r
s

(
%
)

S
e
l
f
-
e
m
p
l
o
y
e
d

(
%
)

N
o
n
-
r
e
m
u
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

(
%
)
N
o
n

a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)

S
a
l
a
r
i
e
d

(
%
)

E
m
p
l
o
y
e
r
s

(
%
)

S
e
l
f
-
e
m
p
l
o
y
e
d

(
%
)

N
o
n
-
r
e
m
u
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

(
%
)
I
n
d
i
c
a
d
o
r
e
s
T
o
t
a
l
r
u
r
a
l
e
m
p
l
o
y
m
e
n
t

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
N
o
n
-
a
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
M
e
n

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
R
e
la
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
o
t
a
l
(
%
)

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)

N
o
n

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
W
o
m
e
n

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)
R
e
la
t
i
v
e

t
o

t
o
t
a
l
(
%
)

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)

N
o
n

A
g
r
i
c
u
lt
u
r
e

(
%
)
A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)

S
a
l
a
r
i
e
d

(
%
)

E
m
p
l
o
y
e
r
s

(
%
)

S
e
l
f
-
e
m
p
l
o
y
e
d
(
%
)

N
o
n
-
r
e
m
u
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

(
%
)
N
o
n

a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
)

S
a
l
a
r
i
e
d

(
%
)

E
m
p
l
o
y
e
r
s

(
%
)

S
e
l
f
-
e
m
p
l
o
y
e
d

(
%
)

N
o
n
-
r
e
m
u
n
e
r
a
t
e
d

(
%
)
C
u
a
d
r
o

1
2
.

L
a
t
i
n

a
m
e
r
i
c
a

(
1
5

c
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
)
:

i
n
d
i
c
a
t
o
r
s

o
f

t
h
e

r
u
r
a
l

l
a
b
o
r

m
a
r
k
e
t
,

b
y

c
o
u
n
t
r
y

a
n
d

y
e
a
r

(
T
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s

a
n
d

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
s
)
G
u
a
t
e
m
a
l
a
H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s
M
e
x
i
c
o
P
a
n
a
m
a
P
a
r
a
g
u
a
y
P
e
r
u
U
r
u
g
u
a
y
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
0
2
,6
9
0
.2
2
,4
4
2
.8
1
,1
8
3
.1
1
,7
6
1
.0
1
4
,6
8
8
.7
1
6
,3
2
8
.1
3
3
7
.
3
5
0
0
.
1
1
,
1
0
0
.
2
1
,
2
3
1
.
1
4
,
3
2
4
.
1
5
,
8
4
6
.
7
7
2
.
4
5
9
.
1
5
5
.
5
6
4
.
0
6
2
.
8
4
5
.
6
3
5
.
3
4
3
.
5
4
9
.
4
6
4
.
6
5
8
.
8
7
4
.
9
7
2
.
9
6
8
.
8
4
0
.
9
4
4
.
5
3
6
.
0
3
7
.
2
5
4
.
4
6
4
.
7
5
6
.
5
5
0
.
6
3
5
.
4
4
1
.
2
2
5
.
1
2
7
.
1
3
1
.
2
1
,
8
9
0
.
3
1
,
7
7
1
.
0
9
0
7
.
6
1
,
1
0
5
.
1
1
0
,0
8
1
.6
1
1
,0
2
9
.2
2
6
5
.
5
3
5
0
.
2
7
6
0
.
1
8
2
8
.
2
2
,
4
2
7
.
0
3
,
2
0
0
.
2
4
7
.
8
7
0
.
3
7
2
.
5
7
6
.
7
7
2
.
3
6
8
.
6
6
7
.
5
7
8
.
7
7
0
.
0
6
9
.
1
6
7
.
3
5
6
.
1
5
4
.
7
6
6
.
0
7
0
.
3
6
7
.
3
7
8
.
4
7
6
.
2
5
4
.
5
4
4
.
7
5
3
.
5
5
8
.
0
7
1
.
0
6
4
.
0
7
9
.
4
7
5
.
3
7
7
.
7
2
9
.
7
3
2
.
7
2
1
.
6
2
3
.
8
4
5
.
5
5
5
.
3
4
6
.
5
4
2
.
0
2
9
.
0
3
6
.
0
2
0
.
6
2
4
.
7
2
2
.
3
7
9
9
.
9
6
7
2
.
0
2
7
5
.
5
6
5
5
.
9
4
.
6
0
7
.
1
5
,
2
9
8
.
9
7
1
.
8
1
4
9
.
9
3
4
0
.
1
4
0
2
.
9
1
,
8
9
7
.
1
2
,
6
4
6
.
5
2
4
.
6
2
9
.
7
2
7
.
5
2
3
.
3
2
7
.
7
3
1
.
4
3
2
.
5
2
1
.
3
3
0
.
0
3
0
.
9
3
2
.
7
4
3
.
9
4
5
.
3
3
4
.
0
3
2
.
6
2
4
.
6
1
6
.
6
2
7
.
5
2
6
.
1
1
5
.
8
6
.
5
2
9
.
3
5
0
.
3
4
8
.
2
6
9
.
2
7
0
.
0
5
1
.
6
6
7
.
4
7
5
.
4
8
3
.
4
7
2
.
5
7
3
.
9
8
4
.
2
9
3
.
5
7
0
.
7
4
9
.
7
5
1
.
8
3
0
.
8
3
0
.
0
4
8
.
4
1
,
5
8
8
.
6
1
,
3
5
6
.
0
7
5
7
.
3
1
,
1
0
5
.
1
6
,
6
9
3
.
1
5
,
7
6
9
.
2
1
4
6
.
6
2
4
7
.
1
7
1
0
.
5
7
2
4
.
0
3
,
2
3
9
.
2
4
,
2
6
0
.
9
4
9
.
9
3
1
.
8
3
7
.
9
3
1
.
2
2
6
.
8
3
9
.
9
4
5
.
1
2
9
.
2
2
6
.
4
1
3
.
6
1
1
.
3
1
4
.
7
1
4
.
0
4
7
.
1
2
.
0
0
.
6
1
.
4
1
.
0
5
.
0
2
1
.
9
3
.
4
2
.
5
3
.
3
2
.
7
6
.
1
5
.
9
1
1
.
5
2
9
.
7
3
7
.
0
4
5
.
2
5
0
.
1
3
4
.
6
1
7
.
9
5
4
.
1
7
1
.
1
5
4
.
4
5
7
.
5
4
0
.
2
4
3
.
0
3
5
.
0
3
6
.
5
2
4
.
4
2
2
.
2
2
2
.
1
2
0
.
5
1
5
.
1
1
3
.
2
0
.
0
2
8
.
7
2
8
.
5
3
9
.
0
3
7
.
1
6
.
4
1
,
1
0
1
.
6
1
,
0
8
6
.
9
4
2
5
.
8
6
5
5
.
9
7
,
9
9
5
.
6
1
0
,5
5
8
.9
1
9
0
.
7
2
5
3
.
1
3
8
9
.
7
5
0
7
.
1
1
,
0
8
4
.
8
1
,
5
8
5
.
8
2
2
.
6
4
9
.
1
5
6
.
0
4
6
.
4
4
1
.
5
6
0
.
4
7
0
.
8
6
4
.
4
6
2
.
5
5
1
.
5
5
8
.
5
3
8
.
8
4
9
.
5
7
0
.
7
4
.
6
2
.
0
2
.
4
1
.
9
4
.
9
9
.
6
1
.
9
2
.
7
4
.
3
4
.
9
3
.
6
2
.
9
5
.
0
3
0
.
7
3
3
.
0
4
0
.
7
4
4
.
7
2
7
.
1
1
4
.
0
3
2
.
2
3
4
.
7
3
8
.
2
3
0
.
8
5
0
.
9
4
1
.
5
2
3
.
3
1
5
.
6
9
.
0
1
0
.
4
1
1
.
9
7
.
6
5
.
7
1
.
6
0
.
0
6
.
0
5
.
8
6
.
8
6
.
2
1
.
0
E
l

S
a
l
v
a
d
o
r
2
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
8
5
8
.
1
8
5
4
.
6
4
8
.
2
5
0
.
3
5
1
.
8
4
9
.
7
6
0
1
.
3
5
9
4
.
7
7
0
.
1
6
9
.
6
6
3
.
9
6
4
.
6
3
6
.
1
3
5
.
4
2
5
6
.
8
2
5
9
.
9
2
9
.
9
3
0
.
4
1
1
.
3
1
7
.
4
8
8
.
7
8
2
.
6
4
1
3
.
2
4
2
9
.
4
3
7
.
4
3
9
.
9
7
.
1
4
.
1
3
5
.
1
3
1
.
6
2
0
.
3
2
4
.
4
4
4
4
.
9
4
2
5
.
1
5
7
.
1
5
7
.
8
2
.
3
2
.
1
3
4
.
6
3
2
.
8
6
.
0
7
.
3
Countries Age groups 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Bolivia (ps)
0-14 44.8 44.3 43.6 42.6 38.9
15-64 51.5 51.5 51.7 52.0 55.1
Over 65 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.4 6.0
Brazil
0-14 46.2 42.9 40.7 35.4 32.7
15-64 50.6 52.7 54.5 59.2 60.8
Over 65 3.3 4.4 4.8 5.3 6.5
Chile
0-14 43.5 36.4 31.7 28.5 22.7
15-64 51.3 57.6 61.6 63.2 66.8
Over 65 5.2 6.0 6.7 8.3 10.5
Colombia
0-14 49.1 45.1 41.1 37.6 32.4
15-64 47.6 51.1 54.6 57.7 61.9
Over 65 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.7 5.7
Costa Rica
0-14 48.6 41.0 39.0 35.3 29.4
15-64 47.5 55.0 56.7 60.1 65.1
Over 65 3.9 4.1 4.2 4.6 5.5
Ecuador
0-14 45.9 46.0 42.7 38.5 34.3
15-64 49.8 49.7 52.7 56.1 58.8
Over 65 4.3 4.3 4.6 5.4 6.9
El Salvador
0-14 49.7 48.8 45.3 40.4 37.0
15-64 47.9 48.4 51.0 55.2 58.1
Over 65 2.4 2.8 3.7 4.4 4.9
Guatemala
0-14 46.5 47.4 47.9 48.5 47.5
15-64 51.0 50.0 49.2 48.2 49.2
Over 65 2.5 2.6 2.9 3.3 3.3
Honduras
0-14 49.5 49.5 48.8 46.3 41.0
15-64 47.5 47.4 47.9 49.8 54.7
Over 65 3.0 3.1 3.3 3.9 4.3
Mexico
0-14 48.9 48.6 43.2 38.3 32.8
15-64 47.4 47.5 52.2 56.0 59.7
Over 65 3.7 3.9 4.6 5.8 7.4
Nicaragua
0-14 49.8 50.2 49.6 44.7 38.3
15-64 48.1 47.5 47.5 52.1 57.8
Over 65 2.1 2.3 2.9 3.2 3.9
Panama
0-14 48.1 44.8 39.7 37.5 35.0
15-64 47.9 51.0 55.5 56.8 58.1
Over 65 4.0 4.3 4.7 5.7 6.9
Paraguay
0-14 49.7 46.9 45.9 42.5 38.1
15-64 47.1 49.7 50.3 53.3 56.9
Over 65 3.1 3.4 3.7 4.2 5.0
Peru
0-14 46.8 46.4 45.1 42.6 36.0
15-64 49.4 49.6 50.8 52.9 58.9
Over 65 3.8 4.0 4.1 4.6 5.1
Dominican
Republic
0-14 49.8 44.5 39.8 36.7 34.3
15-64 47.5 52.5 56.2 58.0 59.3
Over 65 2.7 3.0 4.0 5.3 6.4
Uruguay
0-14 29.3 27.6 25.6 24.3 22.3
15-64 63.9 64.4 65.3 64.8 66.4
Over 65 6.7 8.0 9.1 10.9 11.3
Venezuela (br)
0-14 49.8 46.7 43.6 39.7 35.9
15-64 46.9 49.5 52.3 55.3 57.7
Over 65 3.4 3.8 4.2 5.0 6.4
Source: celade.
Public Policies and Institutional Framework
Measures taken by countries to face the economic crisis have
enhanced the role of Family Farming in the region
Te fght against the negative efects of the food crisis has continued to dictate agricultural
priorities in the region. Te implementation of programmes and policies of wider scope,
in some cases with the participation of local organizations, has helped to strengthen state
actions in the agricultural sector. In the search for solutions to the current situation of
economic uncertainty, countries are focusing on Family Farming, both in the targeting of
emergency programmes and the development of this sectors potential to mitigate the impact
of the agri-food crisis.
In some countries of * lac, the modernization of the
state has included the restructuring of the Minis-
tries of Agriculture and dependent organizations.
This has resulted in Ministries of Agriculture with
more limited responsibilities and the transfer of
functions to other ministries.
In response to the demands for greater partici- *
pation of civil society organizations, some spa-
ces for dialogue in the agricultural sector have
been strengthened in terms of the development
of Family Farming policies, such as the Specia-
lized Meeting on Family Farming (reaf) in the
mercosur countries, and the Regional Rural Dia-
logue Programme in Central America, which have
helped to create an environment for farmers to
exercise their rights.
An opportunity generated by the food crisis is *
the role of Family Farming as a provider of food
and raw materials for agro-industry, as well as a
source of employment. As a result, rural areas are
being recognized for their important contribution
to the sustainable development of societies in the
region.
Countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have *
strengthened commercial ties, thus encouraging
regional integration. This could be the starting
point for the creation of a regional trade bloc.
Cuadro 13.
Amrica Latina y el Caribe: distribucin de la Poblacion rural por grupos de edad (Porcentajes)
Perodo 1970-2010
Facts
Trends
Governments continue seeking solutions and
implementing measures to mitigate the vola- ng measures to mitigate the vola- g measures to mitigate the vola-
tility of food prices
The reduction or mitigation of the negative impacts
of the volatility of food prices on the population has
become a priority for governments in the region that
have implemented various measures to deal with the
problem (eclac/fao/iica, 2011). In the past year, these
have included the following:
Promoting the production of staple foods in small-scale
agriculture: through subsidies for raw materials, tech-
nical assistance and marketing support. Te majority
of countries in the region have implemented some
of these measures, especially Central America and
Mexico.
Support for investment, mainly in Bolivia and Peru,
which have established programmes for the acquisi-
tion of agricultural machinery. Also, the countries
of the Caribbean have built roads and infrastructure
for irrigation and drainage that are necessary for the
development of agricultural activity.
Improvement in the functioning of agri-food markets:
Brazil, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Venezuela and Guatema-
la have implemented measures to enhance the capa-
city of public sector intervention in markets, such
as direct purchases and the search for new sources of
imported foods, among others.
In some countries of the region, these short-term mea-
sures have been accompanied by longer-term actions
to increase investment in agriculture and strengthen
rural development, although these are still incipient.
Advancing with such broader measures makes sense,
since currently most of the regions most vulnerable
population lives in rural areas.
National trade policies are starting to promote
intraregional trade
Countries have faced the scenario of economic uncer-
tainty by establishing measures to mitigate the negative
impact on their territories and increasing intraregional
trade.
In domestic markets, trade policies have been geared to
mitigate the effects of the volatility of food prices. Some
countries have taken temporary measures, such as those
aimed at restricting the export of certain agricultural
products; however, the trend is towards the introduc-
tion of medium and long-term measures to insert local
agricultural products in markets, especially in the most
vulnerable sectors. In this context, some countries have
established programmes to promote the consumption
of local products, produced mostly by small-scale far-
mers, in order to decrease their dependence on food
imports. In addition, some countries in the region are
using Family Farming to supply food for basic nutrition
programmes.
In terms of extra-regional trade, the region has res-
ponded to the growing demand from North America,
Europe, and Asia, by signing bilateral and multilateral
trade agreements of differing scope, including Costa
Rica-China; Peru-European Union; United States-
Colombia; and Colombia-Liechtenstein-Switzerland.
There have also been signifcant advances towards the
signing of an agreement between Central America and
the European Union, and in the negotiations related to
the Transpacifc Partnership, in which Chile and Peru
are taking part along with the United States, Australia
and Singapore, among other countries.
The gradual increase of trade agreements with lac coun-
tries was made possible by the reduction of barriers to
agricultural trade, which have resulted in better con-
ditions of access to markets for these countries. This
trend is also observed in domestic markets with the
reduction in tariffs paid by importers of agricultural
products (Sotomayor et al., 2011).
Intraregional trade has continued to expand through
the signing of free trade agreements between Peru and
Costa Rica, Mexico and Peru, and Mexico and Central
America. In addition, there has been progress in nego-
tiations between Peru and Venezuela, Guatemala and
Peru, and Panama and Trinidad & Tobago.
The increase in intraregional trade is especially impor-
tant with regard to food products since it has helped to
improve food security, as well as to mitigate the effects
of the economic crisis on the regions population.
Agricultural innovation: Falling behind
Te region allocates 0.6% of its gdp to fnance research
and development (R&D), representing less than one
third of the United States expenditure on R&D (2.8%
of gdp). R&D investment is clearly not a priority in
the region, even though the need of countries for new
technologies to transform their agricultural production
matrix and increase the development of the sector is
evident.
In recent years, agricultural innovation actions in the
region have been oriented towards the pursuit of prof-
tability in business activities, which explains why innova-
tion is concentrated in the private sector with successful
farmers receiving most of the support while small-scale
agriculture has been marginalized. Tis means that lac
countries have not been able to establish an approach to
innovation that ensures the inclusion of all stakeholders
in the region.
Even though the current situation in innovation is not
encouraging in the region, there are exceptions such as
Argentina, which has a research centre aimed specifcally
at family farming (cipaf). Other countries, such as Brazil
and Uruguay have designed research programmes for
family farming in coordination with local agricultural
research centres (emprapa and inia, respectively).
Te need to improve innovation in the region was
highlighted in the Meeting of Ministers of Agriculture
of the Americas (2011), in which the ministers commit-
ted to promoting technological innovation to better
integrate the food sector, including family farmers, in
value chains, as well as strengthening extension systems
and incorporating innovative knowledge transfer me-
thodologies adapted to producers realities.
Countries have strengthened institutional su-
pport for Family Farming
In recent years, countries of the region have gradually
recognized the importance of Family Farming in the
provision of basic foods and the mitigation of economic
crises, as well as in the use of sustainable agricultural
practices. To improve the effectiveness of the support
for this sector, some countries have created program-
mes targeted at providing specialized support to family
farmers, including El Salvadors Family Agriculture Plan,
Paraguays Family Agriculture Food Production Progra-
mme, Mexicos masagro programme (which promotes
the production of corn and beans in small-scale agri-
culture), Guatemalas Programme for the Strengthening
of the Rural Economy through Family Agriculture and
Perus Agrarian Rural Development Programme (agro-
rural).
Other countries have created and/or restructured their
regulatory and institutional frameworks. Argentina
created the Ministry of Rural Development and Family
Farming, and Uruguay created the General Directorate
of Rural Development, which are institutions designed
to meet the demands of Family Farming. In the same
way, Costa Ricas Ministry of Agriculture developed the
Family Farming Strategy, declaring the need of an insti-
tutional framework for the sector. In Brazil, amendments
to the existing regulatory framework were introduced,
including law No. 12.188/2010 which established the Na-
tional Policy of Technical Assistance and Rural Extension
for Family Farming and Agrarian Reform (pnater) and
the National Technical Assistance and Rural Extension
Programme (pronater).
In some countries, the creation or redesign of institu-
tions and programmes has included the participation
of local organizations, which has generated greater links
between governments and these organizations. An exam-
ple of this is Brazils National Federation of Agricultural
Workers (contag), which represents 20 million rural
workers and has been involved in discussions with the
government of Brazil with respect to the coordination
of public policies and their impact on agriculture. In
Argentina, the Family Farming Organizations Forum
(fonaf) and the Agrarian Federation of Argentina (afa)
bring together small and medium-sized producers that
have participated in joint issues to support Family Far-
ming and farming cooperatives.
In addition to the above initiatives, some countries that
have signed free trade agreements have implemented
programmes to strengthen links between the state and
Family Farming organizations, establishing innovative
policy mechanisms aimed at small-scale agriculture.
Examples of this include the Specialized Meeting of Fa-
mily Farming (reaf) of mercosur, which is comprised of
representatives of 10 countries in the region, and Central
Americas Regional Rural Dialogue Programme, involving
organizations from Central America and the Dominican
Republic within the framework of the Central America
Agricultural Policy. Tese initiatives have identifed the
main variables that facilitate the integration of Family
Farming with modernization processes.
Social inclusion is a priority in many countries
Some countries in the region have created regulatory fra-
meworks for social development and inclusion with the
aim of improving the impacts of public programmes de-
signed to reduce poverty and inequality. Such is the case
of the Central American Strategy of Rural Development
(2010), drafted by the Central American Agricultural
Council, which aims to promote the management of
inclusive rural development policies. Meanwhile, other
countries have created institutions specifcally to im-
plement social inclusion policies, notably two countries
of the Andean Community: Ecuador, which in 2008
created the Ministry of Economy and Social Inclusion
(mies), and Peru, which created the Ministry of Deve-
lopment and Social Inclusion (midis) in 2011.
Trough such initiatives, which are being copied throug-
hout the region, these countries aim to move from tem-
porary programmes of poverty alleviation towards multi-
sectoral actions to improve the access of the population
Mexico is a pioneer in the region in terms of
results-based public management. On January 20,
2004, the General Social Development Act was
promulgated, paving the way for this new manage-
ment model. The Act created the National Council
for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy
(coneval), as a decentralized public entity with
its own assets and technical autonomy. coneval,
with the participation of prominent academics,
has become the institution responsible for issuing
guidelines to monitor the entities responsible for
implementing social programmes. The Federal
Budget and Fiscal Responsibility Law of March 30,
2006, makes it compulsory for all state entities to
evaluate the results of their programmes accor-
ding to the norms of national or international ex-
perts, academic institutions and research agencies
that have experience in related areas.
Since 2008, the country has passed reforms aimed
at improving the effciency of public spending
through a results-based approach. The Perfor-
mance Evaluation System (sed) was created to
track and evaluate systematically the policies and
programmes of federal agencies, thus contributing
to the achievement of the objectives set out in the
National Development Plan.
In addition, coneval in partnership with the Minis-
try of Finance and the Ministry of Public Adminis-
tration publishes an Annual Evaluation of Federal
Programmes, which includes the participation of
private offces, universities, and international orga-
nizations. A Matrix of Results Indicators has also
been developed for all government programmes. In
the case of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock,
Rural Development, Fishing and Food (sagarpa),
fao has participated in these evaluations (http://
www.fao-evaluacion.org.mx/pagina/index.php)
as well as in the evaluation and training of federal
and state offcials. The result of this collaboration
between fao, sagarpa, and coneval has led to
sagarpa being recognized for good practices in: 1)
The baseline survey of sagarpas 2008 program-
mes, 2) Systematization of the baseline survey for
the measurement of results and impacts, and 3)
Implementation of the matrix of results indicators
of sagarpas programmes with federal resourcescia
de recursos en las entidades federativas.
Box 3: Results-based public management in Mexico
to economic opportunities and services. However, it is
important to consider that this requires adequate rural
coordination mechanisms that in many countries of the
region present serious weaknesses.
Outlook
The region will strengthen results-based pu-
blic management and measure the effects of
policies
The modernization processes of public management
are moving increasingly towards agreements that allow
measures to be reviewed. It is becoming more common
to link state modernization with Management Results.
But public offcials in lac, focused on processes that fx
objectives in compliance with regulations determined by
their institutional structures, seem to be lagging behind;
even though much remains to be done in this area.
Results-based management was implemented several
years ago in Chile, where indicators showing the effect
of public policies on society have been improving. The
Dominican Republic uses the term programme agree-
ment that is subject to budgetary review by parliament.
Mexico (Box 3), Trinidad & Tobago, Uruguay, Ecuador,
Bolivia, Venezuela and Colombia have implemented
similar management models.
Results-based management is emerging as a response to
the need to unlock the processes of economic and social
development. The aim is the design and/or development
of mechanisms to optimize the resource allocation pro-
cess, creating greater public value.
Other areas in which the modernization of public ma-
nagement needs to be strengthened include cooperation
and partnership with the private sector, especially with
regard to the elaboration and implementation of natio-
nal development strategies in which the involvement of
the private sector is key.
Improving the measurement of results is a challenge
for governments of the region. The results of sector
interventions not only demand assessment and follow-
up; it is necessary to know about the degree of impact
on the quality of life of the population, particularly in
those programmes that aim to increase incomes for
farmers and promote their inclusion in economic acti-
vity. Although measuring impacts can be complex and
costly, it is a good way of determining if scarce resour-
ces are having the desired effect on the improvement
of opportunities for the poorest families. In this regard,
project guidelines are needed that allow institutions to
understand the process of improving the quality of life
for different sectors of the population.
Countries of the region will recognize the im-
portance of Family Farming in solving the food
crisis
As a result of the numerous studies by countries of the
region to solve or mitigate the effects of the food crisis,
it is clear that Family Farming plays a fundamental role
in providing food and raw materials, generating income,
promoting the sustainability of resources, as well as in
mitigating the impact of the volatility of food prices.
Aid agencies recognize this situation, which is why they
have incorporated Family Farming as one of their main
themes. fao and iica have also made this sector one of
the priority areas that will guide their medium-term
agendas in the region.
In order to take advantage of the potential of Family
Farming, public support for this sector is needed to
increase food production and thus reduce the impact
of higher and more volatile food prices, as well as to
increase the role of Family Farming in climate change
mitigation and adaptation. To achieve this in the near
future, countries face the following challenges:
Institutional development: Tis is a trend already
observed in the region, as outlined in this chapter,
but which has still not been expressed with suf-
cient force in some countries. Te region as a whole
requires an institutional and regulatory framework
suitable to the needs of development of small-scale
agriculture.
Characterization of Family Farming: Te optimal
design of public policies requires knowledge and
awareness about the situation of the participants,
which is why lac countries need to improve the
existing systems of information about the sector in
the short term. Tis task is even more important
considering that Family Agriculture is a widely hete-
rogeneous sector in terms of human and productive
resources.
Strengthening associativity and cooperation: Te as-
sociativity of family farmers in the region is still in-
cipient. States are continuing to engage in dialogue
with producer organizations to improve policies and
interventions, and help to optimize the management
of small-scale farms.
Promote access to markets and integration into value
chains: In order to strengthen the role played by
Family Agriculture as a provider of raw materials,
the countries of the region must take actions ai-
med at establishing linkages between small farmers
and agri-business. Tere have been some successful
experiences in the region, such as the Productive
Alliances Programme in Chile and Colombia and
the implementation of Inclusive Businesses in Ecua-
dor.
Facilitate innovation and access to technologies adapted
to the reality of the sector: Countries need to allocate
more resources for research in Family Farming pro-
duction systems, as well as for the design of innova-
tive extension methodologies.
Finally, the implementation of the actions described
above will make the contribution of Family Farming
to the economy increasingly visible in society. The un
has declared 2014 to be the International Year of Fa-
mily Farming, which will help to position this sector
amongst the priorities of lac governments.
The state will continue to strengthen public
procurement of food supplies, thereby genera-
ting opportunities for Family Farming
Public procurement systems have been implemented in
some countries in the region to ensure the availability of
food for the population. Countries have achieved this
by creating public agencies to buy the production of
family farmers. This is the case of Nicaragua through
the Nicaraguan Basic Foods Company (enabas). Brazil
has also developed the Public Acquisition of Food from
Family Farming Programme (paa). In addition, Brazil
has incorporated Family Farming in its School Nutri-
tion Programme through a law (Law No 11.947/2009)
guaranteeing that a minimum of 30% of the states to-
tal purchase of food for this programme comes from
family farmers.
Other countries are also adopting the strategy of esta-
blishing Family Farming as a supplier for public food and
nutrition programmes. During a meeting of the regions
Ministers of Agriculture in 2011, they highlighted the
role that the state plays in strengthening small-scale far-
ming through public procurement, which stimulates the
inclusion of this sector in markets and enables farmers
to obtain fair prices.
The development of such public purchase schemes
could eventually cross national boundaries, such as the
agreement signed recently between Argentina, Brazil,
Paraguay and Uruguay, under which Brazils Public
Acquisition of Food from Family Farming Programme
is open to all these countries with the aim of creating a
network for countries to support each other in a food
emergency. This initiative could be replicated elsewhere
in the region.
The development of public procurement programmes
for Family Farming can generate solutions to common
challenges through the exchange of experiences. Some
challenges including food safety, associativity of produ-
cers, diversifcation of production, etc., can be overcome
through the implementation of joint actions.
Countries will create innovation systems that are
relevant to the needs of the agriculture sector
The promotion of agricultural innovation in lac requires
a more integrated vision since the sector involves many
stakeholders, such as research centres, suppliers of raw
materials, universities and farmers, among others. As
a result, countries are adapting their institutional fra-
meworks to support the creation of new innovation
systems in which agricultural extension programmes
play an important role.
The creation of innovation systems will help improve
the competitiveness of the sector, through coordinated
actions adapted to the reality of each subsector. These
actions can help to match supply and demand for inno-
vation, thereby improving resource effciency. In short,
more systems of innovation in the region will contribute
to an effective integration between research, extension
programmes and agricultural production.
The need to reduce the existing innovation gap with
developed countries and between sectors within coun-
tries is a priority for the region. To achieve this goal,
Family Farming should be explicitly included in national
innovation agendas. This is a great challenge because
systems must be capable of responding to the needs
of a large and heterogeneous sector with very different
needs. Given the magnitude of this challenge, coun-
tries need to focus efforts to reform and modernize
extension programmes that are suited to different types
of farming activities. In this regard, lessons could be
learned from the experience of Argentinas National
Institute of Agricultural Technology (inta), which runs
programmes for innovation and technology transfer in
Family Farming.
Te participation of the private sector in innovation
systems will increase. Tis will complement public sector
eforts, increase the coverage of innovation systems, and
improve conditions of equality by prioritizing the use of
public resources in the most vulnerable sectors.
States will implement measures that allow
equitable access to the land
Worldwide there is increasing pressure on land use,
mainly due to population growth and the level of con-
sumption, as well as the demand for biofuels and the
effects of climate change. This pressure has resulted in
an increase in demand and, in some countries, in a trend
towards the concentration of land ownership. In this
new scenario, the countries of the region are adapting
legal frameworks regarding land ownership and creating
or reforming land policies.
The region is addressing structural imbalances in access
to land. This situation has become so important that, in
May 2012, fao member countries adopted the new Vo-
luntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of
Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests. These guidelines
constitute a guiding instrument at a global level, esta-
blishing principles and standards that provide practical
guidance to governments, civil society and the private
sector, including topics such as access and the use of
resources, markets and investment. This document will
be useful for the reformulation of strategies, policies
and laws relating to concentration and competition for
control of natural resources.
Extra-sectoral factors are likely to assume greater
importance in the development of agriculture
The food crisis in the region has increased the visibility
of agriculture and its effects on countries economies.
The Ministries of Finance and Central Banks of the
region show a growing concern for infation, exchange-
rate effects and public defcits generated by the beha-
viour of the food market. In addition, governments have
focused efforts on studying the possible effects of trade
restrictions on agricultural products that are identifed
as using non-sustainable practices.
Countries are expected to develop agricultural poli-
cies in the near future with the participation of other
government agencies in addition to the Ministries of
Agriculture. The implementation of such policies could
translate into substantive improvements in the quality
of life of farmers in the region.
The region will take effective and timely ac-
tion in terms of climate change mitigation and
adaptation
Many countries of the region are developing an insti-
tutional framework necessary to address climate chan-
ge. Central America, the Caribbean and the Andean
Community have regional strategies for dealing with
climate change. In addition, some countries are cu-
rrently developing national sectoral climate change
strategies (Nicaragua, Chile, Uruguay and Peru). Both
instruments are valuable since they establish the basis
to develop new policies, as well as to coordinate and
prioritize actions aimed at climate change mitigation
and adaptation.
Preventative measures will continue to be prioritized over
emergency measures. In this regard, actions aimed at di-
saster risk management (such as the recent law enacted in
Colombia) will set the regional climate change agenda.
Countries are making progress in eliminating subsidies
that negatively afect the environment, and creating
measures and technologies to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. Tese eforts are still in an early stage in most
countries. In fact, Mexico is the only country in the
region that has a law aimed at the gradual reduction of
carbon dioxide emissions. Brazil has also made some ad-
vances in this area through the Low-Carbon Agriculture
Programme (abc Plan, 2010) aimed at establishing vo-
luntary greenhouse gas reduction targets for farmers.
Countries must increase their exchange of information
and take joint measures to address the impacts of clima-
te change and reduce its negative efects. Tis requires
policies, programmes, monitoring systems and bilateral
or subregional phytosanitary alerts.
Family Farming requires special measures to adapt to
climate change, owing to the conditions of climate vul-
nerability in which part of the population lives. In this
sector, actions are needed to promote the sustainable
management of productive systems.
At the national level, greater public-private integration
is needed to defne priority actions in climate change
agendas.
Finally, and as part of their adaptation strategy, countries
are making eforts to bring about a cultural change in
citizens with regard to climate change and its efects on
agriculture.
Countries will accelerate the process of de-
centralization in the agricultural sector and
strengthen local institutions
In the last decade, modernization processes in most
countries of the region have made decentralization a
key priority to improve public management. However, in
many countries this process has been problematic, with
high levels of centralism still prevailing and weak coor-
dination of policies between the various ministries. In
addition, in many cases local governments do not have
the resources or capabilities to perform the functions
attributed to them, thus preventing them from proper
vertical coordination of policies.
To improve decentralization processes in the agricul-
tural sector countries need to overcome the following
challenges in the near future:
Strengthen local institutions: Tis will allow the im-
provement of physical and professional capacities as
well as budget increases for the fulflment of their
functions.
Defnition of institutional functions : Tis will allow go-
vernments to defne the felds of action of each insti-
tution, including their technical and political powers,
as well as identifying inter-agency synergies.
Creation of new fexible institutions: Tese can adapt
their structures in order to respond better to the di-
versities of the territories.
Defnition of the territorial planning unit: Tis will
result in the establishment of territorial agendas and
management agreements of various kinds that will
form an integral part of government agendas and will
help to identify the territorys potential.
Development of mechanisms for coordination and con-
trol between all levels of government: Tis will allow
a more efcient use of public resources while con-
tributing to transparency in the management and
coherence of public interventions.
Creating spaces for citizen participation at all levels of
government: Tis will validate public management
at all levels and help to build a shared vision of the
sector in the future.
Meeting these challenges will help countries to build
a stronger institutional foundation that is coordinated
with the diferent levels of government. Tis will im-
prove governance and promote processes of economic
development, thereby reducing poverty levels.
Finally, it is important to consider that decentralization
processes will require a cultural change from the histo-
rically centralist approach at diferent levels of gover-
nment, to an approach characterized by programmes
designed and operated at the local level.
Improve the process of democratic governance
by increasing civil society participation in po-
licy decisions
The region is witnessing a major change in the develo-
pment paradigm. In the past, the region sought to limit
the regressive effects of economic models; today there
is an interest in transforming the economic system in
which social issues are not just another element, but
rather the driving factor. In this context, civil society
plays a central role.
However, good governance is diffcult to achieve, even
more so in developing countries. In analysing countries
that boast the best governance indices, a common factor
is that they have incorporated various stakeholders in
the decision-making process including actors from civil
society, the private sector and the state. The public and
private sectors are cooperating more in the formulation
and implementation of policies. It is clear, then, the need
for the region to increase the participation of all sec-
tors of society in decision-making, especially the sectors
that have, until now, been marginalized. This takes on
greater meaning in Family Farming, which in most of
the countries of the region has been excluded from the
process of policy formulation. The strengthening of this
sectors participation is a key factor for strengthening
agriculture policies and programmes.
The adoption of the Voluntary Guidelines for the Res-
ponsible Governance of the Tenure of Land, Fisheries
and Forests is important in the context of the food crisis
to strengthen aspects of governance in the sector; this
can also directly (and indirectly) impact indices of good
governance in Family Farming.
Tere has already been some progress in increasing the
participation of the agricultural sector, such as the Spe-
cialized Meeting on Family Farming (reaf) and the Re-
gional Rural Dialogue Program, already mentioned in
this chapter, in which governments and family farmers
representatives from diferent countries of the region
discuss and propose public policies aimed at the rural
sector. At the national level, examples include Costa
Ricas Agriculture and Rural Development Policy 2010-
2021, Argentinas Agri-food and Agro-industrial Stra-
tegic Plan 20102016, and Panamas Strategic Action
Plan for the Agricultural Sector 2010-2014, which are
all based on a public-private consensus and a long-term
vision. Another example is Brazils National Extension
Policy, drawn up with the participation of relevant ac-
tors from civil society. Certainly, there is room for more
spaces of public participation in the region in order to
improve levels of equality and strengthen policies.
Promote the development of agriculture poli-
cies with a long-term vision
The development of agriculture in the region is a com-
plex challenge that requires overcoming problems of
various kinds, many of which exceed the scope of action
of agricultural institutions. Therefore, countries must
address this challenge with a more integral and solid
vision, concentrating efforts towards the design and
coordination of long-term policies and strategies that
are consistent in all areas relating to the development
of agriculture. To achieve this goal, governments must
strengthen strategic planning and develop clear defni-
tions of the functions of the institutions involved.
In this new environment it is increasingly important
that governments promote cross-sectoral work, aimed
at the design of policies for the development of agri-
culture, including those created by related sectors that
afect agricultural performance and not just agricultural
policies.
Results-based public management: a long-term
challenge for the region
The implementation of a results-based management
model requires a number of changes within the state,
as well as the development of capabilities to implement
this methodology in an optimal way. The adoption of
results-based management is not easy since it requires
a cultural change in the institutions.
In this regard, ministries must motivate their staff and
senior management on the advantages of this new form
of governance, as well as training them in the new me-
thodology. Qualifed staff can be valuable agents of
change within institutions, contributing to the effective
implementation of this system.
Design agricultural policies adapted to the rea-
lity of each sector
In order to achieve the equitable and sustainable develo-
pment of agriculture, it is increasingly important that the
countries of the region recognize the sectors social and
economic heterogeneity and the need to develop policies
and programmes relevant to different realities. In the
case of Family Farming, it is particularly important to
realize the potential of this sector in the production of
goods and services. It should be noted that there are still
few countries of the region that have policies and/or
programmes designed especially for Family Farming.
The design of specifc and effective agriculture policies
requires a thorough knowledge of each sector. Most
countries lack sector-specifc studies, especially in the
Family Agriculture sector. For this reason, it is recom-
mended that countries perform studies to quantify the
contribution of Family Farming to the economy, as
well as of different types of producers and their main
demands and competitiveness gaps.
Promote the use of ICTs that strengthen the res-
ponse capacity of public institutions
The advantages resulting from the adoption of Infor-
mation and Communication Technologies (icts) in state
modernization are well-known, especially their contribu-
tion to transparency in public management. However,
progress in the region is varied and in general there is
still a long way to go, especially in Central America and
the Caribbean.
Some countries have implemented policies to promote
these technologies, such as the national e-government
strategies of Colombia, Chile, Uruguay and Argentina
(eclac/fao/iica, 2011). However, the adoption of these
strategies in agricultural institutions has been slower
than in other state entities. Countries that have not yet
adopted these technologies must develop regulations to
promote their use in all public institutions.
It is recommended that countries improve the orienta-
tion of these technologies towards end users. To achieve
this, institutional websites must be made user-friendly
and kept up to date. Governments must also make more
public services available online, which is an area where
there is a large gap compared to developed countries.
In addition, governments must move quickly in the
implementation of the electronic signature to increase
the provision of public services online. In this regard,
countries should review the experiences of Colombia,
Chile, Uruguay, Mexico and El Salvador, which show
a level of public services available online that is higher
than the average for developed countries (eclac/fao/
iica, 2011).
Another area in which countries can use icts to beneft
the fnal user is offering texting services via mobile pho-
ne, such as the Agro Messages System in Costa Rica, or
Mexicos Meteorological Risk Alert System. In addition,
electronic food safety certifcation programmes should
be established to facilitate the commercialization of
agricultural products.
Finally, digital literacy programmes must be established
and rural areas provided with adequate infrastructure for
the use of icts. In the majority of lac countries these
programmes are still in early stages.
Support innovation to consolidate regional
development
Te development of agriculture is conditional on the
reduction in the innovation gap in lac with respect to
developed countries. To meet this challenge, innovation
should be targeted in the following areas: increased agri-
cultural productivity, value-added exportable products,
research in Family Farming to improve production sys-
tems, specialization of human resources for innovation
and job creation to absorb qualifed professionals and
prevent their migration, among others.
Policies to promote innovation will result in higher
production indices and incomes, the creation of new
technologies adapted to the reality of each countrys
agricultural sector, production systems that are environ-
mentally and socially sustainable, and decreased rates of
poverty and inequality.
Strengthen intraregional trade to develop the
agriculture sector in the region
In the current scenario of economic vulnerability and
food insecurity in many countries in the region, the
promotion of intraregional trade is one alternative to
overcome this situation. Greater trade between coun-
tries will enable them to have a more fuid and stable
food supply.
Trade is even more important considering the products
of Family Farming. To achieve an effective inclusion
of this sector in regional integration, Family Farming
organizations should be involved in trade negotiations,
ensuring that the interests of small producers are duly
considered.
It is also necessary to remove legal barriers that may
affect trade fows between countries. In this context,
it is crucial that countries concentrate efforts on the
elaboration of common agricultural policies, resulting
in greater regional integration. This will pave the way for
all countries to promote more equitable development
models.
Conclusions
Te food crisis has made it clear that the region is at a
turning point. Countries must deal with the negative
impacts of the current scenario and, at the same time,
progress in achieving the inclusive and sustainable de-
velopment of agriculture and food security. In practice,
this translates into the implementation of short-term
measures, which should gradually be replaced by policies
and long-term programmes.
Agricultural development depends on the implemen-
tation of integrated sectoral and extra-sectoral policies
adapted to the reality of each country. Although policies
may difer from one country to another, those aimed at
increasing participation in the development of policies
and programmes should focus on creating innovation
systems, improving existing institutions and developing
socially inclusive policies, including those aimed at Fa-
mily Farming.
Special attention should be paid to strengthening joint
programmes between countries, mainly in regards to
trade integration and the establishment of strategies and
coordinated policies for phytosanitary protection and
climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Each country must travel the road ahead according
to the reality of its own agriculture sector. Terefore,
it is up to each country to focus eforts on improving
public management and pooling eforts in pursuit of
the inclusive and sustainable development of agriculture
in the region
Section iv:
Land Tenure in
Latin America and
the Caribbean
Land Tenure in Latin America and the
Caribbean
In search of new approaches to a complex structural dynamic
How to reconcile ownership of land used as a personal asset with land tenure as a
legitimate factor for inhabitants of rural areas seeking a sustainable livelihood in a
constantly changing and increasingly complex environment remains an unresolved issue.
It is compounded by the conceptual discussion concerning the land grabbing that is taking
place under a variety of ownership regimes and acquisition processes (buying, leasing
and contract farming). Are the existing legal and institutional frameworks adequate for
addressing these land tenure dynamics?
Changes in agrarian structure: The on-going pro- *
cess of structural change in agriculture in Latin
America and the Caribbean includes both land
concentration and an increase in smallholdings.
The old system of large estates based on semi-
feudal production relationships has given way
to large capitalist corporations that are part of
international trade circuits while smallholdings
are being broken up as they are sold or inherited.
In some countries, tensions between peasants
(landed and landless) and large landowners are
still running high. This phenomenon has been
linked to new issues, such as armed confict and
drug traffcking, which make governance of rural
society even more complex.
Irregular tenure: In most of the countries, many *
farms lack title to the land. This is particularly the
case in the countries of the Caribbean and along
the agricultural frontier in the countries of Central
America and South America. The situation is dis-
couraging investment, triggering social conficts
and making it impossible to devise appropriate land
management plans, among other constraints.
Land grabbing: The global shortage of land has *
sparked the interest of foreign countries and
major international corporations in buying land
in Latin America and the Caribbean in order to
ensure their future food supply. This process has
displaced the local population and given rise to
a new kind of large estate as well as territorial
sovereignty issues.
Cross-border movement of companies and *
agricultural producers: Trade integration at the
country level has prompted the spontaneous mo-
vement of agricultural frms and producers of all
sizes as they set up operations in neighbouring
countries to complement production processes
in their countries of origin (companies) or seek
new opportunities (farmers).
New indigenous identity: In many countries of *
the region, indigenous groups are pursuing land
claims as they use the political and legal process
to forge an indigenous identity. This has, among
other things, put indigenous peoples on a different
footing in society as they turn to ancestral rights
to claim land and resources.
The Facts
Pressure of cities and industrial activities on far- *
mland: The advance of cities and land require-
ments for other activities (industry, commerce,
tourism, infrastructure) is causing a rapid loss of
land resources.
Generational change and the urbanization of *
society: The new opportunities offered by cities
have spurred rural youth migration at a time when
household heads are ageing. This trend poses new
challenges for revitalizing rural territories and en-
couraging young farmers who choose to live in
the countryside.
New role for rural space: Perceptions of ru- *
ral space and the role of agriculture have been
changing since the 1990s. A post-productivist
vision has emerged, grounded in the concept of
multi-functionality and seeking to provide goods
and services that go beyond the production of
food and fbres to encompass tourism, landscape
stewardship, recreation, crafts, commerce and
conservation of biodiversity, among others
Introduction
Te profound transformation of the global economy is
changing the terms of the discussion concerning the fu-
ture of agriculture in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Tere are many factors that are rapidly ushering in a new
phase: the fnancialization of the economy and its impact
on commodity price volatility; technological innova-
tion (information and communication technologies,
nanotechnologies, cognitive sciences) that is radically
changing production processes; the growing importance
of diet for human health; the new health risks caused
by globalization; the impact of climate change on agri-
culture; the need to feed 9 billion people by 2050; and
the impact that all of this will have on natural resources
are but some of the trends marking the transition to a
new economy.
Tis new phase is closely linked to serious environ-
mental degradation in the regions agricultural areas.
Pressure on land resources has greatly pushed back the
agricultural frontier in countries that still have vast ex-
tensions of forest and given rise to severe deforestation
and biodiversity loss.
17
Pressure on land in consolidated
agricultural areas has intensifed crop rotation, causing
erosion, salinization and fertility loss and the degrada-
tion of associated natural resources, notably water and
biodiversity.
Against this backdrop, the issue of land ownership and
use is also being redefned. Te old classifcations of
17 Concerning this trend, see the chapter on forests in this report. Concerning this trend, see the chapter on forests in this report.
smallholding versus large estate, domestic market ver-
sus external market, and lag versus modernization that
characterized the discussion about land in Latin Ame-
rica and the Caribbean have been replaced by another
paradigm that, of course, includes historical issues of
land access but goes further and is even more complex.
While this paradigm mirrors reality in each country and
subregion of Latin America and the Caribbean, there
are common traits that are found over and over again.
For the sake of analysis, the situation in the countries
of Latin America will be discussed separately from that
in the countries of the Caribbean because each of these
subregions has its own specifc agrarian history and other
geographical and cultural particularities.
Trends
The changing agrarian structure
Latin America has millions of small farms that coexist
with medium-sized and large operations. Together, they
form a highly heterogeneous agrarian structure that, by
reproducing asset distribution inequality, perpetuates
and exacerbates productivity gaps. Tis fact has been
at the core of the agrarian debate throughout the 20th
century and will surely continue to be central to the
public policy agenda and to the way that the discussion
on development in the region is framed.
Is structural transformation under way in Latin America?
It is hard to answer this question as it applies to agrarian
structure because many countries have not conducted
censuses of agriculture since the 1990s
18
and the informa-
tion that is available (such as agricultural and household
surveys and population censuses) does not yield conclu-
sive fndings, either because surveys are partial or because
population censuses do not gauge trends in production.
It is likely that some countries with a highly fragmented
agrarian structure dominated by smallholdings are seeing
an incipient restructuring that tends towards land con-
centration in search of greater proftability (economies
of scale) along with economic growth that can absorb
the rural population that is migrating to cities.
Tat is what can be deduced from Chiles recent Cen-
sus of Agriculture and Forestry, which shows that over
the past 10 years there was a 9% decrease in the total
number of farms in the census and declines of 20% in
some regions where modern, export-oriented agriculture
prevails (ine, 2007). Argentina has seen the same trend,
with the number of farms dropping by 20.8% between
1988 and 2002 (indec, 2009). In Brazil, the number
of farms fell by 10.7% between 1985 and 2006 (ibge,
2006). On the other hand, Mexicos recent Census of
Agriculture, Livestock and Forestry shows that between
1991 and 2007 the number of production units rose by
7.8% as the number of farms in the census increased
from 3.8 million to 4.1 million. Tese data show that
farms in Mexico continue to be subdivided as they are
sold or inherited, reducing the average area per produc-
tion unit from 8 hectares to 7.3 hectares (inegi, 2007;
De la Madrid, 2009). Uruguay has gone from a high of
86,928 farms in 1961 to 57,131 in 2000, with most of the
loss (96% of the decrease) concentrated in operations
with less than 99 hectares (Pieiro, 2011). Tis trend
has been accompanied by a sharp spike in the price of
land, from an average of us$448 per hectare in 2000 to
us$2,633 per hectare in 2010 (mgap, 2011). Te booming
land market makes it likely that fgures from the 2011
Census of Agriculture, when they become available, will
show that this trend is sharpening.
Data from Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Uruguay suggest
that a turning point may be approaching and will lead to
a diferent phase with new synergies between agriculture
18 The United Nations recommends conducting a census of agricul-
ture every 10 years, but parts of the region are lagging well behind. The
most recent census of agriculture was in 1970 in Colombia, 1984 in
Costa Rica and the Plurinational State of Bolivia and 1994 in Peru, to
give a fewexamples. Part of the lag is due to domestic confict (armed
confict in Peru during the 1990s and still ongoing in Colombia), as
well as to the lack of economic resources and technical capacities.
and urban economic activities like manufacturing and
services. Te fgures for Mexico show that the division
of land into increasingly smaller holdings is deepening.
Tese two trends provide a snapshot of the structural
dynamic of the market for land in Latin American agri-
culture.
Land access
What new factors should fgure into land and natural
resource tenure policy in the current context of Latin
America? After the agrarian reforms that took place in
Mexico (1910-28), Plurinational State of Bolivia (the
1950s), Cuba (1960s), Chile (1964-73), Peru (1970s), Ni-
caragua (1980s) and El Salvador (1980s), the issue has
resurfaced in the region, especially in Brazil and, to a
lesser extent, in the Plurinational State of Bolivia, the
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela and Paraguay (Baranyi
and others, 2004).
Since its return to democracy in 1985, Brazil has embar-
ked on an active agrarian reform including expropria-
tions, direct purchases, set-aside of public lands and legal
recognition of occupied lands. Te rationale for reform
has been the existence of a vast agricultural frontier,
numerous unproductive large estates and active social
movements fghting for land. Te idea of agrarian re-
form has solid political backing and support from the
urban middle classes, who see the process as a way to
bring about social reforms aimed at decreasing poverty
and growing the domestic market. As a result, 21.1 mi-
llion hectares were added to the land area covered by
agrarian reform between 1995 and 2002; 48.3 million
hectares were added between 2003 and 2010. During
the latter period the process benefted 614,093 families
in 3,551 settlements. Brazil currently has 85.8 million
hectares covered by its agrarian reform programme, with
924,263 families in 8,763 settlements managed by incra
(mda-incra, 2010). Agrarian reform policy is in line with
broader measures aimed at regulating the market for
land, which is one of the main agrarian issues in Brazil
because of the historical problems that the Brazilian State
has faced in addressing the high concentration of land
ownership (Gini index of 0.85), growing environmen-
tal degradation, rural and urban poverty, speculation
and illegal appropriation of public lands (Reydon and
Cornlio, 2006).
In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, the ongoing agra-
rian reform that began in the 1950s is regulated by the
new Law No. 3,545 on the community reorganization
of land reform improving the inra law passed in 1996,
which required that land tenure be demonstrated by the
social and economic function of the land (inra, 2010).
Te new law seeks to correct the distribution of land by
the state during 1953-1993, which distorted the original
sense of the reform. During this period, the Bolivian Sta-
te granted nearly 57 million hectares to new owners; 70%
went to business interests and medium-sized owners, and
the remaining 30% (17 million hectares) was granted to
peasants and indigenous communities. When the inra
Act of 1996 was coming into force, over the space of a
decade the government invested almost us$85 million
but only managed to transfer 9.3 million hectares. In
a three-year period under the new Law No. 3,545, at a
cost of us$35 million, the state titled an additional 31
million hectares, of which 13.6 million hectares have
been classed as public lands and 16.7 million hectares
have been transferred to small owners, rural workers
and indigenous peoples (inra, 2010). Title to 40 million
hectares of land has been regularized since 1996, allowing
for the transfer of more than 100,000 titles to the beneft
of 174,249 persons living in rural areas.
Te domestic confict in Colombia that has dragged
on for more than 40 years has created conditions for
one of the highest rates of human displacement in the
world and unquestionably the highest in the Americas
(abcolombia, 2011). Te confict impacts indigenous
communities, peasants of African descent, peasants in
general and a large rural population that is trapped bet-
ween far-right paramilitary groups, guerrillas and the
Colombian army. Because the confict is still unresolved,
displacement has become permanent and its magnitude
very hard to gauge. Figures from a number of sources put
the loss of land due to displacement at between 4 million
hectares and 10 million hectares involving vast expanses
of land that the actors in the confict regard as strategic.
Economic interests tied to these lands mobilize other
actors that, while not direct parties to the confict, are
drawn by the business opportunities they see and claim
the land for themselves. As a result, on land owned by
displaced persons the state has granted concessions for
mining (or other operations), or local and transnational
groups are using that land for their agribusiness inves-
tment projects. Recently, there has been a surge in oil
palm projects for producing biofuel.
In an efort to provide reparation to the victims of dis-
placement, the Colombian government passed Law No.
1,448 (the Victims and Land Restitution Law) in June
2011. Tis law, which will be applicable for 10 years, seeks
to restore 2.2 million hectares of land to the victims of
displacement occurring after 1985, at an approximate
cost of us$ 25 billion. It is expected to beneft one mi-
llion families. Te agency charged with restitution is the
Colombian Institute of Rural Development (incoder),
whose Strategic Plan 2010-2014 reads as follows concer-
ning land restitution: the policy seeks comprehensive ma-
nagement of the restitution of rights to land and territories
by means of comprehensive, free assistance for the victims
of dispossession and is thus part of broad-based reparations.
Te objectives of this policy contribute to the social and eco-
nomic re-establishment of the population of victims of forced
displacement by violence (pvdfv). As property is restored or
families compensated, the other policies will be coordina-
ted in search of lasting solutions that ensure all rights. In
addition, preferential access to land for the population of
victims of forced displacement by violence will continue to
be promoted by means of subsidies (incoder, 2012).
In 2001, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela passed
the Land and Agricultural Development Law aimed at
modernizing the old agrarian reform law dating back to
the 1960s. Te main purpose of the law is to regularize
idle land held by the state or private parties who are
occupying it illegallyespecially large landholders
and redistribute it among landless peasants committed
to its productive use. Te law also aims to regularize
land occupied and worked by peasants without clear
title.
19
In addition, the law seeks to ensure diversity, en-
force environmental and agro-food protection rights
and ensure food security (Ofcial Gazette of the Boliva-
rian Republic of Venezuela, 2001). Te new law created
three institutions: the National Land Institute (inti),
the Venezuelan Agrarian Corporation and the National
Institute of Rural Development. Te frst of the three
is charged with regulating and granting title to land.
Some conceptual imprecisions of this frst body of law
necessitated a new reform in 2010, the Law for Partial
Reform of the Land and Agrarian Development Law. It
broadened the role of the state, which can take on pro-
duction functions directly. Moreover, Article 145 notes
that the executive branch can directly assume primary
production, industrialization, distribution, exchange
19 The land use evaluation and adjudication systemis the core of the
new agrarian regime. It is based on three basic levels of productiv-
ity: idle or uncultivated land; improvable land; and productive land.
Idle or uncultivated land may be subject to intervention or agrarian
expropriation, and it is taxed. The idea behind these measures is to
return idle land to production (Offcial Gazette No. 37,323, Decree
No. 1,546, 2001)
and commercialization functions in order to consoli-
date and ensure food sovereignty. According to Article
1, the objective is to eliminate tertiarization and large
estates
20
as systems that are contrary to justice, equality,
the general interest and social peace in the countryside,
ensuring biodiversity, food security and the enforcement of
food and agro-food protection rights for present and future
generations (Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, 2010).
In the space of a decade, according to data provided by
inti, 7,782,045 hectares have been regularized to date,
directly benefting 224,700 families.
Another strategy for addressing the issue of land access
involves land funds, promoted primarily by the World
Bank. Teir objective is to provide credit for purchasing
land to small buyers who would not normally be able to
tap the capital markets. Land funds promote voluntary
land transactions where governments mediate between
buyers and sellers in an efort to keep the price of land
from increasing artifcially. To do so, they support the
subdivision of large extensions and disseminate price
information among market agents in order to make these
transactions more transparent. Tere have been experien-
ces of this kind in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Guatemala,
El Salvador, Honduras and Mexico. Such funds, which
have also been referred to as market-assisted land reforms
or community-based land reforms, have been criticized
for their high cost and the fact that they address the
situation for just a very small number of benefciaries.
In addition, in El Salvador these instruments have been
used to locate ex-combatants who participated in the
civil war in the 1980s. All of this indicates that these
experiences are not replicable on a large scale. Indeed,
the land granted in Guatemala (fontierra), El Salvador
(ptt), Honduras (pacta) and Chile (conadi-fta) com-
bined adds up to 193,600 hectares, with 46,969 grantee
families (Sotomayor, 2008).
conadi in Chile provides a good example of the li-
mitations of such a strategy. Following restoration of
the democratic process, October 1993 brought passage
of Law No. 19,253 that, among other measures, put
20 Tertiarization is defned as any agriculture-oriented use of land
whereby a third party is granted the right to use the land or mandated
to work the land, or any form or legal business, paid or otherwise,
whereby the party claiming ownership of the land uses it through a
third party or transfers it in usufruct to a third party. Large estates are
therefore defned as any extension of land exceeding the average for
the region or failing to reach 80% of ideal yield (Article 7, Law for
Partial Reform of the Land and Agrarian Development Law).
an end to the transfer of indigenous lands to non-
indigenous persons, created a Land and Water Fund
(fta) and the National Corporation for Indigenous
Development (conadi), charged with implementing
development policies and programmes for indigenous
peoples. From 1994 to date, conadi has purchased
and transferred 121,289 hectares to 9,287 indigenous
families through the land fund, at a cost of us$293
million, paying an average of us$2,416 per hectare.
conadi has regularized, cleared title to or transferred
another 56,678 hectares of public lands and granted
subsidies to individuals (or indigenous communities)
enabling them to purchase another 28,738 hectares du-
ring the period (estimate based on data from fta and
conadi). Under the three transfer mechanisms, then,
a total of 206,705 hectares has been recovered over a
17-year period (conadi, 2012).
Insecure tenure
According to some estimates, approximately 50% of the
regions farmers lack secure title to their land (Lpez
and Valds, 1997). In Brazil, just 50.9% of the countrys
total land area has been covered by cadastral surveys
(mda-incra, 2006). Tat is why experts agree that secure
land tenure is important for agrarian development in
Latin America. A proper description of land resources
(cadastres) provides information on their amount, lo-
cation, quality and value. Besides reducing information
asymmetries in the land market and contributing to land
tenure regularization programmes, cadastres generate
positive externalities (taxes, competitiveness and land
management, for example) that warrant their being a
government priority. Secure tenure depends on legal
systems that are capable of ensuring property rights ex-
peditiously and impartially. Legal security of land tenure
is indispensable for obtaining credit, ensuring inves-
tment stability, managing natural resources properly
and developing a healthy market for selling, leasing and
conducting other land transactions.
Secure tenure is a more manageable challenge for go-
vernments than the issue of land access is. Tis can be
seen in the many land titling projects in recent decades
promoted by the idb and the World Bank in most of
the countries of the region. Operational improvements
to such projects over the past few years include the use
of modern, efcient and equitable methodologies in
titling, particularly the sweep campaigns that enable
feld missions to beneft from economies of scale in a
comprehensive cadastral mapping, titling and legal re-
cordation process. Te new approaches also call for re-
quiring, without exception, recording titles in the public
registry, and they seek the modernization of public regis-
try and cadastral institutions. Even so, much remains to
be done in this sphere because these processes are costly
and because land ownership conficts make it difcult
to identify owners.
Land grabbing
Another concern involving land in Latin America and
elsewhere in the world is land purchasing by indivi-
duals, major foreign corporations and some countries
interested in expanding their natural resource base. A
recent fao study for Latin America and the Caribbean
concluded that this is a new phenomenon and that it
is still small in scope because it is limited to the larger
countries of the region (Brazil and Argentina). However,
land concentration and growing foreign tenure have
soared since the 1960s (fao, 2012).
Te extent of land grabbing varies across the countries
of the region. Distinguishing features include: (i) the
large amount of private land involved; (ii) the key role
of national elites as the main investors; (iii) extensive
involvement of intraregional Latin American frms (the
trans-Latins) and conventional transnational companies;
(iv) the minimal impact that the Persian Gulf countries,
China, Republic of Korea and India are having on the
regions public and private land market despite their
being among the main investors elsewhere in the world;
and (v) the presence of land grabbing in countries that
would not be considered as fragile or weak from an
institutional viewpoint (characteristics that are regar-
ded as generally favourable to land grabbing by some
observers) (Borras and others, 2012).
Land grabbing can take place under a variety of land
ownership regimes (private, State-owned or communal),
agro-ecological conditions and locations (ranging from
prime working farmland, peri-urban areas and remote
rural land to land in frontier areas) and acquisition
mechanisms (purchasing, leasing, contract farming and
value-chain capture). For international comparison
purposes, this is not an exclusive matter (that is, the
land involved in transactions can be either privately- or
State-owned). Rather, there tend to be diferences of
degree within each category. In this context, transac-
tions involving privately-owned land are probably more
common in Latin America and the Caribbean than
in other regions of the world, where there is a higher
concentration in the general category of State-owned
(public) lands.
Te formal nationality of land grabbers varies and can
occasionally be unclear or hard to determine. In this re-
gard, there are four kinds of land grabbers: international;
(trans) Latin American; national; and undetermined.
Tis latter category includes companies with investors
whose nationality is, for the most part, difcult to de-
termine. Many of them are headquartered in the regions
tax havens. Te transnational dimension of land deals is
a substantial one, although foreign governments are not
usually directly involved (some negotiations are carried
out at the request of the government, but, aside from
deals in Brazil and Argentina, these are specifc, incipient
cases). Intraregional (transnational) land transactions
involving (trans) Latin frms perhaps account for the
bulk of land deals in the region or are, at least, the most
obvious trend to date. Last, the role and involvement
of national elites (many of whom have links, to varying
degrees, to international capital) are signifcant and
even predominant in many of the countries of the
region. Compared with other parts of the world, the
region difers from the processes seen in Africa, where
transnational (transregional) deals predominate and are
commonplace. Circumstances in Latin America and the
Caribbean are more like those in South-East Asia.
Land grabbing not only aims to increase food output,
especially beef. It is taking place in the incipient food,
forage and fuel triad (fex crops in the 3-in-1 complex)
and in non-food sectors (specifcally, industrial forestry
production and large-scale conservation projects). Tis
conclusion is a far cry from the predominant general
opinion that ties the global land rush mainly, albeit not
exclusively, to the food price spike of 2007 and 2008.
Land purchases are also for environmental services,
tourism and conservation projects (especially, Patago-
nia in Argentina and Chile) and for opening potential
access to mining and energy resources. As noted above,
land grabbing in the region is taking place in countries
that do not match the standard profle of an institu-
tionally fragile or weak State. Political conditions in
Brazil and Argentina (the two countries with the most
land grabbing in the region) are strikingly diferent,
but both countries have a well-organized State. Te
same can be said of other countries, like Chile and
Uruguay.
Te change in land use has been multidirectional. In
the food sector, for example, there is land that is no
longer used for growing food and is now used for forage
or fuels. Land that was not being used for farming or
forestry had begun to be used for growing food, forage
and fuel for export. Natural forests have been turned into
industrial forestry operations. It is not always the case
that land formerly used for growing food or producing
wood for national or domestic consumption is switched
to growing food and non-food products for the external
market. Tis type of land use sparks the most objections.
Such a wide range of land use is seen in other regions,
as well, such as Africa, Asia and the Eurasian States of
the former Soviet Union.
One noteworthy feature of land concentration and
growing foreign ownership are the channels that reveal
a certain porosity of expanding land tenure among the
countries of the region.
Tere are three channels for intraregional expansion,
depending on the resources mobilized. In all cases the
capacity to deal with the issues involved depends on the
capabilities accumulated in the country, which in many
cases are limited.
Trough trans-Latin companies, which mobilize capital
and technology and just a few executives. Te specifc
advantages in the case at hand (Chilean forestry com-
panies) are tax exemptions, the possibility of acquiring
signifcant extensions of land, and a guaranteed lack
of social conficts (indigenous populations in southern
Chile).
Trough a combination of land ownership and leasing
(planting pools in Argentina), which mobilizes organi-
zation and management models and complex software,
as well as funding and technology, and seeks alliances
with local groups. Te specifc advantages have to do
with protecting producers from government-imposed
quotas and with providing a kind of crop insurance that
diversifes weather risk by buying or leasing land in se-
veral diferent countries.
Trough migration (Brazil, Plurinational State of Bo-
livia and Paraguay), which mobilizes resources for bu-
ying land, operating capital and entrepreneurship. Te
specifc advantages lie in the fact that the selling price
of land in the country of origin can make it possible
to double the area purchased, and ties to the country
of origin can be maintained, even through technology
networks.
Cross-border movement of agricultural com-
panies and producers
Ofshoring agriculture is a long-standing trend that
is, however, gathering momentum (fao, 2012; Dirven,
2012). Te main migration fow is associated with the
massive movement of Brazilian farmers towards Para-
guay, Uruguay, Argentina and the Plurinational State of
Bolivia. Land settlement in Brazil has gone through sta-
ges once the population was established in coastal areas.
After the central and north-eastern parts of the country
were settled, the process gradually shifted to southern
Brazil, which is much narrower. Settlers thus quickly
reached the border areas with Uruguay, Paraguay and
Argentina. Because these areas were only sparsely settled
in the 1970s, it was natural for large Brazilian growers
to set up operations there. Tey were followed by a vast
contingent of rural workers. Te process intensifed in
the 1980s until it reached the levels seen today. It is in
Paraguay where local farmers make up the largest group,
as they are substantially involved in cattle-raising and
the soybean boom in mercosur. Paraguay received the
largest number of small and medium-sized farmers, drawn
by the abundant availability of land. Tey also arrived in
Argentina and Uruguay, in smaller proportions because
not much land was available and it was not very cheap.
Te triple interaction of agro-industrial modernization,
the gradual closing of the agricultural frontier and relati-
vely fexible control of the movement of persons led to the
emergence of large contingents of itinerant workers who
foated from one country to another across broad border
strips (Galeano, 1997). By deforesting new land, settling
the territory and developing a battery of services, the
Brazilians have consolidated a large-scale, highly mecha-
nized and poorly diversifed model that has changed the
countrys production landscape and economy.
Despite Argentinas laws banning foreigners from sett-
ling in border areas, many small Brazilian farmers have
illegally set up operations there. But they have not ra-
dically changed the local economy. Tis is not the case
in Uruguay, which is exposed to double pressure from
Brazil and Argentina.
In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, one of the most
recent cross-border movements started in the region
of Santa Cruz and surged towards the end of the 20th
century. Te region of Santa Cruz is one of the richest
in the Plurinational State of Bolivia; over the past two
decades it has grown faster than the country as a whole.
Much of this growth is due to a boom in farming, which
accounts for 56% of the provinces foreign trade. Its main
products are oilseeds, sugar, leather, wood, cotton and
oils and alcohol products (Urioste, 2011). Modern agro-
industrial operations in the low-lying areas of the region
have replaced traditional peasant farming concentrated
in the valleys and the Andean altiplano, expanding the
agricultural frontier from 413,320 hectares in 1990 to
1,821,631 hectares in 2007. Of this total, it is estimated
that approximately 1 million hectares correspond to the
soybean complex
21
and the rest to other crops. As a result,
66% of the 2.7 million hectares under cultivation in the
country are concentrated in the region of Santa Cruz
(Urioste, 2011).
As noted above, much of the agriculture boom is di-
rectly related to the expansion of soybean growing, where
owners from Brazil have been among the main actors.
Tey arrived in the Plurinational State of Bolivia in three
waves. Te smallest was in the late 1980s; the largest was
in 1993-1999, when the government of the Plurinational
State of Bolivia was promoting the Eastern Lowlands
Project for developing highly productive land and infras-
tructure, which expanded the supply of fertile land at a
low price (Urioste, 2011). Another wave of Brazilian im-
migration started in 2005; this time it was not so much
limited to the soybean business but rather to the search
for land for cattle-raising (Urioste, 2011). In addition to
Brazilians, there are reports of an equally large infux
of Argentinean nationals in recent years. However, it
is not known whether they are fows from businesses
with operations in Argentina or Brazil, individuals, or
a combination of the two (Urioste, 2011).
Albeit to a lesser degree, the selective installation of
Chilean companies in Peru and Argentina is another
signifcant trend. Unlike emigration from Brazil and Ar-
gentina, this movement is more limited in scope because
it involves medium-to-large export-oriented companies.
In the case of Peru, these companies are exporters of fresh
fruit seeking to capitalize on the competitive advanta-
ges of the Peruvian coast in terms of the cost of land
and labour and, especially, the potential for expanding
their range of of-season products to complement their
production cycle. Investments in the agriculture sector
are still small, however; according to ofcial data they
total approximately us$82 million from 1990 to date and
account for just 0.7% of the total foreign direct inves-
21 Soybean output grew seven-fold between 1990 and 2009; invest-
ment between 1989 and 1999 is estimated to have reached us$2 billion
(Montenegro, cited by Urioste).
tment (fdi) capital fow from Chile to Peru (direcon,
2012). Even so, this trend, while incipient, is likely to
deepen. For example, the Chilean frm Verfrut recently
acquired 1,200 hectares in the Papayo area of the Piura
region and plans to invest nearly us$20 million in the
new facilities (Diario la Repblica, 2012). Argentina is
the primary recipient of fdi from Chile; the us$1,025
million invested from 1990 to date in the agricultural
sector represents 6.3% of the countrys total fdi infows.
Tat investment has come mainly from grape-growing
and wine-producing companies seeking to expand their
range of appellation wines by incorporating new pro-
duction areas, especially in Mendoza province. Via
Concha y Toro is Chiles largest wine exporter; in 2011
its Argentinean subsidiaries Trivento Bodegas y Viedos
S.A, Finca Lunlunta S.A. and Finca Austral S.A. posted
us$55 million in sales (Via Concha y Toro, 2011).
Another emerging trend is the acquisition of land for
forestry in Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil. Chiles largest
forestry group, Empresas Arauco,
22
has 127,290 hectares
of tree plantations in Argentinas Misiones Province,
73,561 hectares in the Arapoti region of Paran State in
Brazil, and 67,897 hectares in Uruguay (owned 50-50
with the Stora Enso group). Tese holdings account
for 12.6%, 7.3% and 6.7%, respectively, of Araucos to-
tal forestry plantations. Te frm owns another 373,573
hectares of native forest set aside for conservation, 30%
in Argentina, 16% in Brazil and 1.9% in Uruguay. Of the
companys total forest assets (native forests and forestry
plantations), 257,705 hectares (15.7%) are in Argentina,
155,455 hectares (9.5%) are in Brazil and 127,234 hectares
(7.7%) are in Uruguay. Globally, its forest assets overseas
amount to 33% of the total, highlighting how important
these investments are for the companys strategic plans.
Just to cite an example, 14.6% of its operating income
is from its subsidiaries Forestal Alto Paran, Nuestra
Seora de Carmen and Leasing Forestal in Argentina
(Empresas Arauco, 2010).
Chiles second largest forestry group, in terms of forest
assets, is Compaa Manufacturera de Papeles y Car-
tones (cmpc).
23
Tis company manages its forest assets
22 Celulosa Arauco, founded in 1970, is controlled by Empresas
Copec S.A. Its sales for fscal 2010 totalled us$ 3.788 billion, of which
us$227 million was generated by its subsidiary Industrias Forestales
S.A., located in Argentina. In addition to pulp, the company produces
lumber and wood panels.
23 This frm, founded in 1920, recorded us$4.797 billion in sales in
through its subsidiary Forestal Mininco and currently
has foreign holdings in Brazil and Argentina. Its forest
assets in these two countries combined total 307,387 hec-
tares, of which 94,283 hectares are in Corrientes Province
in Argentina and 213,104 hectares are in the state of Rio
Grande do Sul in Brazil (cmpc, 2011).
Tese companies are setting up operations abroad be-
cause they need to expand their domestic market and are
seeking to become relevant players in the global market.
To meet the growing demand caused by this opening
(especially in the form of new inputs for the markets of
Asia), these frms have had to expand their tree planta-
tions into neighbouring countries because of the limited
room for expansion in their home countries. In addition,
building plants abroad helps maintain a structure of
proximity between sources of raw materials, plants and
the main export ports.
New indigenous identity
Historical claims of indigenous peoples to their terri-
tories, occupied since the Spanish conquest and colo-
nization, are a relatively new and especially complex
issue. Part of the complexity lies in the fact that these
territories no longer exist as such because they are part of
new states, regions, provinces and the many other sub-
divisions that make up the Americas, where indigenous
peoples coexist with a non-indigenous population led
there by the twists and turns of history. Adding to this
complex picture are ethnic groups who live as hunter-
gatherers roaming the Amazon jungle,
24
where borders
are ill-defned, sparking conficts with non-indigenous
population groups that are interested in working the
area for economic reasons.
Is it possible to settle the historical debt with indigenous
peoples and protect their rights to territories that used
to be theirs? Is it possible to tap the natural resources
of territories where indigenous peoples are living? In-
ternational Labour Organization Convention No. 169,
adopted in 1989, deals with the rights of indigenous and
tribal peoples in independent countries and establishes
the following for the ratifying governments (Article14.1):
2011. Its main products are pulp, paper and cardboard, lumber and
wood panels.
24

The Amazon region has an estimated 33 million inhabitants, of
which an indigenous population estimated at 1.6 million belongs to
370 different peoples.
Te rights of ownership and possession of the peoples concer-
ned over the lands which they traditionally occupy shall be
recognised. In addition, measures shall be taken in appro-
priate cases to safeguard the right of the peoples concerned
to use lands not exclusively occupied by them, but to which
they have traditionally had access for their subsistence and
traditional activities. Particular attention shall be paid to
the situation of nomadic peoples and shifting cultivators
in this respect.
Article 14 specifcally recognizes the rights of ownership
to land being used by indigenous communities or to
which they have traditionally had access. On a practical
level, however, this has not been easy to implement.
Tere are still clashes and points of great confict with
the non-indigenous population, businesses and States.
Te agrarian reforms launched in Latin America in the
20th century have brought partial reparation for indi-
genous peoples who were dispossessed of their lands.
Although these reforms were not aimed at resolving the
issue of indigenous peoples access to land but rather at
solving the problem of landless peasants in general,
25

they had a positive impact for indigenous groups because
many of them were landless (Aylwin, 2002). But the
issue of access to land and preservation of indigenous
territory is far from being resolved. Te discourse on
territoriality that runs through the claims made by in-
digenous movements essentially appeals to their political
nature and is grounded in an alternative political project
with legal, economic and cultural repercussions. In this
context, then, the issue of territory goes well beyond
the matter of land access to become a triad combining
territory, identity and autonomy.
Another new dimension further complicates the issue.
Part of the discourse of environmentalist groups grants
indigenous peoples the authority to preserve and manage
natural resources, which makes the matter of territory a
more global issue and brings into question the current
model of development and private working of natural
resources. Territorial claims by indigenous populations
25 Brazil would be an exception because since 1910 the National
Indian Foundation (funai) has been legally mandated to protect in-
digenous land. The service established legal grounds for recognizing
Indians in order to bring them into the institutional framework of
the new republic that was being built. However, because the land was
regarded as unclaimed (vacant), much of the indigenous land was ap-
propriated by non-indigenous populations, especially after the advent
of the military dictatorship in 1964 (Aylwin, 2002).
therefore have a diferent meaning than those arising
from landed or landless rural communities concerning
access to and better distribution of land.
Agricultural use versus urban or industrial
use
Tis is a key issue because it has several connotations.
On the one hand, agricultural land is being lost as it is
put to use for urban or service purposes. On the other
hand, urban expansion often afects agribusinesses and
livestock herds
26
in areas that were historically rural but
have become peri-urban. Tis sparks confict between
agricultural businesses and their new neighbours over
odours, vectors and other issues. Indeed, the very con-
cept of peri-urban dating from the 1970s has had to be
redefned to take into account the impact of globaliza-
tion on urban dispersion, which is, in Latin America,
based on a spatial model with megacities and regional
cities (Snchez, 2009), where new and diverse economic
activities (especially services) develop, a new urban and
transport infrastructure is built and functions are decen-
tralized as they come under the purview of medium-sized
and smaller cities. Te geographic limits of the periphery
(dominated by the infuence of the big city) are not
well defned, and agricultural areas undergo a profound
transformation towards patterns of discontinuous use of
urban and rural land (Snchez, 2009).
In this context, the spread of the urban
27
into rural spaces
can trigger conficts that vary in level and scale and in-
volve families, neighbourhoods and communities, where
26 The opposite is also often the case. Agro-industrial frms operat-
ing in peri-urban areas or close to cities can seriously harm the well-
being of people if the environmental impact of their activities is not
appropriately regulated. One current case involves the frmAgrosuper,
which put the worlds largest swine herd (more than 400,000 pigs)
in the locality of Freirina, in Huasco Province in Chiles Atacama
Region. There were problems with controlling foul odour from pig
manure. The wind carried the nauseating odour over a 50-kilometre
radius and drove the local population into heated confrontations with
the company and with the regional authorities, forcing the central
government to temporarily shut down the companys slaughtering
operations (Diario Financiero, 2012).
27 Studies of peri-urban spaces have focused on the following issues:
(a) changes in land use and the consumption of space; (b) social
change; (c) land ownership regimes; (d) specifcity and conversion of
peri-urban agriculture; and (e) peri-urban space as a territorial heritage,
and preservation of identity (Snchez, 2009).
the core issue tends to be competition over the use of
land for residential or agricultural purposes. One of the
burning issues in the region involving peri-urban areas
(especially those that are being used for agriculture) is
land market speculation driven by pressure from the real
estate sector, among other factors.
A landmark case in this regard is the property develo-
pment currently taking place in the green belt of the
city of Buenos Aires, particularly in the Pilar district.
Urban sprawl has brought with it enclosed urban spa-
ces, condominiums, ofce compounds, smart buildings,
shopping malls, private universities, gastronomic poles,
hotels, convention centres, boutique clinics, private ce-
meteries and automobile dealerships that have com-
pletely transformed the territorial space (Barsky and
Vio, 2007). Tis has put enormous pressure on the use
of land, especially agricultural land where many small
vegetable and fower farms are run by Bolivians who
began to settle in the peri-urban belt in the early 1970s.
Pressure on land ownership sparked market speculation
leading to price diferences of as much as 1000% in a
radius of just a few kilometres and adding to the already
tenuous position of the vegetable farms, especially those
run by Bolivians (39% of all of the registered farms in the
province). According to the 2001 census of horticulture
in the province of Buenos Aires, Bolivians lease 88% of
the farms they run and own just 12%.
Changes in land use also encourage business sectors to
turn to the environmental impact assessment system to
resolve conficts between economic agents and/or the
local population over a territory or production area even
if the area is not zoned for that purpose. A number of
regulations for preventing the loss of land resources are
currently under discussion in Latin America. Among
the many issues being debated in Chile are the role of
government agencies in authorizing changes in land use
(binding local participation required), the spatial plan-
ning regime (master plans as a factor in defning the ob-
jective image of a given territory), minimum subdivision
lot size (0.5 hectares at present versus 2 hectares) and
building authorizations (limits on construction density),
the role of government agencies, and other factors. Whi-
le some countries have a planning mechanism, public
and private actors in the region need to more carefully
think through the land use planning policies in place in
order to arrive at technical criteria that will go beyond
reactive approaches and thus make it possible to address
increasingly complex situations as the pressure on land
resources grows.
Generational change and the urbanization of
society
Te rural population of Latin America has declined stea-
dily over the past few decades. In the 1970s it accounted
for 43% of the total population. According to estimated
projections from celade, by 2010 it had fallen to less
than half of that fgure (20%); the rural population is
expected to stabilize in the area of 11% towards 2050.
However, the situation varies widely from one country to
another. In 2010, Uruguay had the smallest rural popu-
lation percentage (8%) and Honduras the largest, at 42%
(cepalstat, 2012). A large part of this contingent has
migrated to the main urban centres in search of better
job opportunities and living conditions in general; this
trend is very likely to continue. According to a recent
study (Rodrguez and Meneses, 2011), even though the
indicators of rural population access to basic social ser-
vices have improved in regard to literacy, universal edu-
cation and access to utilities, this has not narrowed the
gaps between the rural world and the urban one. Tis is
especially the case in areas where indigenous populations
live, where the changes have been less marked.
Changes in the sphere of production have also had a
strong impact. Te modernization of agriculture has
led agribusinesses to locate operations along the urban
frontier, boosting the growth of agricultural employment
among residents of urban areas. Climbing agricultural
productivity has spurred the growth of non-agricultural
activities in rural areas; one example is rural tourism. All
of these changes have blurred the frontier between urban
and rural, a trend that is most clearly seen in densely
populated rural areas and calls for new policy approaches
for adapting to this new reality.
A new role for rural space
Te concept of multifunctional rural spaces is not as well
established in Latin America as it is in the countries of the
European Union (and other developed countries), but
there is in the region a clear trend towards a broader view
of what is traditionally seen as rural. At a conceptual level,
this takes the form of the rural territorial development
policies that have been promoted since the early 1990s
(Seplveda and others, 2003; Schejtman and Berdegu,
2007) and given rise to countless experiences in territorial
and local development. Tis approach has stressed social
participation and the development of new economic
activities that go beyond the limits of traditional agricul-
ture to encourage tourism, commerce, crafts, small-scale
industry, environmental services and peri-urban agricul-
ture, among others, in order to address the land constra-
ints faced by many rural population segments. Te result
has been multisectoral intervention programmes aimed
at improving the management of invested resources in
order to fght poverty and foster economic development.
Examples include the Central-American Strategy for Te-
rritorial Rural Development (ecadert, 2009) and the
Territories of Citizenship programme created in Brazil
in 2008 (Federal Government, 2009).
Outlook
Land and resource concentration and foreign ownership
have increased markedly since the 1960s, when the need
for agrarian reforms was widely justifed. Tis trend is
likely to deepen further over the coming years, enhan-
cing the dual nature of the agrarian structure of Latin
America and the Caribbean that has made the region
the most socially unequal in the world.
Te market for land will continue to see structural chan-
ge along two main trends. Te frst, more general one
is the fragmentation of the agrarian structure in some
countries (Mexico and, probably, some Andean and
Central American countries) and concentration of the
structure (declining number of farms) in others (Brazil,
Chile, Argentina and Uruguay). Te other trend is that,
beyond the general dynamic (at the country level), frag-
mentation of rural ownership will continue, as owners-
hip grows more concentrated in medium-sized and large
holdings. In some countries (such as the Plurinational
State of Bolivia, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
and Brazil) the agrarian reform processes under way
will probably give landless peasants and smallholders
access to land. In other countries with a high degree
of concentration and recurrent land conficts (such as
Paraguay), there seems to be no medium-term prospect
for access to land by landless peasants, meaning that land
ownership concentration will persist.
Te historical debt of Latin American societies with
their indigenous peoples has brought back the issue of
access to land for indigenous groups while casting it in
a diferent light. Indigenous groups are self-identifying
as peoples and claiming their former territories, the right
to the resources found there, and full autonomy and
governance. Tis new discourse, which is increasingly
embraced by ethnic groups in the region, will be a source
of constant tension for national States, especially those
with a large indigenous population.
Concentration is likely to come with further degrada-
tion of the rural environment, bringing into question
the viability of the regions agro-export model and, on
a deeper level, jeopardizing the very foundations of the
economic system and contemporary society. Tis poses
an enormous challenge for the regions agricultural pro-
ducers, agribusinesses and governments, which need to
take preventive measures.
Tis record suggests that multiple forces will bring about
a paradigm shift. Te problem of land is far more com-
plex today than in the past and calls for new approaches
to address it. Tis new paradigm will not eliminate the
problem of access to and distribution of land, but it will
redefne, reframe and reorganize the issue within a new
system. In other words, it will link this issue to other
emerging ones and, in so doing, make new approaches
possible.
To face this issue it will be necessary to tie this trend with
other, more general ones in society. For one, the spread of
interdependence and feedback in all domains (economy,
ecology, social equilibriums and political stability) will
turn land conficts and local environmental problems
into global challenges. Meanwhile, the dematerializa-
tion of the economy associated with the development
of information and communications technologies and
other technologies will turn symbol manipulation and
data into new forces of production.
Tese trends and prospects call for more sophisticated
and integrated public policies that allow for a new appro-
ach to the issue of land in the region.
First of all, natural resources must no longer be regarded
as inexhaustible, and they must be factored into the
economic equation by means of new parameters that
take account of the physical dimension of production
activities (extraction of resources, accumulation of waste
and transformation of ecosystems, among others). Tere
is also a need to intervene at multiple levels of organi-
zation (local, regional, national and international) with
regulations to protect the environment. Of particular
note on the international level is the recent endorsement,
by the fao Committee on World Food Security, of the
Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance
of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the Context
of National Food Security (fao, 2012). Te guidelines
establish universal criteria for appropriate management
of this problem and are the frst global instrument to
address land tenure and governance.
Access to land needs to be maintained and deepened;
small-scale agriculture should be identifed as a special
case and targeted by diferential, broad-based public
policies encompassing land distribution, technical assis-
tance, irrigation, associativity, infrastructure and credit,
among others. Tere is also a pressing need for more far-
reaching policy measures aimed at the regularization of
land titles. Tis will require generating information from
land cadastres, designing legal systems that guarantee
property rights and implementing land titling projects
to regularize ownership for thousands of small farmers
who are living on their land on a de facto basis.
Family agriculture has strategic importance in the eco-
nomy, as do small and medium-sized enterprises in
general. In a plural economy, consolidating these two
segments requires building a solidary, associative sector
of the economy that is, as an important factor for global
economic and social stability, in the general interest.
Such policies should also operate on a symbolic level: the
magnitude of the task is such that the market forces have
to be harnessed in order to achieve more equality, social
inclusion and environmental sustainability. Tis will
require diferentiating between small-scale rural produc-
tion and sustainable production, using seals of quality.
Heightened ethical, social and ecological concerns are
a recent development, as consumers grow increasingly
aware of how businesses behave and how the products
they buy in the market are made. For those who are part
of this trend, price loses its substance and is no longer
the only parameter for diferentiating a good product
from a bad one. Managing this awareness in line with
ecological and social goals is a space for action that holds
great potential for the new agricultural policies.
In the immaterial economy, history, geography, ethnic
identity, territories and cultural and landscape heritage
ofer new spaces for creating economic value. To attain
these objectives, that heritage must be assigned a value
by means of public and private policies for maintaining
and improving it using seals and cultural brands enabling
consumers and citizens in general to identify them.
Te same is true for land and resource claims by indi-
genous peoples. Although there are some similarities
between the challenges faced by small farmers and indi-
genous peoples involving agriculture and the economy,
land access issues have a meaning of their own that is
associated with the recovery of indigenous territories and
autonomy. Handling these claims appropriately requires
spaces for dialogue and agreement with central gover-
nments and, above all, compliance with international
agreements on the protection of indigenous peoples such
as ilo Convention No. 169. But this dialogue should
not be limited to the sphere of government. It should be
expanded to the rest of civil society so that it is society
as a whole that converges on solutions for claims by
indigenous peoples, so that they are ensured of support
over the long run. Tis dialogue should yield a broad
array of policy measures validated by all stakeholders and
aimed at imbuing the reform and development process
with lasting legitimacy and sustainability.
All of these initiatives involve strengthening institu-
tions and developing new regulatory frameworks for
preserving the environment, planning land use and
regulating the purchase of land by States and foreign
companies as well as cross-border movements. To this
end, it is essential to have up-do-date information on
what is really happening in rural areas by conducting
regular censuses of agriculture, both for understanding
the dynamics of structural change and for identifying
agricultural producers a requisite for implementing
appropriate public policies.
As for land grabbing per se, there is a need to build
follow-up and monitoring capacities in each country
and at the regional level, and to design national and in-
ternational regulations to prevent the acquisition of large
tracts of land for purely private purposes through deals
that are neither transparent nor involve the participation
of all stakeholders. Such measures are essential for avoi-
ding the political criticism and social conficts that will
just generate legal uncertainty for these investments.
To address the issue of urbanization of rural spaces, the
concepts of urban, rural and peri-urban must frst be
redefned to take account of recent developments con-
cerning the new economic functions of rural spaces (in-
frastructure, services, scenic beauty and environmental
functions, among others) and the role of medium-sized
cities in enhancing rural life. Te regions rural muni-
cipalities need to implement land-use plans refecting
a more mature policy approach that will be crucial for
avoiding the problems that are certain to arise without
adequate planning.
Last, more robust programmes are needed to encourage
young people to settle in rural areas so that in 20 or 30
years their decision to continue living in a rural setting
will be the result of a lifestyle choice instead of some-
thing imposed by inherited circumstances like it is now.
Te challenge lies in renewing the human resources that
work the farms so that the regions farmers can gradually
professionalize. To this end, the state should develop
infrastructure programmes (for information and com-
munications technologies, roads and education, among
others) geared towards improving the quality of life of
the rural population and thereby enhancing the options
for future rural inhabitants.
Land Tenure in the Caribbean
Introduction
Caribbean land tenure relationships were formed in a
17th Century experiment that involved the rural en-
campment of an imported labour force (slavery) into a
conquered land space (Columbus West Indies). Tis
history is shared, not only by all 25 Island States and
dependencies within the Caribbean Sea, but also by
three continental countries, Belize in Central America
and Guyana and Suriname in South America. Tus, all
references to land issues in the Caribbean as a region are
inclusive of these three continental-based countries.
Unfortunately the institutional legacy of land tenure in
the Caribbean is not as indisputable as is its historical
origin. Te standard framework for analysing land te-
nure relationships in Latin America and the Caribbean
is that of Dualism as evidenced by the co-existence
of large estates (latifundia) juxtaposed with small plots
(minifundia) seeking to share the same land space. Tis,
however, portrays a passivity far removed from the con-
tinuous confict that accompanies land occupation and
land ownership in the Caribbean. Te distinguished Ca-
ribbean Anthropologist, Jean Besson [2003], notes that
...Troughout the period of colonial plantation slavery in
African-America, enslaved Africans and Creoles resisted and
opposed European land law and ofcial land tenure regimes
through rebellion, marronage and proto-ruralisation which
sought to re-establish autonomy, kinship and community
by consolidating customary rights to land.
Tis view more accurately equates Caribbean land te-
nure struggles to that of a social/economic duel,
with its roots in that 17
th
Century experiment. It sees
Caribbean Land Tenure as a repeating battle between
legality versus legitimacy. Te legality is expressed
in the legal institutional framework based on an imposi-
tion of European land law. Te legitimacy, on the other
hand, is expressed through the unofcial land-tenures
of family land, generational land, commonage
and even squatting which are sometimes erroneously
regarded as anachronistic survivals from colonial or an-
cestral cultures. To the contrary, these alternative land
tenure forms refect dynamic attempts by the poorer
sectors of Caribbean society to maximise their kinship
lines and their limited access to land, in order to ensure
their own food security and inter-generational survi-
val. Anthropologists refer to this activity as Caribbean
culture-building. In Haiti it is generally referred to as a
struggle to move from precariousness to legitimacy (de
prcarit vers lgitimit).
It is not surprising, therefore, to fnd Caribbean land
tenure relationships proving to be as rigid in structure as
the economy they support. Economist Andrew Pienkos
[Pienkos, 2006] has observed that despite decades of
development strategies and industrial polices, Caribbean
economies continue to show a pervasive economic dua-
lism, as evident in the co-existence of two distinct and
largely independent spheres of activities. Tis is a con-
clusion that can be readily applied to the numerous
eforts in the past to reform Caribbean land tenure. But
to understand this rigidity, we have to recognize that in
the Caribbean, it is the economy (plantation system)
that created the society (slave society) and not the other
way around. Tus to conceive of a full dismantlement
of this land tenure relationship is essentially to seek to
dismantle Caribbean society as we have known it.
Tere have been only two attempts in Caribbean history
to dismantle these structures. Te frst was the Haitian
Revolution (1791-1803) which, under the Presidencies
of Alexandre Petion (1806-1818) and Jean-Pierre Boyer
(1818-1843), completely obliterated the plantation system
by 1842 and produced a widespread peasantry, owning
and claiming small parcels of land. Te second was the
Cuban revolution (1959) in which the revolutionary state
appropriated all large privately owned land holdings
and produced a state-controlled tenure structure. All
other eforts, in history and present, are usually designed
to make tenure relations more accommodating to the
current reality.
Trends
Pre-eminence of state land ownership
Te important characteristic of land tenure in the Ca-
ribbean is the dominance of state ownership in the land
profle of most countries. In most Caribbean countries,
Table 14. Profle of Caribbean Land Use in Action
Country
State
Ownership
Forestry Agriculture
Terrestrial
Protected Area
1 St. Kitts/Nevis 82% 42% 19% 3,8%
2 Guyana 78% 77% 9% 5,0%
3 Dominica 66% 60% 32% 21,7%
4 Bahamas
1
51% 51% 1% 13,7%
5 Trinidad & Tobago 51% 44% 11% 31,2%
6 St. Vincent & the Grenadines 47% 69% 26% 10,9%
7 Belize 45% 61% 7% 27,9%
8 Antigua & Barbuda 41% 23% 30% 7,0%
9 St. Lucia 38% 77% 18% 14,3%
10 Suriname
2
33% 95% 1% 11,6%
11 Jamaica 22% 31% 41% 18,9%
12 Grenada 10% 50% 35% 1,7%
13 Barbados 1% 19% 44% 0,1%
14 Dominican Republic
3
41% 51% 22,2%
15 Cuba
4
80% 27% 63% 6,4%
16 Hait
5
4% 67% 0,3%
Notes:
1. Bahamas: Forestry is used as a good indicator of the extent of Crown Lands ownership
2. Suriname: The laws vest full ownership of untitled lands and all natural resources in the state (domain land)
3. Dominican Republic: Law 6106 of 1962 confscated all the property of the former Dictator Trujillo and converted it
into property of the state via Consejo Estatal del Azcar, (1966)
4. The Cuban State assumes all land ownership in principle while sharing Usufruct rights with cooperatives.
5. In Haiti the state either purchases land for its social obligation or acquires it by fat.
Source: World Bank World Development Indicators 2009, Caricom Secretariat, 2000.
the state either inherited the land resources of the former
colonial rulers or purchased such resources as part of its
own land reform activities. Tis pre-eminent position in
land ownership and control makes the state the trend-
setter in land matters.
In the Independence Era (1960 -2010), post-colonial
Caribbean States sought to increase medium and small-
scale private holdings by re-distributing land to the rural
population either through the acquisition of large esta-
tes or dispensation from their own state lands. Tese
programmes have largely been abandoned in spite of
the fact that the rural poor continue to agitate for their
delivery. For instance, the National Farmers Union of
the Dominican Republic is reported to have delivered
petitions to the governor of the province of Puerto Plata,
Mrs. Eridania Gibre on April 12, 2011, demanding that
she make good on the governments pledge to distribute
land to poor farmers. Such actions serve as a testimony
to the recognition, by many citizens of the Caribbean,
of a presumed capacity of government to make things
happen in terms of land tenure.
Caribbean governments, however, have stepped away
from direct intervention in the land market, accepting
instead to strengthen the Land Administration Infras-
tructure and improve the security of land rights. Based
on the belief that secure land rights are the cornerstone
needed to break the cycle of poverty in rural communi-
ties and fnanced by international agencies, Caribbean
governments have instituted programmes with such the-
mes as land registration, tenure security, privatization
and individualization of land rights. Te most recent
programmes in this trend include the following;
Belize ( i. idb 2006) Cadastral and Property rights Re-
gistration;
St. Kitts ( ii. oas 2006) Land Registry, Cadastre and Real
Estate Property Management;
Guyana ( iii. idb 2010) Mapping the reasons why the
Property Rights System is inefective using the Reality
Check Analysis (rca) Methodology;
Haiti ( iv. oas 2010) Modernization of Cadastre and
Land Rights Infrastructure
Haiti ( v. idb 2012) Parcel Demarcation and Land Te-
nure Clarifcation
Te main focus of these programmes is to improve the
institutional structures for administering land matters in
the respective states and to contribute to the emergence
of a more vibrant land market. Te logic of using the
land market is that it can best reallocate land into its
most productive alternative uses. Rural communities
are expected to beneft from the monetization of land
rights.
The concentration and de-concentration of
land holdings
Te second most important trend has been the changes
in agricultural holdings brought about by the recent
collapse of traditional agricultural export markets. Tese
international economic events have not produced a pro-
cess of concentration of large land parcels or the aggressi-
ve appropriation of rural lands in the Caribbean. Rather
a mixed picture has emerged. In countries that have
continued to beneft from primary commodity exports,
the land ownership pattern has remained concentrated
in a few hands. In most of the Caribbean, however, the
collapse of the preferential trade regime for bananas and
sugar has resulted in a distinct decline in the total area
utilized for agricultural production and, in one case, an
actual decline in large land holdings.
Te Dominican Republic is the second largest sugar
producer in the Caribbean (next to Cuba). It is also a
country in which the model of a skewed land tenure
structure persists. Data from the 1981 census displayed
a land tenure structure that was essentially the same as
that refected in the 1971 census. According to the 1981
agricultural census, 2% of the nations farms occupied
55% of total farmland. By contrast, landholdings repre-
senting 82% of all farms (314,665 units), covered only
12% of the land under cultivation [Haggerty 1989]. Even
the 1998 Agricultural Census conducted by the state
Sugar Council (Consejo Estatal del Azcar) confrmed
the persistence of this skewed distribution. According
to that census, 40% of households with access to land
(titled occupation) owned less than 1.2 hectares each. Te
next category of land holdings, with less than 3.1 hectares
each, covered 75% of households with titles to land.
In countries where the rural economic base of export
agriculture had collapsed, the response in terms of land
holdings has been varied. Te common reaction to this
collapse has been a decline in the total area under agri-
cultural holdings. In St. Lucia, where the banana regime
collapsed, the total area in agricultural holdings fell from
51,328 acres recorded in the 1996 Agricultural Census,
to 30,204 acres in 2007. Tis represents a decrease of
41.1%. St. Lucias 2007 Census actually reported that
the greatest loss in number of holdings and in area was
observed in largest farms; more than 70% of the large
farms (in excess of 100 acres) operating in 1996 had di-
sappeared by 2007.
In Jamaica, where the impact was felt from both the
sugar and banana regimes, the approximately 326,000
hectares of land in farms recorded in the 2007 Census
of Agriculture refected a decline of 81,624 hectares or
just over 20% since 1996. In Trinidad & Tobago, with
its signifcant energy sector and less reliance on export
agriculture, total land in agriculture also declined from
131,572 hectares in 1982 to 84,990 hectares in 2004; a
decline of 35% with a similar decline (37%) in the num-
ber of farms.
However the inter-censual changes did have two sur-
prises. In Trinidad, large land holdings (in excess of 500
hectares) actually rose from 2.97% of the total agricul-
tural land (93.576 ha) in 1982 to an astounding 34.15%
of total agricultural land (84,989 ha) in 2004. Tis is
attributed to an aggressive approach by the state to su-
pport large-scale production of food in response to the
ever-increasing food import bill.
In St. Lucia on the other hand, not only did the lar-
ge holdings decline, but the proportion of land held
under customary tenure, i.e., Family Land, increased
signifcantly. According to the 2007 Census, the share
of owned land (i.e. land with legal title) in total land
holdings decreased during the last 20 years from 60%
to 40%, while family land increased from 24% in 1986
to 42% in 2007. As the economic fortunes from agri-
cultural land declines, families in St. Lucia appear to be
seeking security and inter-generational survival through
customary tenure.
Table 16: Caribbean Remittances as % of gdp 2007 - 2010
2007 2008 2009 2010
Haiti 20 .47% 21 .38% 21 .23% 22 .34%
Jamaica 16 .62% 15 .31% 15 .20% 14 .11%
Guyana 16 .25% 14 .48% 13 .74% 13 .85%
Dominican Republic 8 .29% 8 .01% 7 .41% 6 .51%
Grenada 7 .22% 6 .67% 7 .02% 7 .05%
St. Kitts/Nevis 6 .23% 6 .34% 6 .46% 12 .47%
Dominica 6 .11% 5 .63% 5 .45% 5 .62%
Belize 5 .86% 5 .75% 5 .95% 5 .66%
St. Vincent & Te Grenadines 4 .83% 4 .43% 4 .31% 4 .34%
Barbados 4 .15% 2 .76% 3 .15% 2 .99%
St. Lucia 2 .93% 2 .79% 2 .76% 2 .62%
Antigua & Barbuda 1 .86% 1 .85% 1 .95% 2 .05%
Trinidad & Tobago 0 .50% 0 .35% 0 .55% 0 .58%
Total us$M us$7,750 us$7,986 us$7,548 us$7,725
Source: Compiled from World Development Indicators; The World Bank
Response to external/internal crises
Trade opportunities have traditionally played a key role
in the development of both the national and the rural
economy in the Caribbean. Tese trade opportunities
have been predominantly in commodity exports to Eu-
ropean markets under special preferential agreements.
Tis has been the legacy of two centuries of a land te-
nure structure created in support of large monoculture
plantations, producing a single export crop. Historically
sugar and banana have been the two major Caribbean
export crops; raw sugar exported from Cuba, Domini-
can Republic, Guyana, Jamaica and St. Kitts/Nevis and
banana exported from Dominica, Dominican Republic,
Belize, Jamaica, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Lucia,
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada. Te fip
side of this legacy is that domestic food supplies have
been left in the hands of small non-plantation producers
or replaced ever-increasing food imports.
An external/internal crisis arises when changing condi-
tions in the commodity export markets (primarily Euro-
pe because of historical reasons) trigger an economic
crisis of major proportions in the domestic economy.
Te main factors or events that precipitate such crises
are changes in the capacity of the country to produce at
traditional export levels or the loss of market share and
attractive export prices. Tis has occurred in recent times
in both sugar and banana exports from the Caribbean.
Sugar exports have defned Caribbean economies in
an historical and complex manner. Around 75% of the
worlds sugar is produced from sugar cane the histori-
cal crop of the plantation system. However, although
a signifcant proportion around one-third - of global
sugar production enters world trade, only a small share
is produced and traded at world prices. Te bulk of
international trade takes place under long-term arran-
gements (preferential trade agreements and contracts).
For instance, sugar export earnings for the Caribbean
region averaged us$406 million during 1999-2001 with
60% of these earnings being due to preferential access
to the eu and U.S. sugar markets.
Te erosion of preferential treatment of Caribbean su-
gar exports to the European Union (eu) began with
the collapse of sugar prices worldwide in the 1990s. Re-
cognizing the signifcant role that sugar exports play in
the economies of most Caribbean countries and other
traditional exporters, the European Union entered in a
series of joint agreements with African, Caribbean and
Pacifc (acp) countries to assist them in readjusting
their domestic economies. Tus emerged the Sugar
Protocol, comprising a combination of specifc tarifs,
safeguards, country-specifc tarif quotas, rules of origin
and country-specifc suspensions from tarif.
Te Sugar Protocol also included a eu commitment to
support the economic adjustment process in exporting
countries with income transfers. But this is essentially a
policy instrument that can be unilaterally changed by the
European Union. In fact, acp exporting countries faced
a reduction in their guaranteed export price of 36% as a
result of a 2005 reform in the Sugar Protocol.
The importance of income transfers under the Sugar
Protocol, have turned out to be a very weak response to
the trade crisis precipitated by a loss of export income.
Both in absolute and relative terms (as a proportion of
national income and total export earnings), these trans-
fers were signifcant to Guyana and St. Kitts/Nevis and,
at the most, modest to Belize, Barbados and Jamaica.
More importantly, however was the response from Ca-
ribbean governments themselves. In most instances,
governments pursued aggressively the development of
the tourism sector, even to the extent of offering land
access to foreigners as an incentive. Thus the Alien
Land Registration requirements, instituted in the 1980s
and 1990s as a means of limiting land ownership by fo-
reigners, were relaxed and in some cases the traditional
access of citizens to beach facilities (recreational and
small artisan fsheries) was severely restricted.
The rise of tourism earnings has succeeded to a great de-
gree in replacing the loss in income at the national level,
from declining banana and sugar export opportunities.
However, in most cases, this replacement provided very
few of the backward economic linkages that the struc-
ture of commodity exports had entrenched in the rural
communities. A recent World Bank Study [de Ferranti
2005] measured the impact of rural economic activities
and their high contribution to agricultural exports and
found that while rural natural resource activities only
accounted for 12% of Caribbean regional gdp, their
effect on national growth and poverty reduction was
nearly twice as large. This was due to the forward and
backward linkages associated with export agriculture
that have now been lost to tourism development.
Remittances as a significant response
Te third response to the internal crisis is the rise in
remittances as a signifcant income fow from Ca-
ribbean migrants in the metropolitan countries. In
2010, remittances from 13 Caribbean countries were
estimated at us$7 billion [idb 2011], or 7% of total
gdp. Although 2010 remittance fows may have been
exceptionally large (increasing by 8.3%), in response
to the devastating earthquake in Haiti early that year,
the trend in remittances continued to be signifcant,
increasing by 5.9%, in 2011.
As Table 16 indicates, these remittances exceed 5% of gdp
in more than 50% of the countries and are more signif-
cant than the income transfers from the Sugar Protocol.
While they may be considered as consumption support,
their potential to stabilize rural incomes from insecure
land tenures and to be converted into land investments is
still to be explored. Tere is enough evidence to suggest
that growth in the national economy can have positive
efects on poverty reduction. Te question is the extent
to which growth in the rural natural resource sector (i.e.,
land, agriculture and rural employment) can be associa-
ted with additional increments in the size of the rest of
the economy. Te World Bank study [de Ferranti 2005]
also suggests that in spite of the low gdp share of Rural
Natural Resource (rnr) sector, for each 1.0% growth of
the rnr sector, there is an average increase in the incomes
of the poor of almost 0.08%. In other words, the percen-
tage of the national population earning less than us$1 per
day would tend to decline with improvements in both
agricultural value added and land yields. Te potential
remains for remittances to become attracted into rural
natural resource investment activities with a signifcant
impact on the future of Caribbean land tenure.
Outlook
The economics of Caribbean land reform
Te standard economic model seeks to position land
tenure within a land policy that promotes sustainable
and equitable economic growth by enabling land to
play its role optimally as a factor in the production of
Table 15. Estimates of Income Transfers under the
Sugar Protocol
Transfer US$M
% of
GDP
% of total
exports
Guyana 61.3 10.1% 11.4%
St. Kitts 7.3 2.4% 5.4%
Belize 17.1 2.5% 4.9%
Barbados 24.7 1.1% 2.3%
Jamaica 53.2 0.8% 1.8%
Trinidad &
Tobago
20.1 0.3% 0.5%
Total Sugar
Protocol
584,2
Source: Forthcoming Changes in the eu Banana/
Sugar Markets: A Menu of Options for an Effec-
tive eu Transitional Package, odi Report by Ian
Gillson, Adrian Hewitt & Sheila, Table 26, p.52
Cuba has also faced a similar external/internal
crisis in its commodity trade relations. In 1990
a collapse in Cubas major trading partner, the
Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (cmea),
primarily Soviet Bloc countries, precipitated a
crisis in its domestic economy and forced the Re-
volutionary Government to deal with the legacy
of its colonial land tenure. This legacy is not diffe-
rent from other Caribbean states, namely a huge
monoculture agricultural sector, now state-owned
in Cuba producing a single export crop, sugar; a
corresponding food import bill of about us$1.5
billion annually, accounting for close to 80% of
Cubas basic food supplies; and a signifcant de-
cline in its rural population from 56% in 1956 to
28% in 1989 to less than 20% in the mid-90s. As
Dr. Fernando Funes-Monzote a senior researcher
at the Experimental Station Indio Hatuey of the
University of Matanzas, Cuba, has observed, the
elimination of the latifundio in 1959 in Cuba by itself
did not eradicate the historical problems intrinsic to
the national agricultural system.
The Cuban model to achieve more effcient
agricultural production has moved away from the
collectivisation approach of organized state farms
of 1963, in a similar manner as other Caribbean
states have moved away from a reliance on state
lands to reverse the declining fortunes in the
agricultural sector. Cubas experience has inclu-
ded, (1977) Cooperativas de Produccin Agrope-
cuaria (cpas) which used state land to produce
non-export crops; (1993): Unidades Bsicas de
Produccin Cooperativa (ubpcs) which allowed
collectives of workers to lease state farmlands
rent free, in perpetuity; and (1996/7) Parcele-
ros where land was being distributed directly to
family farmers organized in three categories:
- ccs: Most of those who have private ownership
of their farms are members of Credit and Service
Cooperatives (ccs). By 1997 there were 2,709
ccss, with a membership consisting of 159,223
individual farmers working 11.8% of total agricul-
tural land (Ofcina Nacional de Estadsticas 1997).
- Usufructuarios: These are the individual far-
mers who have received lands in usufruct (with
rights to use, not dispense) originating from the
state. In 1996 the number of these so-called
usufructuarios had grown from zero to 43,015
farmers.
- Individual Farmers, who are not co-op members
One thread that connects these land/production
reorganization schemes is to be found in a now
defunct programme begun before the Special
Period, called Vinculando el Hombre con la
Tierra, [Funes et al., 2002] which sought to more
closely link the producer (at that time state farm
workers) to particular parcels of land. In this new
drive to boost local food security, the Cuban
government, according to the offcial media, has
handed out 689,697 hectares or 41% of the total
plan and that 25% is already being farmed.
This land distribution process initiated in 2008
is, however, of a different genre. First it seems
to be coming from a recognition that in spite of
previous policy initiatives to re-orient some of
the state farms into the production of domestic
food supplies, it is a small non-state, private food
producing section of the population that conti-
nues to out-produce the state-organized sector
in such crops as tomato by 17.5%; onion by 38%;
peppers by 116%; and all vegetables combined by
56% [Alvarez 2004]. Secondly, it seems to have
attracted a section of the population with very
little agricultural experience. According to the
head of the National Land Control Center, Pedro
Olivera, 26% of the new Cuban farmers were
people under 25 years with little work experience
and more than 70% of the total recipients had
no experience in agriculture. Thirdly the state is
seeking to provide continuity and sustainability
to this measure. Plots are limited to 13 hectares
and can be worked for 10 years by individuals and
the state is also considering giving authorization
to recipients to build houses on the plots. These
aspects of this initiative tend to suggest that the
challenge to the Cuban government will not come
from achieving production levels but from new
forms of culture building in rural communities.
Box 4. A revolution bends to its land legacy
The distribution of state lands to private indi-
viduals does not in itself constitute a change
in the structure of land tenure in Cuba, which
recognises income from the use of land (usu-
fruct) but not income from the possession of land
(market value). The offcial expectation is that
this situation would evolve towards new forms
of management and the establishment of more
productive relationships among production units
and between them and state enterprises. Howe-
ver, it is left to be seen whether new forms of
culture building and informal land exchanges will
be allowed to emerge as citizens seek to impose
their own interpretation of sustainability and
viability on the allocated land parcels.
goods and services. Te land-related outcomes that are
associated with this model are:
Efciency via increased tenure security, investment
and dynamic land markets;
Equity via access to resources by disadvantaged
groups; and,
Sustainability via eforts at land protection.
Te principal indicators of efective land markets are:
Increased volume of transactions to transfer land to
people who are likely to use it better;
Increased value of land, to reward owners for the most
remunerative uses of land;
Reduced transactions costs (in both money and time)
facilitated by an efcient administration of land mat-
ters;
Improved access to credit to increase the economic
productivity of the land and the income recovery of
the owners.
While theoretically sound, this model becomes very weak
as a guide for efective land tenure policy in most of the
Caribbean. Its weakness stems from the fact that it views
land solely as a wealth-creating asset while a signifcant
segment of Caribbean society views land as a source of
Culture and Patrimony. Tis context is to be distin-
guished from the Cuban Maxim, La vivienda es para
vivir en ella, no para vivir de ella (Te home is to live in,
not to live from), which totally denies the opportunity
for property income. Within the culture and patrimony
context, the outlook for land tenure reform is likely to be
dominated by cultural issues that transcend identifable
marketable rights and economic income from tenure.
Table 4 provides a profle of current land tenure issues in
the Caribbean. Te three important issues continue to
be the low level of parcel identifcation (tenure security
issue); the persistence of alternate forms of land tenure
(legitimacy issue); and issues relating to land occupation
as distinct from land ownership (culture building eforts).
But these three categories together tend to exhibit more
cultural characteristics than administrative or purely
economic ones.
Te issue of land parcel identifcation will surely continue
to be signifcant as witnessed by the amount of interna-
tional resources already committed to this activity. Land
registries in the Caribbean are struggling to fully identify
ownership of all parcels of land, but whether parcel iden-
tifcation will provide security of tenure to the majority
of the rural poor is questionable.
Tere are three major factors that work against the sim-
plicity of the legal solutions that have been implemented
to date. Tese are:
Cost of registering titles is considered high in terms a.
of both money and time and has become a major
disincentive for land transactions to remain within
the confnes of the law;
Non-market transfers of land parcels which not only b.
introduce a multiplicity of non-legal arrangements
but also cause legally titled land parcels to slip back
into non-legal customary tenure;
Table 17. Profle of Caribbean Land Issues
Country
Land Parcels
(est.)
Other Signifcant Ownership Patterns Land Occupation Issues
Guyana 40,000+
Historic state land leases; collective holdings of
Amerindian lands.
Preponderance of informal land
transactions, either only minimally
documented or entirely undocumented.
Suriname n.a
Customary land tenure; communal leasehold
titles to indigenous communities.
Indigenous communities challenging
the rights of the state to Domain
Lands.
Cuba n.a
Leasing of state-owned lands; usufructs rights to
cooperatives and individuals.
Experiments with private land
distribution in food production and
in housing (Law 288).
Dominican
Republic
2,250,000
Haitian immigration and the
integration of Dominicans of Haitian
descent are major issues
Haiti 1,260,000 Rentals and share cropping; Less than 5% of land is cadastred.
Belize n.a
Historic communal occupation (Maya,
Garifuna); leasing of national estate lands
Legitimate claims to lands utilized
in the shifting cultivation of Milpa
Farmers.
Jamaica 676,584 Family lands, un-documented transfers
Concern over squatting on both
private and public lands.
Bahamas 140,000
Generational titles; commonage; crown land
grants,
Remote islands being occupied by
migrants mainly from Haiti.
Trinidad &
Tobago
440,000 Family lands (Tobago) 25,000 housing squatters on state lands;
Dominica n.a
Communal ownership: 3,700 acres vested in the
Caribbean Council
Confict over Private ownership
St. Lucia 33,281 Family lands - 45% of total lands Un-documented land transfers
Antigua 41,000
Communal lands in Barbuda;
23% of land with un-established ownership
Recent claims of immigrant
community approx. 3,000; on
outskirts of St. Johns
Barbados 98,098 Land leases; Policy of public access to beaches
St. Vincent &
Grenadines
n.a
Owner-like possessions rental lands about 23%
agricultural lands.
Reported 16,000 unauthorized land
occupants; Forest reserves threatened
Grenada 52,229 Family lands estimated 15% of all lands.
Incidence considered low; 1,250
plots regularized
St. Kitts/Nevis n.a
Family lands; rental holdings:
12% in St. Kitts, 18% in Nevis
403 acres in St. Kitts and 128 acres
in Nevis under illegal possession

Source: Extracted from studies in Land in the Caribbean, Allan N. Williams, ed., 2003
Customary ownership, which identifes the land c.
rights of a collective group of persons rather than
an individual.
Te latter two are legitimacy and culture building issues
and are likely to fashion the responses in Caribbean land
tenure reform, particularly as they relate to:
Te preponderance of informal land transactions, which
continually invalidate the accuracy of registered titles;
Te rights of indigenous peoples and Caribbean im-
migrants to security on land they occupy and do not
necessarily own.
We are already seeing evidence of the difculties in-
herent in applying legal solutions to culturally based
land issues:
In Suriname the indigenous peoples, the Kalia In-
digenous Community of Maho, and the Association
of Indigenous Village Leaders submitted a petition
to the Inter-American Commission of the Human
Rights Organization of American States in 2009. Te
petition challenges the laws that vest full ownership
of untitled lands and all natural resources in the state
and the provisions that negate or make illusory the
land privileges accorded to their communities.
In Belize small farmers can be divided into milpa
producers, who practice shifting cultivation, and per-
manent cultivators. Tis shifting cultivation practice,
prevalent among the Maya of the southern districts,
refects a cultural accommodation to insecure tenure
situations, which cannot be reversed by simply pro-
viding these farmers with legal land titles.
In the Bahamas and Turks & Caicos Islands, eforts
have been made to codify and give special advanta-
ges to belongers versus non-belongers [Williams
2005]. Tese cultural defnitions of land ownership
failed essentially because international capital, which
is needed for such structural development in the
tourism sector, does not need to reveal the nationa-
lity of its owners.
Te government of Trinidad and Tobago had invited
Alcoa to build a $us1.5 billion aluminium smelter on
1,340 hectares, in Chatham/Cap-de-Ville, an area pre-
viously zoned for agriculture. Tis attempt was seen
as a state facilitated internal land grab and provoked
uproar amongst farmers and fshermen who antici-
pated health-related problems in addition to the loss
of income and source of livelihood. Te project was
fnally withdrawn by the succeeding government.
Conflict resolution through land use changes
Te coastal zone is an important asset in the life of Ca-
ribbean citizens from a source of livelihoods (fshing,
shrimping) to recreational facilities (beach occasions),
trade with neighbouring islands and disaster survival
(accessibility of external emergency support). So when
conficts arise from alternative land uses of coastal zones
like in tourism establishments (hotels), legal issues, social
responsibilities and economic rights all complicate the
situation.
However, there are examples of successful resolution
through voluntary agreements among the various
stakeholders in which the focus becomes compliance
actions to reduce the areas of confict, rather than non-
resolution in a never ending name and blame process.
Te feasibility of such a mechanism has been demons-
trated in the Soufriere Marine Management Area (smma)
(www.smla.org.lc) in the West Coast of St. Lucia. Te
smma comprises 11 km of coastline which has been vo-
luntarily zoned for fve diferent types of usage: marine
reserves, fshing priority areas, yacht mooring areas,
recreational areas and multiple use areas. Tese zones
were designed to cater to the myriad uses in the area,
reducing confict among users and protecting critical
marine resources.
High Nature Value (HNV) environments
Tere are also critical land spaces in the Caribbean that
have not been declared Protected Areas because the
legislation (where it exists) is too restrictive and politi-
cally explosive. Te absence of a legal designation does
not reduce the High Nature Value of these environ-
ments. Tese include watershed areas, wetlands and coral
reefs all of which provide life-supporting eco-system
services.
One instrument that has emerged is the High Nature
Value Index (hnvi) [Williams 2011], which assesses the
impact and improves the contribution of farming practi-
ces to ecological stability in this environment. Te hnvi
can play a vital role in fnding common ground between
the needs of rural communities to increase agricultural
productivity and farm-incomes and the desire to reduce
the negative environmental impact of economic activity
in such sensitive areas. Te current challenge is to ins-
titutionalize the hnvi as an application tool available
to a wider spectrum of stakeholders and contributing
to broadening the base of responsible actors in these
environments.
The challenge of rural poverty
Te challenges of poverty in the Caribbean will also
have to be addressed by policies in which land will be
the central instrument for implementation. Tis is the
concept of resource poverty which measures things
like access to housing, health, education and land. For
instance, Grenada is one of the smallest Caribbean States
with 84,000 acres (33,994 ha), where the state owns less
than 10% of the land and where the level of poverty is
reported to be as high as 32% of the population. Focusing
on the housing need, the Public Sector Housing Policy
and Strategy for Grenada, [Grenada 2002], ofers the
following land-related factors as infuencing the solution
to the housing problem:
Grenadians have a culture of family land holding that
complicates land title and discourages sub-division
and sale;
Te nature of the economy has been changing from
rural agricultural to urban service-based, putting a
premium on land in areas close to economic deve-
lopment;
Land prices have risen sharply in the past two de-
cades, due mainly to the relative scarcity of housing
plots, population and economic growth and expa-
triate Grenadians and non-Grenadians investing for
retirement;
Te lack of published land-use plans probably restricts
private and public initiatives that would otherwise
bring new land onto the housing market.
However, the issue of resource poverty is no less daunting
in one of the richest economies in the Caribbean. Te
available census data for Trinidad & Tobago indicate that
47.1% of households do not have adequate documenta-
tion of rights to the land on which their houses are built.
Tis represents 141,468 households with a total popu-
lation of approximately 576,959 people. It is assumed,
theoretically, that improved security of tenure would
enable those households to have easier access to credit
for house improvements and would help assure that in-
vestments made in homes would be legally protected.
A study of housing fnance in Trinidad & Tobago [Au-
guste et al., 2011] revealed the complexities of land te-
nure and afordable housing. Te study indicated that
during the period of strong economic growth, while
housing prices skyrocketed the demand for mortgage
loans remained low. Te study implied that housing
prices increased more rapidly than wages resulting in
afordability problems characterizing the dynamics of
the housing defcit.
It is clear that the economics of the housing market
would serve to attract buyers and suppliers to the upper
scale of housing needs. A secondary issue then arises
around the measures undertaken by the state to make
lands available for afordable housing. Te confict
emerges when government seeks to make former agri-
cultural lands available for public housing. While the
opposition to the loss of agricultural lands is unders-
tandable, the fact remains that housing and settlements
cannot be implemented in remote areas far from social
infrastructure (roads, schools, hospitals, police ofces,
etc.).
Caribbean Dutch Disease
Te Caribbean region has been identifed as a major
transhipment venue for illicit drugs into the United
States and Europe. Tis is an activity that is not only
contributing to the rise in violence but also to the accu-
mulation of signifcant amounts of wealth in the hands
of trafckers. A study of Drug Trafcking in the Ca-
ribbean by the Council on Hemispheric Afairs (coha)
in 2011 [Beale 2011] concluded that the Caribbeans na-
tural landscapes and difuse geographical locations make
it appealing to drug trafckers. Te islands ofer the ad-
vantages of weak administrations with little control over
long coastlines and inaccessible mountainous interiors
that may be ideal for the growth and transportation of
narcotics. Money laundering of such illicit gains into real
estate is also becoming a source of concern both from a
position of economic stability and rising land prices in
the Caribbean [DominicaToday.com 2011] Tus, rising
land values in the Caribbean do not necessarily signify
an efcient market allocation of land resources into al-
ternative land uses.
Te Housing Policy study referred to above, suggested
that rising land prices in Trinidad & Tobago were the
result of Dutch Disease pressure arising from signif-
cant export earnings of the energy sector. But that does
not explain the rise in land prices for housing in other
Caribbean islands with no signifcant energy sectors.
We may be witnessing a variant of Dutch Disease in
which a non-productive wealth generating sector
(drug trafcking) distorts through its lavish consump-
tion, accumulation and investment actions:
Property Values and real estate ownership patterns;
Economic opportunities and market driven resource
allocation;
Turf battles in wealth protection among lower inco-
me groups (gangs and guns)
Determining the correct response is as difcult as dis-
cerning the nature and source of the problem. Te
Caribbean economies are free-market economies with
strong infuences fowing from the economic to the
political sphere of activities. Managing the inevitable
structural changes in the economy and the political sys-
tem so as to ensure social and economic stability will
continue to be challenged by such short-term distortions
produced by such a disproportionate accumulation of
wealth.
Capacity for disaster response
One of the unspoken lessons of the Haitian crisis emer-
ging from the devastating earthquake of 2010 is the ex-
tent to which a poor land administrative structure is
restricting the pace of recovery. Te earthquake destro-
yed the civil structures including records of land tenu-
re in the capital and its environs. Not only were these
structures difcult to negotiate during normal times,
they became totally impossible to reproduce during an
emergency.
Te loss-to-output ratio argues theoretically that a
natural disaster will have a strong impact on a countrys
economic performance if the size of damages is high
compared with the size of the economy [Charvriat
2000].

Te authors observations appear to corroborate
the theory that the depressionary efect of the disaster can
be outweighed by the sharp increase in gdp in the years
following the disaster if the lost-to-output ratio is low.
Te experience of recovery in Haiti reduces any hope
that such statistical history applies in the Caribbean. In
the small-sized Caribbean economies, resilience to na-
tural disasters will continue to depend on the skills and
motivation of the remaining population, the availability
of and access to land and improved security of tenure;
the complications of emergency land use and environ-
mental issues; the restructuring of the delivery of basic
services, including water, sanitation, health services and
transportation, all of which can function best within the
framework of a viable land administration system.
The guiding principles of best practices
Tere is an urgent need to acknowledge the inequalities
and diversities of the land situation in the Caribbean as
a guide to what can wisely be done under the prevailing
circumstances. Te best practice idea as promoted by
unescos Environment and Development in Coastal
Regions and in Small Islands (csi) platform, calls for
strategies that address the following issues:
Efectiveness: a minimum or absence of disputes,
with limited efort needed to ensure compliance;
Stability: an adaptive capacity to cope with progres-
sive changes, such as the arrival of new users or te-
chniques;
Resilience: a capacity to accommodate surprise or
sudden shocks;
Equitability: a shared perception of fairness among
the members with respect to the winners and lo-
sers.
Broadening the base of responsible actors
Government revenues in the Caribbean are not robust
enough to singularly resolve cultural land issues. As such,
the more achievable policy goal would be to broaden the
base of responsible actors in society by giving decision
making power to lower levels of governance and seeking
to support their action plans in a cost efective way that
makes everyone a winner. Tere are fve operating stra-
tegies that will serve this purpose well. Tese are:
Cooperation among stakeholders to become as in-
clusive as possible;
Alliance for action as a response to complexity at
the sectoral level;
abcolombia. 2011. Returning Land to Colombias Victims. Available at http://www.abcolombia.org.uk/downloads/
ReturningLandReportforweb.pdf
Acharya, K.P., Dangi, R.B., Acharya, M. 2012. Analysis of forest degradation in Nepal. Unasylva 238(62): 31-38.
afp (Agence France-Presse). 2012. Mexico kills 2.5 mn poultry to contain bird fu. July 11. Available at http://www.
google.com/hostednews/afp/article/aleqM5hOw9R4vybA_zotbfr3uksnnrmxUw?docId=cng.e3bb940ba7c-
d96953abc2a7998969c09.261
Alvarez, Jos. 2004. Cubas Agricultural Sector. Gainesville, fl: University Press of Florida.
ami (American Meat Institute). 2010. Fact Sheet - International Trade: Latin America. Washington, D.C., July.
Available at http://www.meatami.com/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/61569/
Antle, J. M. 1983. Infrastructure and Aggregate Agricultural Productivity: International Evidence. Economic
Development and Cultural Change. Vol. 31, No. 3 (Apr., 1983), pp. 609-619. Te University of Chicago Press.
Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/1153216
Arauco. 2010. Annual Report 2010. Santiago, Chile. Available at http://www.arauco.cl/_fle/fle_5015_annual-
report-arauco-2010.pdf
Auguste, S.; Moya, R.; Sookram, S. 2011. Housing Finance Policy under Dutch Disease Pressure: Te Mortgage
Market in Trinidad and Tobago. idb-tn-302.
Aylwin, J. 2002. El acceso de los indgenas a la tierra en los ordenamientos jurdicos de Amrica Latina: Un estudio
de casos. Unidad de Desarrollo Agrcola, depe, eclac, Santiago.
Banco Central de Chile. 2011. Cuentas Nacionales: Evolucin de la actividad econmica en el ao 2011. Available
at http://goo.gl/lwoz1
Baranyi, S.; Deere, C.D.; Morales, M. 2004. Estudio del alcance de la investigacin sobre polticas de tierras en
Amrica Latina, Te North-South Institute, irdc.
Barona, E.; Ramankutty, N.; Hyman, G.; Coomes, O.T. 2010. Te role of pasture and soybean in deforestation
of the Brazilian Amazon. Environmental Research Letters 5(2): 1-9. Available at http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-
9326/5/2/024002/pdf/1748-9326_5_2_024002.pdf
Barsky, A. and Vio, M. 2007. La problemtica del ordenamiento territorial en cinturones verdes periurbanos so-
metidos a procesos de valorizacin inmobiliaria. El Caso del Partido del Pilar, Regin Metropolitana de Buenos
Aires, 9th International Colloquium on Geocriticism.
Beale, M. 2011. Te caricom Blueprint for Illicit Drug Trafcking, Research Associate for the Council on Hemis-
pheric Afairs (coha), December 28, 2011.
Beintema, N.M. and Stads, G-J. 2010. Public agricultural R&D investments and capacities in developing Coun-
Bibliography
Co-management of the ecosystem through negotia-
tion with those who have entitlements but need to
exercise more responsibility at the landscape level;
Consensus building for respect and equity at the
national organizational level.
Technical Training for efectiveness and efciency
at the implementation level. Developing a cadre of
technicians capable of making land degradation as-
sessments; training farmers in compatible eco-system
techniques; gps positioning and designing systems of
hnv Index Mapping.
Te Caribbean region needs to see the creation of new
or reconfgured institutions that would efectively ad-
minister both private and public interests in land in a
market economy. Tis is needed to ensure that initiatives
such as environmental zoning, promoting eco-tourism,
managing urban expansion, protecting coastal zones and
controlling deforestation are not seriously challenged
by the trend towards marketization of individual land
rights.
tries: Recent Evidence for 2000 and beyond. ast I Background Note. Prepared for the Global Conference on
Agricultural Research for Development (gcard), Montpellier, March 2730, 2010. Available at http://www.
asti.cgiar.org/pdf/gcard-BackgroundNote.pdf
Besson, J. 1995. Land, Kinship and Community in the Post-Emancipation Caribbean: A Regional View of the
Leewards, in Small Islands, Large Questions: Society, Culture and Resistance in the Post-Emancipation Ca-
ribbean, edited by Karen Fog Olwig, pp. 73-99.
Besson, J. 2003. History, Culture and Land in the English-speaking Caribbean in land in the caribbean, Pro-
ceedings of a Workshop on Land Policy, Administration and Management in Te English-Speaking Caribbean,
edited by Dr. Allan N. Williams.
Blayney, D.; Gehlhar, M; Bolling, C.H.; Jones, K.;. Langley, S; Normile, M.A.; Somwaru, A. 2006. U.S. Dairy at a
Global Crossroads. Economic Research Report No. err-28, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.,
November. Available at http://webarchives.cdlib.org/sw15d8pg7m/http://ers.usda.gov/Publications/err28/
Bojanic, A. 2011. General State of the forests in Latin America. On the path of sustainable development: Challenges
and alternatives. viii Latin American Congress on Forest Environmental Law. San Jos, Costa Rica. October
2011.
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. 2001. Decreto con fuerza de ley de tierras y desarrollo agrario, No. 1546, Gaceta
Ofcial de la Repblica Bolivariana de Venezuela, No. 37323.
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. 2010. Ley de Reforma Parcial de la Ley de Tierras y Desarrollo Agrario, 2010.
National Assembly of Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (www.asambleanacional.gob.ve)
Borras S. M.; Franco, J. C.; Gmez, S.; Kay, C.; Spoor, M. 2012. Land grabbing in Latin America and the Ca-
ribbean, Journal of Peasant Studies, 39:3-4, pp. 845-872.
Carr, D.L.; Bilborrow, R.E.; Barbieri, A.. 2003. Population, agricultural land use and the environment in Latin
America at the dawn of the 20th century: Evidence of change at the regional, national, and local scales. Procee-
dings of the Open Meeting of the Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Research. Montreal,
Canada. October 16-18. Available at http://www.geog.ucsb.edu/~carr/dcarr_Publications/Carr_Barbieri _Bils-
borrow_Montreal_proceedings_03.pdf
Cerda C. 2011. Te application of choice experiments to identify local preferences for conservation and development
options in the extreme south of Chile. Bosque 32 (3), 297-307.
Cerda C. 2012. Valuing biodiversity and water supply using choice experiments. A case study of La Campana Peuelas
Biosphere Reserve, Chile. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. doi: 10.1007/s10661-012-2549-5.
Charvriat, C. 2000, Natural Disasters in Latin America and the Caribbean: An Overview of Risk, Inter-American
Development Bank, Research Department: Working Paper No.434.
cmpc (Paper and Cardboard Manufacturing Corporation). 2011. Memoria Anual, Santiago, Chile.
conadi (National Indigenous Development Corporation). 2012. Fund for Indigenous Lands and Waters (ftai)
(www.conadi.gob.cl)
Cordero, D. 2011. Latin Americas Forests. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung-Regional Energy and Climate Project.
Cubillos, R. 2012. What the experts say: Description of the Chilean pig sector. pig333.com, Animalesweb S.L.,
Barcelona, Spain. May 14. Available at http://www.pig333.com/what_the_experts_say/description-of-the-chilean-
pig-sector_5742/
Dagang, A.B.K and P.K.R. Nair. 2003. Silvopastoral research and adoption in Central America: recent fndings and
recommendations for future directions. Agroforestry Systems 59: 149155. Available at http://www.springerlink.
com/content/h20jx0873twhm615/fulltext.pdf?mud=mp
deCarbonnel, E. 2009. Market Oracle/Global Research. Available at http://goo.gl/fO1Ow. Accessed on
9/05/2012.
de Ferranti, D.; Perry, G. F.; Foster, W.; Lederman, D.; Valds, A. 2005. Beyond the city: Te Rural Contribution
to Development,. Te World Bank Latin American and Caribbean Studies.
De la Madrid, E. 2009. El Minifundio y el Campo Mexicano. El Sol de Mxico, May 16.
Diario Financiero, Chile. March 30, 2012. (www.df.cl).
Diario la Repblica, Peru. January 29, 2012.
direcon (General Directorate for International Economic Afairs). 2012. (www.direcon.gob.cl).
Dirven, M. 2002. Las prcticas de herencia de tierras agrcolas: una razn ms para el xodo de la juventud?. Serie
Desarrollo Productivo No 135, eclac, Santiago, Chile.
Dirven, M. 2004. Rural non-farm employment and rural diversity in Latin America. eclac Review No. 83, pp.
50-69.
Dirven, M., Echeverri, R., Sabalain, C., Rodrguez, A., Candia, D., Pea, C. & Faiguenbaum, S. 2011. Hacia una
nueva defnicin de rural con fnes estadsticos en Amrica Latina. Documento de Proyecto lc/W397. Unidad
de Desarrollo Agrcola, eclac, Santiago, Chile.
Dirven, M. 2012. Dinmicas del mercado de tierras en los pases del Mercosur y Chile: una mirada analtica-crtica, fao,
Santiago, Chile. Available at http://www.rlc.fao.org/fleadmin/content/events/semtierras/estudios/dirven.pdf
Djinkman, J. and H. Steinfeld. 2010. Chapter 19: Responses on social issues in H. Steinfeld, H.A. Mooney, F.
Schneider, and L.E. Neville, eds. Livestock in a changing landscape: Drivers, consequences, and responses, Vol.
1. Island Press. Available at http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am074e/am074e00.pdf
DominicanToday.com. 2011. Drugs and money laundering in the Dominican Republic.
Dufey A. and Stange, D. 2011. Estudio regional sobre la economa de los biocombustibles en 2010. Documento
de Proyecto lc/W.412, Unidad de Desarrollo Agrcola, Santiago, Chile.
ecadert (Central American Strategy for Rural Territorial Development). 2009. Construyendo juntos una estrate-
gia centroamericana de desarrollo rural territorial. Sntesis del marco de referencia para formular la Estrategia
Centroamericana de Desarrollo Rural Territorial. Available at http://www.ruta.org/boletines/inforuta/Muje-
resValor2/anexos/Consultasecadert/sintesisejecutivaecadertjunio202009.pdf
Echeverri, R. and Sotomayor, O. 2010. Estrategias de gestin territorial rural en las polticas pblicas en Iberoamrica.
Documento de Proyecto lc/W.376, Unidad de Desarrollo Agrcola/eclac and rlc/fao, Santiago, Chile.
B
i
b
l
i
o
g
r
a
f
a
eclac. 2012a. Macroeconomic Report on Latin America and the Caribbean. June.
eclac. 2012b. Preliminary Overview of the Economies of Latin America and the Caribbean 2011 (lc/G.2512-P),
Santiago, Chile, February. United Nations, Sales No. E.12.ii.G.2.
eclac. 2012c. Poblacin, territorio y desarrollo sostenible. lc/L.3474 (cep.2/3). United Nations, Santiago, Chile.
eclac . 2011a. Social Panorama of Latin America 2011. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Ca-
ribbean, Santiago, Chile.
eclac. 2011b. Te reactions of the governments of the Americas to the international crisis: follow-up to policy
measures adopted. December.
eclac. 2010. Social Panorama of Latin America 2010. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Ca-
eclac. 2010. Te Outlook for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Americas: A Perspective on Latin
America and the Caribbean 2010. fao/rlc, Santiago, Chile.
eclac. 2009. Social Panorama of Latin America 2009. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Ca-
eclacstat. 2012. Online database. eclac. Available at http://websie.eclac.cl/sisgen/ConsultaIntegrada.asp/
eclac, fao, iica. 2011. Te Outlook for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Americas: A Perspective on
Latin America and the Caribbean 2011-2012. iica, San Jos, Costa Rica.
eclac, fao, iica. 2010. Te Outlook for Agriculture and Rural Development in the Americas: A Perspective on
Latin America and the Caribbean 2010. iica, San Jos, Costa Rica.
Eldon, B. V.; Butault, J.P. y Nehring, R.F. 2002. U.S. Agriculture, 196096: A Multilateral Comparison of Total
Factor Productivity. Captulo en libro: Agricultural Productivity. Springer us. pp: 11 35, Vo: 2. Available at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-0851-9_2
ers. 2012. Comparing droughts: 1934 and 2012. http://goo.gl/bnkme
European Commission. 2012. Innovating for Sustainable Growth: A Bioeconomy for Europe. Brussels, European
Commission, April 13.
Evenson, R. E.; Kislev, Y. 1975. Agricultural research and productivity. Available at http://goo.gl/MfcWb
Executive Secretary of Agricultural Sector Planning. 2011. Costa Rican State Policy for the Food Sector and Rural
Development, 2010-2021. Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock - San Jos, Costa Rica. 84pp.
fao. 2012a. Food Outlook: Global Market Analysis. Available at: http://goo.gl/Icgxq
fao. 2012b. faostat: Production (online). Rome, it. Accessed June and July 2012. Available at: http://faostat.fao.
org/site/291/default.aspx.
fao. 2012c. faostat: Food balance sheets (online). Rome, it. Accessed June and July 2012. Available at: http://
faostat.fao.org/site/291/default.aspx.
fao. 2012d. fao and oie unveil global strategy for control of foot-and-mouth disease. Media Center (online), March
12. Rome, it. Available at: http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/150417/icode/
fao. 2012e. World food situation: fao Food Price Index. Rome, it. Available at: http://www.fao.org/worldfoodsi-
tuation/wfs-home/foodpricesindex/en/
fao. 2012f. fishstat Database
fao. 2012g. Fish Outlook, May 2012, http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/al989e/al989e00.pdf
fao. 2012h. Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation to Reduce the Vulnerability of Communities and the
Crop, Livestock, Fisheries and Forestry Sectors. Tirty second Regional Conference for Latin America and the
Caribbean, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 26-30 March 2012
fao. 2012i. Food Outlook: Analysis of the World Market. Available at: http://goo.gl/BhxR7.
fao. 2012j. Food Outlook (May). Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep /015/al989s/al989s00.pdf
fao. 2012k. Crop prospects and food situation (March). Available at: http://www.fao.org/
docrep/015/al985s/al985s00.pdf
fao. 2012l. Report on food prices in lac. fao, Santiago de Chile, May
fao.2012m. fao. 2012. Financing of productive activities in small agroforestry producers. Minutes of the meeting.
Santiago, Chile April 17-18 2012.
fao.2012n. fao strategic framework of medium-term cooperation in Family Farming in Latin America and the
Caribbean 2012-2015.
fao.2012o. Dinmica del mercado de la tierra en Amrica Latina y el Caribe. Concentracin y extranjerizacin.
Ofcina Regional de fao, Santiago.
fao.2012p. Voluntary Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests in the
Context of National Food Security, Rome, March [online] http://www.fao.org/fleadmin/user_upload/nr/
land_tenure/pdf/vg_en_Final_March_2012.pdf.
fao.2011a. Save to grow: A guide for policymakers on the sustainable intensifcation of agricultural production on
a small scale. Rome. Available at www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2215s/i2215s.pdf.
fao.2011b. Global food losses and food waste. Rome, mayo.
fao.2011c. Outlook for food and nutritional security in Latin America and the Caribbean 2011,Rome, fao
fao.2011d. Forest institutions in South America. Document not published.
B
i
b
l
i
o
g
r
a
f
a
fao.2011e. Mountain forests in a changing world. Available at: http://www.mountainpartnership.org/common/
fles/pdf/web.Tkohler.pdf
fao.2011f. Community based-fre management. fao Forestry Paper 166. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/015/
i2495e/i2495e00.htm
fao.2011g. Community Forestry in Latin America. Final document.
fao.2011h. Assessing forest degradation towards the development of globally applicable guidelines. Documento
de Trabajo, Rome.
fao.2010a. Informe del Taller para el Diagnstico y Seguimiento de la Acuicultura de Pequea Escala y Recursos Li-
mitados en Amrica Latina, Asuncin, Paraguay, 18-20 August 2010, Serie Acuicultura en Latinoamrica N3
fao.2010b. Forest Resources Assessment. Rome, 2011.
fao.2010c. An agenda for Family Farming policy. 31st Regional Conference of fao for Latin America and the
Caribbean - Panama City, Panama.
fao. 2009a. State of Food and Agriculture - Livestock in the balance. Rome, it. Available at: http://www.fao.org/
docrep/012/i0 680e/i0680e.pdf
fao.2009b. Responsible Fish Trade, fao Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries N11, Rome, fao
fao.2006. Cattle ranching and deforestation. Livestock policy brief no. 3. Rome, it. Available at: ftp://ftp.
fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0262e/a0262e00.pdf
fao.1997. A precautionary approach to capture fsheries and the introduction of species, fao Technical Guidelines
for Responsible Fisheries No. 2, Rome, fao
fao.1995. Code of Conduct for responsible fsheries, Rome, fao
fao-facility. 2010. Practical experiences of compensation mechanisms for water ecosystem services from the forest
in Central America and the Caribbean.
fao & Junta de Castilla y Len. 2011. Examples of Sustainable Forest Management in Latin America and the
Caribbean.
fao/oapn. 2009a. Payment for Environmental Services in Protected Areas of Latin America.
fao/oapn. 2009b. Strengthening the Sustainable Management of Natural Resources in the Protected Areas of
Latin America.
fao-oapn. 2008. Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas in Latin America.
Federal Government of Brazil. 2009. Territrios da cidadania. Integrao de polticas pblicas para reduzir des-
igualdades, Brasilia.
Fernandes, S. 2006. Smelter Struggle: Trinidad Fishing Community Fights Aluminum Project, Daily Express
September 6, 2006.
Fuglie, K.; Heisey, P.; King, J.; Pray, C.E.; Day-Rubenstein, K.; Schimmelpfennig, D.; Wang, S.L.; Karmarkar-
Deshmukh, R. 2011. Research investments and market structure in the food processing, agricultural input,
and biofuel industries worldwide. Economic Research Report No. err-130. U.S. Department of Agriculture. De-
cember. Available at http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/err-economic-research-report/err130.aspx
Funes, F. and others (2002), Sustainable Agriculture and Resistance: Transforming Food Production in Cuba,
Oakland, Food First Books.
Funes, F.; Garca, L.; Bourque, M.; Prez, N.; Rosset, P. 2002. Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming
food production in Cuba. Food First Books, Oakland.
Funes-Monzote, F. 2007. Towards sustainable agriculture in Cuba, P.O. Box 4029, pc 10400, La Habana, Cuba.
Available at
http://campus.usal.es/~ehe/Papers/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Towards%20sustainable%20agriculture%20in%20
Cuba%201st%20August%5B1%5D.pdf
G20. 2011. Ministerial Declaration. Action Plan on Food Price Volatility and Agriculture. Meeting of G20 Agri-
culture Ministers, Paris, 22 and 23 June 2011.
G20. 2012. Inter-Agency Report to the Mexican G20 Presidency. Sustainable agricultural productivity growth and
bridging the gap for small family farms. Available at ictdsd.org/downloads/2012/05/g20_2012-27-april-2.pdf.
Galeano, L. 1997. Las migraciones rurales: una alerta para el mercosur. Agriculture in mercosur, Montevideo,
Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (iica)/Centro Regional Sur.
Gillson, I.; Hewitt, A.; Page, S. 2005. Forthcoming Changes in the eu Banana/Sugar Markets: A Menu of Options
for an Efective eu Transitional Package, Overseas Development Institute, Report Table 26, p.52.
Grenada, Ministry of Finance. 2002. Public Sector Housing Policy and Strategy for Grenada.
gts (Gateway to South America). 2011. News Blog, February 10, 2011. Accessed July 2, 2012. Available at http://
www.gatewaytosouthamerica-newsblog.com/uruguay-has-the-highest-per-capita-consumption-of-milk-in-latin-
america-averaging-between-225-and-230-liters/
Haggerty, R. 1989. Land Tenure and Land Policy in Dominican Republic: A Country Study, Washington, United
States.
Hayami, H., V. W. Ruttan. 1970. Agricultural Productivity Diferences among Countries. Te American Economic
Review Vol. 60, No. 5 (Dec., 1970), pp. 895-911. Available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/1818289
ibge (Brazilian Geographical and Statistical Institute). 2006. Censo agropecurio 2006. Brasil, grandes regies e
unidades da federao, Brasilia.
Ibrahim, M.; Porro, R. y Mauricio, R.M. 2010. Chapter 5: Brazil and Costa Rica - Deforestation and livestock
expansion in the Brazilian legal Amazon and Costa Rica: Drivers, environmental degradation, and policies for
B
i
b
l
i
o
g
r
a
f
a
sustainable land management in P. Gerber, H.A. Mooney, J. Dijkman, S. Tarawali, and C. de Haan., eds., Li-
vestock in a changing landscape: Drivers, consequences, and responses, Vol. 2. Island Press. Available at http://
www.fao.org/docrep/013/am075e/am075e00.pdf
ictsd (International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development). 2012. Bridges Weekly Trade News Digest.
Vol. 16. No. 16. April 25.
idb. 2011. Voluntary mechanism of greenhouse gas mitigation for Colombia. Inter-American Development Bank.
Available at: http://www.iadb.org/es/proyectos/project-information-page,1303.html?id=co-X1008.
idb/fao/eclac/rimisp. 2004. Empleo e ingresos rurales no agrcolas en Amrica Latina. Serie Seminarios y confe-
rencias, N 35, lc/2069-P, eclac, Santiago, Chile.
idf (International Dairy Federation). 2010. Te World Dairy Situation (online). Bulletin 446/2010, Brussels, Bel-
gium. Available at http://www.svenskmjolk.se/Global/Dokument/Dokumentarkiv/Marknadsrapporter/World
Dairy Situation/World Dairy Situation 2010.pdf
imf (International Monetary Fund) 2012a. World Economic Outlook: Update. New Setback, Further Policy
Action Needed, July.
imf. 2012b. World Economic Outlook: Growth Resuming, Dangers Remain, April.
imf. 2012c. World Economic Outlook: Update. Global Recovery Stalls, Downside Risks Intensify, January.
imf. 2012d. imf Primary Commodity Prices. Accessed July 12, 2012. Available at: http://www.imf.org/external/np/
res/commod/index.aspx
imf. 2011a. World Economic Outlook: Slowing Growth, Rising Risks, September.
imf. 2011b. World Economic Outlook: Tensions from the Two-Speed Recovery Unemployment, Commodities,
and Capital Flows, April.
imf. 2011c. World Economic Outlook: Update. Global Recovery Advances but Remains Uneven, January.
incoder (Colombian Institute for Rural Development). 2012. Plan estratgico 2010-2014, Bogota.
indec (National Institute of Statistics and Censuses). 2009. Censo Nacional Agropecuario 2008 cna08. Resultados
provisorios, Buenos Aires.
ine (National Institute of Statistics). 2007. Censo Nacional Agropecuario y Forestal 2007, Santiago, Chile [online].
Available at http://www.censoagropecuario.cl/index2.html
inegi (National Institute of Statistics and Geography). 2007. Censo Agrcola, Ganadero y Forestal 2007, Mexico
City [online]. Available at http://www.inegi.org.mx/est/contenidos/proyectos/agro/ca2007/resultados_agricola/
default.aspx
inra (National Institute for Agricultural Reform). 2010. La tierra vuelve a manos indgenas y campesinas, La Paz.
iuf (International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant, Catering, Tobacco and Allied Workers Asso-
ciations). 2011. Fonterra and Nestl call of dairy merger in Chile. April 4, 2011. Available at: http://cms.iuf.
org/?q=node/860.
Kaimowitz, D. & Angelsen, A. 2008. Will livestock intensifcation help save Latin Americas tropical forests? Journal
of Sustainable Forestry 27: 6-24. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10549810802225168
Kiernan, P. 2012. usda lifts Brazilian pork ban. Dow Jones Newswires. January 11. Accessed July 6, 2012. Available
at: http://www.agriculture.com/markets/analysis/hogs/usda-lifts-brazili-pk-b_14-ar21517
Kilian, L. 2008. Te Economic Efects of Energy Price Shocks. Journal of Economic Literature, 46:4, 871909.
Available at http://goo.gl/ppwdP
Klein, E. 1992. El empleo rural no agrcola en Amrica Latina. Documento de trabajo N 364, Programa Regional
del Empleo para Amrica Latina y el Caribe (prealc), ilo, Santiago de Chile.
Kbrich, C. & Dirven, M. 2007. Caractersticas del empleo rural no agrcola en Amrica Latina con nfasis en los
servicios. Serie Desarrollo Productivo No. 174. eclac, Santiago de Chile.
Laestadius, L.; Potapov, P.; Yaroshenko, A.; Turubanova, S. 2012. La alteracin mundial de los bosques, desde el
espacio. Unasylva 238(62): 8- 13.
Lara, A.; Rey Benayas, J.; Laterra, P.; Manson, R.; Gonzlez, M. 2011. ii Congreso Internacional Servicios Ecosis-
tmicos en los Neotrpicos. Libro Congreso. Asuncin, Paraguay 2011.
lacfc. 2012a. Latin American and Caribbean Forestry Commission. Asuncin, Paraguay, March 5-9 2012. Forests
and Climate Change. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/meeting/024/md128s.pdf.
lacfc. 2012b. Latin American and Caribbean Forestry Commission. Asuncin, Paraguay, March 5-9 2012. Situa-
tion of the Forestry Sector in Latin America and the Caribbean: 2010-2011. Available at: http://www.fao.org/
docrep/meeting/024/md011s.pdf.
LaRed21. 2009. Medidas ante severa sequa en siete departamentos del Uruguay. Available at http://goo.gl/
EbYws
Lobell, D; Schlenker, W.; Costa-Robles, J. 2011. Climate Trends and Global Crop Production Since 1980. Science
29, vol. 333, July.
Martha, G.B.; Alves, E.; Contini, E. 2011. Dimenso econmica de sistemas de integrao lavoura-pecuria. Pesquisa
Agropecuria Brasileira vol. 46, no.10, Braslia, Brazil. Available at: http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_
arttext&pid=S0100-204X2011001000002&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=pt
Martins, L. 2011. Pig health issues: Overview of Latin America. PigProgress,net. March 31. Accessed July 10, 2012.
Available at: http://www.pigprogress.net/background/pig-health-issues-overview-of-latin-america-7801.html.
May, P.H.; Millikan, B.; Gebara, M.F. 2011. Te context of redd+ in Brazil: Drivers, agents and institutions. Oc-
casional paper 55. 2 edicin. cifor, Bogor, Indonesia. Available at: http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_fles/
OccPapers/op-55.pdf
mda-incra (Ministry of Agricultural Development of Brazil/National Institute for Colonization and Agrarian
Reform). 2010. Publicao especial do Instituto Nacional de Colonizao e Reforma Agrria, No. 02, Decem-
ber.
B
i
b
l
i
o
g
r
a
f
a
mda-incra. 2006. Brazil. ii Plan Nacional de Reforma Agraria, Brasilia.
Mendes, A.A. 2011. Poultry and egg production in South America Consumer behavior trends and perspectives.
Presentation to the European Poultry Club Conference. Buenos Aires, Argentina. October 18. Available at:
http://www.poultryclub.com/fleadmin/ european-clubs/poultryclub/binary/activities/Presentation-A-Mendes-
Arg-2011.pdf
Meneses-Tovar, C.L. 2012. El ndice normalizado diferencial de la vegetacin como indicador de la degradacin
del bosque. Unasylva 238(62): 39-46.
MercoPress. 2011. Argentina among top world exporters of chicken meat, while beef loses clout. South Atlantic
news Agency. November 1. Montevideo, Uruguay. Accessed July 6, 2012. Available at: http://en.mercopress.
com/2011/11/01/argentina-among-top-world-exporters-of-chicken-meat-while-beef-loses-clout
mgap (Ministry of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries of Uruguay) 2011. Anuario Estadstico Agropecuario 2011.
Montevideo, Agriculture and Livestock Stats Ofce (diea).
mif (Multilateral Investment Fund). 2011. Growth: Remittances to Latin America and the Caribbean, Inter-
American Development Bank (idb).
Milder, J.C.; Scherr S.J.; Bracer C. 2010. Trends and future potential of payment for ecosystem services to alleviate
rural poverty in developing countries. Ecology and Society 15(2):4. Available at: http://www.ecologyandsociety.
org/vol15/iss2/art4/
Ministry of Agricultural Development. 2010. Strategic Plan of Action for the Agriculture Sector 2010-2014 - Pa-
nama City, Panama. 33 pp.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Saint Lucia. 2007. Saint Lucia Census of Agriculture: Final
Report, Corporate Planning Unit, November.
Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries. 2010. Strategic Agrifood Plan (pea2) 2010-2016 - Buenos Aires,
Argentina. 171 pp.
Ministry of Finance, Government of Grenada. 2002. Public Sector Housing Policy and Strategy for Grenada,
Saint George.
Morse, E. 2012. Expecting the unexpected: oil in 2012. A year of tail risks, paper prepared for the Citigroup,
February.
Nash, J. 2012. Te greening (?) of agriculture in Latin America. Latin American & the Caribbean: Opportunities
for all. World Bank. Accessed July 9, 2012. Available at: http://blogs.worldbank.org/latinamerica/node/633
Nestl. 2011. Nestl joins new partnership to improve dairy farming in Brazil. News & Features. December 7, 2011.
Available at: http://www.nestle.com/Media/NewsAndFeatures/ Pages/Brazil_dairy_partnership.aspx
odi (Overseas Development Institute). 2011. Making the eus Common Agricultural Policy Coherent with Deve-
lopment Goals. Briefng paper 69.
oecd-fao (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization). 2012. Database - Agricultural Outlook 2011-2020. Available at: http://www.agri-outlook.org/
document/15/0,3746
oecd-fao. 2011. Agricultural Outlook 2011-2020. Accessed July 10,2012. Available at: http://www.agri-outlook.org/
document/15/0,3746,en _36774715_36775671_48172367_1_1_1_1,00.html
oecs (Organization of Eastern Caribbean States). 2002. Human Development Report, 2002.
oi Group. 2012. Sustainable agricultural productivity growth and bridging the gap for small-family farms. Intgera-
gency Report to Mexican G20 Presidency. Bioversity International; cgiar, fao, ifad, ifpri, iica, oecd, unctad,
un-hltf on Global Food Security; the World Bank and wto. June.
Pacheco, P.; Aguilar-Sten, M.; Brner, J.; Etter, A.; Putzel, L.; Vera Daz, M.C. 2011. Landscape transformation
in tropical Latin America: Assessing trends and policy Implications for redd+. Forests 2:1-29.
Palmer, N. 2012. Climate Conversations - Livestock: Cure or curse? AlertNet, a Tomson Reuters Foundation Ser-
vice, May 24. Available at: http://www.trust.org/alertnet/blogs/climate-conversations/livestock-cure-or-curse/
Pereira, P.A.A.; Martha, G.B.; Santana, C.A.M.; Alves, E. 2012. Te development of Brazilian agriculture: future
technological challenges and opportunities. Agriculture & Food Security 1:4. Available at: http://www.agricul-
tureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/1/4/
Peters, M.; Rao, I.; Fisher, M.; Subbarao, G.; Martens, S.; Herrero, M.; van der Hoek, R.; Schultze-Kraft, R.;
Miles, J.; Castro, A.; Graefe, S.; Tiemann, T.; Ayarza, M.; Hyman, G. 2012. Chapter 11:.Tropical Forage-based
systems to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions in Issues in Tropical Agriculture, Eco-Efciency: From Vision
to Reality. ciat (Centro International de Agricultura Tropical), Cali, Colombia. Available at: http://www.ciat.
cgiar.org/publications/Documents/chapter_11_eco_efciency.pdf
Petition Submitted to the Inter-American Commission of Human Rights Organization of American States 2009,
Te Kalia Indigenous Community of Maho and Te Association of Indigenous Village Leaders in Suriname
Against Te Republic of Suriname.
Pica, G.; Pica-Ciamarra, U.; Otte, J. 2008. Te livestock sector in the World Development Report 2008: Re-assessing
the policy priorities. Living from livestock research report no. 08-07. Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative, Food
and Agriculture Organization, Rome, it. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/pplpi/
docarc/ rep_0807_wdrlivestock_up_et_al_080805.pdf.16161612
Pica-Cimarra, U. 2005. Livestock policies for poverty alleviation: theory and practical evidence from Africa, Asia,
and Latin America. Pro-Poor Livestock Policy Initiative (pplpi) working paper no. 27, Living from livestock.
Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, it. Available at: http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/
pplpi/docarc/wp27.pdf
Pienkos, A. 2006. Caribbean Labour Migration: Minimizing Losses and Optimizing Benefts, ilo Subregional
Ofce for the Caribbean.
Pieiro, D. 2011. El caso de Uruguay. Study carried out for the project Dinmicas en el mercado de la tierra en
Amrica Latina, Santiago, Chile, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (fao).
profor (Program on Forests), fao. 2011. Framework for assessing and monitoring forest governance. Rome.
Progressive Farmer. 2012. Weather report. Available at: http://goo.gl/sxuad
B
i
b
l
i
o
g
r
a
f
a
Reardon, T., Berdegue, J., Escobar, G. (Eds.). 2001. Special issue on non-farm employment, World Development,
Vol. 29 (3).
Reinhart, C.; Reinhart V.; Rogof, K. 2012. Debt overhangs: past and present, nber Working Paper, No. 18015,
Cambridge, National Bureau of Economic Research (nber) April.
Renewables. 2012. Global Status Report (Paris: ren21 Secretariat). Available at: http://bit.ly/ren21_gsr2012
Reydon, B. & Cornlio F. (eds.). 2006. Mercados de terras no Brasil: estrutura e dinmica, Brasilia Ministry of
Agricultural Development of Brazil, Agricultural Studies and Rural Development Unit (nead).
Rodrguez, A. & Meneses J. 2011. Transformaciones rurales en Amrica Latina y sus relaciones con la poblacin
rural. Documento presentado en la Reunin de expertos sobre poblacin, territorio y desarrollo sostenible,
Santiago de Chile, 16-17August.
Rodrguez, A. & Meneses J. 2010. Condiciones socioeconmicas y laborales de los hogares rurales en doce pases
de Amrica Latina. Documento presentado en el cuadragsimo octavo Congreso de la Sociedad Brasilea de
Economa, Administracin y Sociologa Rural (sober), Campo Grande, 25-28 July.
San Juan, Z. 2010. Mexico: Dairy and products semi-annual. Gain Report No. mx0034. Foreign Agriculture Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. May 5. Available at: http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent gain
Publications/Dairy and Products Semi-annual_Mexico City_Mexico_5-13-2010.pdf
Snchez, H. 2009. Periurbanizacin y espacios rurales en la periferia de las ciudades, Revista de estudios agrarios,
No. 41, Mexico City, Procuradura Agraria, Direccin General de Estudios y Publicaciones..
Schejtman, A. & Berdegu J. 2007. Desarrollo territorial rural, Territorios rurales: movimientos sociales y desa-
rrollo territorial rural en Amrica Latina, J. Bengoa (ed.), Santiago, Chile, Catalonia/Latin American Center
for Rural Development (rimisp).
Seplveda, S.; Rodrguez, A.; Echeverri, R.; Portilla, M. 2003. El enfoque territorial del desarrollo rural, San Jos,
iica, August.
Silva, J.F. 2012. Brazil Poultry and products semi-annual poultry report. Gain Report No. 0801. Foreign Agriculture
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. February 14. Available at: http://gain.fas.usda.gov/
Recent gain Publications/Poultry and Products Semi-annual_Brasilia_Brazil_14-2-2012.pdf
Soto, F. & Klein, E. (Coordinadores). 2012. Polticas de mercado de trabajo y pobreza rural en Amrica Latina,
Tomo ii. fao, eclac, ilo, Santiago de Chile.
Soto, F. & Klein, E. 2011. Polticas de mercado de trabajo y pobreza rural en Amrica Latina. fao, eclac, ilo,
Santiago de Chile.
Sotomayor, O. (2008), Governance and Tenure of Land and Natural Resources in Latin America, fao, Rome.
Sotomayor, O.; Rodrguez, A.; Rodrigues, M. 2011. Competitiveness, sustainability and social inclusion in agricul-
ture: New directions in the design of policies in Latin America and the Caribbean. eclac, 113. 345pp.
Stads, G.J. & Beintema, N.M. 2009. Public agricultural research in Latin America and the Caribbean: Investment
and capacity trends. Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (asti) Synthesis Report. International Food
Policy research Institute (ifpri) and Inter-American Development Bank (idb). March. Available at: http://www.
asti.cgiar.org/pdf/lac_Syn_Report.pdf.
Steinfeld, H.; Gerber, P.; Opio, C. 2010. Chapter 16: Responses on environmental issues in H. Steinfeld, H.A.
Mooney, F. Schneider, and L.E. Neville, eds. Livestock in a changing landscape: Drivers, consequences, and
responses, Vol. 1. Island Press. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am074e/am074e00.pdf.
Tornton P.K., Kruska R.L., Henninger N., Kristjanson P.M., Reid R.S., Atieno F., Odero A.N.; Ndegwa T.
2002. Mapping poverty and livestock in the developing world. ilri (International Livestock Research Institu-
te), Nairobi, Kenya. Available at: http://www.ilri.org/InfoServ/Webpub/fulldocs/InvestAnim/Book2/media/
pdf_chapters/B2_Front.pdf
Tollefson, J. 2010. Te Global Farm. Nature 466: 554-556. Available at: http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100728/
pdf/466554a.pdf
unep (United Nations Environment Program). 2010. Perspectivas del Medio Ambiente: Amrica
Latina y El Caribe.geo-alc3. 2009. Nuevo Acuerdo Verde Global Informe de Poltica, Empleos verdes: Hacia
el trabajo decente en un mundo sostenible y con bajas emisiones de carbono.
upi (United Press International). 2012. South America cattle outbreak threat lingers. June 28. Available at: http://
www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Resources/2012/06/28/S-America-cattle-outbreak-threat-lingers/upi-
26911340900875/
Upton, M. 2004. Te role of livestock in economic development and poverty reduction. Pro-Poor Livestock Policy
Initiative Report No. 10. Living from livestock, Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome, it. Available at:
http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/pplpi/docarc/wp10.pdf
Urioste, M. 2011. Concentracin y extranjerizacin de la tierra en Bolivia, Fundacin tierra, La Paz.
usda (U.S. Department of Agriculture). 2012a. usda Agricultural Projections to 2021. Interagency Agricultural
Projections Committee. Available at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/oce121/oce121.pdf
usda. 2012b. Production, Supply, and Distribution Online, Foreign Agriculture Service, Washington, dc, us.
Accessed June and July 2012. Available at: http://www.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/
U.S. Government. 2010. Changes in disease status of the Brazilian state of Santa Catarina with regard to certain
ruminant and swine diseases. Federal Register Doc. 2010-28976, fled 11-15-10. Available at: https://www.fede-
ralregister.gov/articles/2010/11/16/2010-28976/changes-in-disease-status-of-the-brazilian-state-of-santa-catarina-
with-regard-to-certain-ruminant.
us White House. 2012. National Bioeconomy Blueprint. Washington, D.C., Te White House, April.
Valdes, A. & Foster W. 2012. Policies and mechanisms that can help poor countries in high price periods, presented
at Securing food in uncertain markets: Challenges for poor, net food-importing countries, sponsored by ictsd
and fao, Geneva, March 23, 2012.
Valds et al. 2008. Evolucin del ingreso agrcola real en Amrica Latina, 1990-2005:evidencia en base a cuentas na-
cionales y encuestas de hogares. Revista Espaola de Estudios Agrosociales y Pesqueros, No. 218, 2008 (71-98)
B
i
b
l
i
o
g
r
a
f
a
Villalobos, V. 2012. Tizimin, donde el suelo pedregoso produce maz . Published by La Fragua, February 14.
Via Concha y Toro. 2011. Corporate overview 2011. Available at http://www.conchaytoro.com/es/inversionis-
tas/
Von Broun, J. 2008. Food and Financial Crisis: Implications for Agriculture and the Poor. ifpri, Washington,
D.C.
Williams, Allan N. 2011. Sustainable farming in a high nature value environment, Port of Spain, Te EcoAgri-
Culture Project, Te Cropper Foundation, Trinidad & Tobago.
Williams, Allan N. 2005. Turks & Caicos Islands crown land policy: a brief analysis of the economic and fnancial
aspects. Mission report.
World Bank. 2012. Global Economic Prospects: Uncertainties and Vulnerabilities, Washington, D.C., January.
World Bank. 2012. Database of World Bank Indicators. Available at http://goo.gl/hkvrq
World Bank. 2007. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development. Available at http://goo.
gl/8ys7v
Worldwatch Institute. 2011. Biofuels Regain Momentum By Sam Shrank and Farhad Farahmand, August 30, 2011.
Available at http://vitalsigns.worldwatch.org/vs-trend/biofuels-regain-momentum
wto. 2012. Report on G-20 Trade Measures (Mid-October 2011 to Mid-May 2012). May 31.
Wurmann, C. 2011. Regional Review of the Current Situation and Trends in the Development of Aquaculture in
Latin America and the Caribbean-2010, fao, Fishing and Agriculture Circular 1061/3, Rome, fao
Wurmann, C. 2010. Brazilian Aquaculture to 2025: Goals and Strategies. Consultancy Report for the Ministry of
Fisheries and Aquaculture, Brazil, fao/mpa project, Santiago-Brasilia
B
i
b
l
i
o
g
r
a
f
a
Statistical Appendix
Countries
IMF
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
World -0,6 5,3 3,9 3,5 3,9
Advanced economies -3,6 3,2 1,6 1,4 1,9
United States -3,5 3,0 1,7 2,0 2,3
Euro Zone -4,3 1,9 1,4 -0,3 0,7
Emerging economies
2,8 7,5 6,2 5,6 5,9
China 9,2 10,4 9,2 8,0 8,5
Latin America & the Caribbean -1,6 6,2 4,5 3,4 4,2
Countries
World Bank
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
World (1) -2,3 4,1 2,7 2,5 3,0
World (2) -0,9 5,1 3,7 3,3 3,9
High-income countries -3,7 3,0 1,6 1,4 1,9
United States -3,5 3,0 1,7 2,1 2,4
Euro Zone -4,2 1,8 1,6 -0,3 0,7
Developing countries 2,0 7,4 6,1 5,3 5,9
China 9,2 10,4 9,2 8,2 8,6
Countries
DAES - United Nations
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
World -2 4,1 2,7 2,5 3,1
Developed economies -3,5 2,7 1,4 1,2 1,8
United States -2,6 3,0 1,7 2,1 2,3
Euro Zone -4,1 1,9 1,5 -0,3 0,9
Developing economies 2,4 7,5 5,9 5,3 5,8
China 9,1 10,4 9,2 8,3 8,5
Source: imf, World Economic Outlook Abril 2012 and Update July 2012
World Bank, Global Economic Prospects January and June 2012
un-desa, World Economic Situation and Prospects 2011 and Update mid-2012
Table A1. Global growth projections
Annual rate of gdp growth, in real terms, by country group
Countries
ECLAC IMF
2009 2010 2011a 2009 2010 2011a 2012b 2013b
Antigua & Barbuda -11,9 -7,9 -2,1 -10,3 -8,9 -0,5 1,0 2,5
Argentina 0,9 9,2 8,9 0,9 9,2 8,9 4,2 4,0
Bahamas -5,4 0,9 2,0 -5,4 1,0 2,0 2,5 2,7
Barbados -3,7 0,2 1,0 -4,2 0,2 0,5 0,9 1,5
Belize -0,0 2,9 2,5 -0,0 2,7 2,5 2,8 2,5
Bolivia (Plurinational State of ) 3,4 4,1 5,1 3,4 4,1 5,1 5,0 5,0
Brazil -0,3 7,5 2,7 -0,3 7,5 2,7 3,0 4,2
Chile -1,0 6,1 6,0 -0,9 6,1 5,9 4,3 4,5
Colombia 1,7 4,0 5,9 1,7 4,0 5,9 4,7 4,4
Costa Rica -1,0 4,7 4,2 -1,0 4,7 4,2 4,0 4,2
Cuba 1,4 2,4 2,5 na na na na na
Dominica -0,7 0,9 0,9 -0,7 0,3 0,5 1,5 1,8
Ecuador 0,4 3,6 8,0 0,4 3,6 7,8 4,5 3,9
El Salvador -3,1 1,4 1,5 -3,1 1,4 1,4 2,0 2,5
Granada -6,6 -0,0 2,1 -5,7 -1,3 1,1 1,5 2,0
Guatemala 0,5 2,9 3,9 0,5 2,8 3,8 3,1 3,2
Guyana 3,3 4,4 4,8 3,3 4,4 4,2 3,9 6,3
Haiti 2,9 -5,4 5,6 2,9 -5,4 5,6 7,8 6,9
Honduras -2,1 2,8 3,2 -2,1 2,8 3,6 3,5 3,5
Jamaica -3,0 -1,3 1,3 -3,1 -1,4 1,5 1,0 1,0
Mexico -6,3 5,6 3,9 -6,3 5,5 4,0 3,6 3,7
Nicaragua -1,5 4,5 4,7 -1,5 4,5 4,7 3,7 4,0
Panama 3,9 7,6 10,6 3,9 7,6 10,6 7,5 6,6
Paraguay -3,8 15,0 4,0 -3,8 15,0 3,8 -1,5 8,5
Peru 0,9 8,8 6,9 0,9 8,8 6,9 5,5 6,0
Dominican Republic 3,5 7,8 4,5 3,5 7,8 4,5 4,5 4,5
Saint Kitts & Nevis -6,9 -2,4 4,5 -5,6 -2,7 -2,0 1,0 1,8
San Vicente & the Grenadines -2,2 -2,8 2,6 -2,3 -1,8 -0,4 2,0 2,0
Saint Lucia -1,1 3,2 2,5 -1,3 3,4 0,2 1,9 2,4
Suriname 7,7 7,3 4,5 3,5 4,5 4,5 4,9 5,4
Trinidad & Tobago -3,0 -0,0 -1,4 -3,3 -0,0 -1,3 1,7 2,4
Uruguay 2,4 8,9 5,7 2,4 8,9 5,7 3,5 4,0
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic
of )
-3,2 -1,5 4,2 -3,2 -1,5 4,2 4,7 3,2
Canada na na na -2,8 3,2 2,5 2,1 2,2
United States na na na -3,5 3,0 1,7 2,1 2,4
Latin America & the Caribbean -2,0 6,0 4,3 -1,6 6,2 4,5 3,7 4,1
C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
C
o
n
s
u
m
e
r

p
r
i
c
e

i
n
d
i
c
e
s

(
a
v
e
r
a
g
e

r
a
t
e
s

o
f

a
n
n
u
a
l

v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n
)
P
u
r
c
h
a
s
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

o
f

e
x
p
o
r
t
s

o
f

g
o
o
d
s

&

s
e
r
v
i
c
e
s

(
i
n
d
i
c
e

2
0
0
5
=
1
0
0
)
I
n
c
o
m
e

f
r
o
m

r
e
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
s

b
y

m
i
g
r
a
n
t

w
o
r
k
e
r
s

(
m
i
l
l
i
o
n
s

o
f

U
S
$
)
G
e
n
e
r
a
l
F
o
o
d

p
r
o
d
u
c
t
s
2
0
0
5
-
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
0
5
-
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
0
5
-
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
1
2
a
A
r
g
e
n
t
i
n
a
9
,
5
6
,
3
1
0
,
5
9
,
0
1
0
,
3
2
,
8
1
4
,
4
7
,
9
1
2
1
,
9
1
3
2
,
7
1
5
3
,
6
B
a
h
a
m
a
s
2
,
7
2
,
1
1
,
8
1
,
0
4
,
5
4
,
8
-
0
,
8
1
,
4
n
a

n
a

n
a

B
a
r
b
a
d
o
s
6
,
5
3
,
6
5
,
8
7
,
9
8
,
9
6
,
7
3
,
7
5
,
8
n
a

n
a

n
a

B
o
l
i
v
i
a

(
P
l
u
r
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

S
t
a
t
e

o
f
)
8
,
1
3
,
3
2
,
5
9
,
5
1
2
,
4
3
,
9
3
,
4
1
3
,
6
1
3
1
,
4
1
4
0
,
1
1
6
4
,
0
B
r
a
z
i
l
5
,
1
4
,
9
5
,
0
6
,
2
5
,
7
5
,
8
6
,
1
8
,
2
1
1
5
,
0
1
1
2
,
9
1
4
0
,
4
C
h
i
l
e
4
,
9
1
,
5
1
,
5
3
,
0
7
,
7
4
,
1
2
,
8
6
,
0
1
2
5
,
0
1
2
3
,
0
1
4
8
,
7
C
o
l
o
m
b
i
a
5
,
5
4
,
2
2
,
3
3
,
2
7
,
8
4
,
4
1
,
4
4
,
6
1
2
1
,
0
1
3
9
,
3
1
5
4
,
7
4
.
0
2
4
4
.
1
6
8
9
6
0
C
o
s
t
a

R
i
c
a
1
2
,
0
7
,
8
5
,
7
4
,
7
1
5
,
9
9
,
5
5
,
2
5
,
3
1
1
5
,
9
1
2
6
,
5
1
3
7
,
0
5
0
5
4
8
8
n
a
C
u
b
a
4
,
2
-
1
,
2
1
,
3
1
,
3
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a
1
0
8
,
3
n
a

n
a
E
c
u
a
d
o
r
4
,
0
5
,
2
3
,
6
4
,
0
7
,
2
6
,
1
4
,
9
6
,
1
1
1
9
,
5
1
2
0
,
5
1
3
7
,
7
2
.
5
9
2
2
.
6
7
2
n
a
E
l

S
a
l
v
a
d
o
r
5
,
1
0
,
5
0
,
9
4
,
9
6
,
8
-
3
,
6
0
,
3
6
,
9
1
0
5
,
7
9
8
,
9
1
0
7
,
1
3
.
4
3
1
3
.
6
4
8
9
4
6
G
u
a
t
e
m
a
l
a
8
,
5
1
,
9
3
,
9
5
,
8
1
1
,
3
2
,
0
3
,
8
1
0
,
3
1
0
7
,
7
1
1
8
,
9
1
2
8
,
5
4
.
1
2
7
4
.
3
7
8
1
.
0
5
8
H
a
i
t
i
1
3
,
1
-
1
,
8
5
,
7
7
,
9
1
4
,
8
-
2
,
6
5
,
0
9
,
8
1
0
5
,
8
1
2
2
,
6
1
0
4
,
7
H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s
8
,
2
5
,
5
4
,
7
6
,
6
1
0
,
2
3
,
6
1
,
8
6
,
0
9
7
,
5
8
7
,
2
9
3
,
3
2
.
5
2
4
2
.
7
5
0
4
1
4
J
a
m
a
i
c
a
1
3
,
9
3
,
1
1
3
,
1
6
,
9
1
6
,
3
9
,
0
1
2
,
8
-
2
,
9
n
a

n
a

n
a

1
.
9
0
7
2
.
0
2
6
3
1
7
M
e
x
i
c
o
4
,
2
5
,
3
4
,
2
3
,
0
5
,
8
8
,
7
3
,
9
4
,
6
1
1
0
,
0
9
4
,
9
1
1
6
,
4
2
1
.
2
7
0
2
2
.
7
3
0
5
.
3
7
2
N
i
c
a
r
a
g
u
a
1
2
,
4
3
,
0
5
,
9
7
,
7
1
6
,
4
3
,
5
4
,
4
8
,
3
1
1
2
,
7
1
3
5
,
3
1
5
8
,
7
8
2
4
9
1
2
2
5
0
P
a
n
a
m
a
4
,
1
2
,
4
3
,
5
5
,
4
6
,
8
5
,
8
2
,
9
-
4
,
3
1
1
7
,
4
1
4
7
,
6
1
4
9
,
6
P
a
r
a
g
u
a
y
8
,
7
2
,
6
4
,
8
8
,
1
1
3
,
3
1
,
5
8
,
4
1
3
,
5
1
4
0
,
7
1
6
8
,
4
2
1
9
,
1
P
e
r
u
2
,
8
2
,
9
1
,
5
3
,
3
3
,
8
4
,
2
2
,
5
4
,
6
1
2
3
,
1
1
2
2
,
2
1
4
4
,
0
D
o
m
i
n
i
c
a
n

R
e
p
u
b
l
i
c
7
,
1
1
,
4
6
,
3
8
,
0
5
,
8
3
,
9
4
,
3
8
,
2
1
0
2
,
7
9
7
,
4
1
0
3
,
4
2
.
9
9
8
3
.
2
0
1
n
a
S
a
i
n
t

L
u
c
i
a
4
,
7
1
,
5
1
,
9
-
0
,
3
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a

n
a

n
a

S
u
r
i
n
a
m
e
1
0
,
5
-
0
,
1
5
,
1
1
6
,
8
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a

n
a

n
a

T
r
i
n
i
d
a
d

&
T
o
b
a
g
o
8
,
8
7
,
0
1
0
,
5
4
,
1
2
2
,
4
1
1
,
6
2
2
,
8
7
,
7
n
a

n
a

n
a

U
r
u
g
u
a
y
6
,
8
7
,
1
6
,
7
7
,
5
9
,
8
6
,
1
6
,
9
9
,
1
1
1
3
,
0
1
4
4
,
0
1
6
3
,
4
V
e
n
e
z
u
e
l
a

(
B
o
l
i
v
a
r
i
a
n

R
e
p
u
b
l
i
c

o
f
)
1
9
,
9
2
8
,
6
2
9
,
1
2
4
,
5
2
8
,
7
3
0
,
5
3
4
,
6
2
6
,
1
1
1
9
,
3
9
6
,
8
1
0
3
,
3
Table A2. Growth Projections in the Americas
Annual rate of gdp growth, in real terms, by country
T
a
b
l
e
A
3
.
I
n
f
a
t
i
o
n
,

p
u
r
c
h
a
s
i
n
g

p
o
w
e
r

o
f

e
x
p
o
r
t
s

&

r
e
m
i
t
t
a
n
c
e
s
a

R
e
f
e
r
s

t
o

t
h
e

f
r
s
t

q
u
a
r
t
e
r
.

J
a
n
u
a
r
y

a
n
d

F
e
b
r
u
a
r
y

o
n
l
y

i
n

t
h
e

c
a
s
e

o
f

H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s

&

J
a
m
a
i
c
a
S
o
u
r
c
e
s
:
e
c
l
a
c
:

E
c
o
n
o
m
i
c

C
o
m
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

f
o
r

L
a
t
i
n

A
m
e
r
i
c
a

&

t
h
e

C
a
r
i
b
b
e
a
n
:

O
w
n

e
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n
s

b
a
s
e
d

o
n

o
f
f
c
i
a
l

s
o
u
r
c
e
s
,

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

r
e
v
i
s
e
d

a
s

o
f

A
u
g
u
s
t

2
0
1
2
a Estimations
b Projection
Sources: eclac: Economic Commission for Latin America & the Caribbean: Own estimations based on
offcial sources, information updated May 2012
International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook Database, April 2012
C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
G
r
o
s
s

D
o
m
e
s
t
i
c

P
r
o
d
u
c
t

p
e
r

c
a
p
i
t
a

(
c
o
n
s
t
a
n
t

2
0
0
5

d
o
l
l
a
r
s

p
e
r

c
a
p
i
t
a
)
A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e
,

l
i
v
e
s
t
o
c
k
,

h
u
n
t
i
n
g
,

f
o
r
e
s
t
r
y

&

f
s
h
i
n
g

a
s

a

p
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
o
t
a
l
V
a
l
u
e

A
d
d
e
d

(
%
)
A
n
n
u
a
l

v
a
r
i
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

v
a
l
u
e

a
d
d
e
d

i
n

t
h
e

a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e
,

l
i
v
e
s
t
o
c
k
,

h
u
n
t
i
n
g
,

f
o
r
e
s
t
r
y

&

f
s
h
i
n
g

s
e
c
t
o
r

(
%
)
2
0
0
5
-
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
0
5
-
0
8
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
2
0
0
9
2
0
1
0
2
0
1
1
A
n
t
i
g
u
a

&

B
a
r
b
u
d
a
1
3
.
5
3
9
1
2
.
4
9
6
1
1
.
3
7
8
1
1
.
0
1
5
2
,
0
1
,
5
2
,
1
2
,
3
-
2
5
,
2
2
6
,
7
6
,
8
A
r
g
e
n
t
i
n
a
5
.
2
5
9
5
.
7
6
2
6
.
2
2
9
6
.
7
1
6
9
,
0
7
,
1
8
,
3
7
,
6
-
1
5
,
7
2
8
,
0
-
2
,
2
B
a
h
a
m
a
s
2
4
.
1
4
4
2
2
.
1
4
0
2
2
.
0
2
4
2
2
.
2
0
6
2
,
0
2
,
1
2
,
1
2
,
3
4
,
6
4
,
2
7
,
2
B
a
r
b
a
d
o
s
1
5
.
1
8
3
1
4
.
8
6
8
1
4
.
8
9
5
1
4
.
9
8
9
1
,
6
1
,
7
1
,
6
n
a
3
,
0
-
6
,
3
n
a
B
e
l
i
z
e
4
.
0
4
0
4
.
0
1
7
4
.
0
4
1
4
.
0
6
3
1
2
,
5
9
,
9
9
,
7
n
a
-
2
,
2
0
,
6
n
a
B
o
l
i
v
i
a

(
P
l
u
r
i
n
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

S
t
a
t
e

o
f
)
1
.
0
8
9
1
.
1
6
4
1
.
1
9
2
1
.
2
3
2
1
3
,
9
1
3
,
2
1
2
,
6
1
2
,
4
3
,
7
-
1
,
2
3
,
2
B
r
a
z
i
l
5
.
0
1
4
5
.
2
6
2
5
.
6
0
9
5
.
7
1
5
6
,
8
6
,
8
6
,
7
6
,
8
-
3
,
1
6
,
3
3
,
9
C
h
i
l
e
8
.
0
2
8
8
.
2
2
8
8
.
6
4
6
9
.
0
7
8
4
,
5
4
,
3
4
,
2
4
,
4
-
5
,
6
2
,
3
1
1
,
8
C
o
l
o
m
b
i
a
3
.
6
4
9
3
.
8
5
4
3
.
9
5
3
4
.
1
3
1
8
,
0
7
,
5
7
,
3
7
,
0
-
0
,
7
1
,
0
2
,
2
C
o
s
t
a

R
i
c
a
5
.
0
3
6
5
.
2
0
8
5
.
3
7
9
5
.
5
2
7
9
,
1
8
,
5
8
,
6
8
,
4
-
2
,
8
6
,
4
0
,
5
C
u
b
a
4
.
3
5
5
4
.
8
3
3
4
.
9
4
8
5
.
0
7
1
4
,
0
3
,
8
3
,
5
n
a
-
0
,
2
-
6
,
0
n
a
D
o
m
i
n
i
c
a
5
.
7
3
3
6
.
2
9
3
6
.
3
5
3
6
.
4
1
0
1
3
,
1
1
3
,
0
1
1
,
6
1
2
,
0
1
,
5
-
1
0
,
6
6
,
0
E
c
u
a
d
o
r
2
.
9
6
5
3
.
1
1
9
3
.
1
9
6
3
.
4
1
4
7
,
2
7
,
6
7
,
4
7
,
4
1
,
5
-
0
,
2
6
,
4
E
l

S
a
l
v
a
d
o
r
2
.
9
5
2
2
.
9
3
6
2
.
9
6
2
2
.
9
8
9
1
1
,
1
1
1
,
5
1
1
,
7
1
1
,
1
-
2
,
9
3
,
1
-
3
,
8
G
r
a
n
a
d
a
6
.
7
9
9
6
.
4
7
2
6
.
4
6
9
6
.
5
4
4
4
,
4
5
,
7
5
,
4
5
,
6
1
2
,
1
-
6
,
0
4
,
2
G
u
a
t
e
m
a
l
a
2
.
2
3
1
2
.
2
5
6
2
.
2
6
6
2
.
2
9
7
1
2
,
8
1
2
,
8
1
2
,
4
1
2
,
4
3
,
8
-
0
,
3
3
,
6
G
u
y
a
n
a
1
.
8
9
8
2
.
0
7
1
2
.
1
5
8
2
.
2
5
6
2
2
,
8
2
1
,
0
2
0
,
6
2
0
,
0
1
,
3
2
,
3
2
,
7
H
a
i
t
i
4
5
2
4
5
9
4
2
7
4
4
4
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a
n
a
H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s
1
.
5
0
0
1
.
5
0
7
1
.
5
1
9
1
.
5
3
7
1
3
,
5
1
3
,
2
1
3
,
1
1
3
,
4
-
1
,
4
1
,
8
5
,
6
J
a
m
a
i
c
a
4
.
2
6
8
4
.
1
3
5
4
.
0
6
8
4
.
1
0
6
6
,
2
6
,
9
7
,
1
n
a
1
2
,
1
2
,
2
n
a
M
e
x
i
c
o
8
.
3
9
1
7
.
9
5
3
8
.
3
1
3
8
.
5
5
8
3
,
4
3
,
5
3
,
4
3
,
2
-
4
,
4
4
,
0
-
3
,
0
N
i
c
a
r
a
g
u
a
9
2
6
9
2
6
9
5
6
9
8
8
1
8
,
8
1
9
,
2
1
9
,
6
1
9
,
2
-
0
,
2
6
,
5
2
,
5
P
a
n
a
m
a
5
.
4
0
4
6
.
2
3
0
6
.
6
0
1
7
.
1
9
0
6
,
4
5
,
3
4
,
2
4
,
0
-
7
,
8
-
1
4
,
6
-
2
,
9
P
a
r
a
g
u
a
y
1
.
3
3
3
1
.
3
3
4
1
.
5
0
9
1
.
5
4
3
2
4
,
2
2
1
,
8
2
5
,
6
2
5
,
7
-
1
7
,
3
3
4
,
2
4
,
2
P
e
r
u
3
.
1
7
5
3
.
5
3
5
3
.
8
0
1
4
.
0
1
6
7
,
0
6
,
7
6
,
4
6
,
3
1
,
7
3
,
2
4
,
9
D
o
m
i
n
i
c
a
n

R
e
p
u
b
l
i
c
4
.
0
5
7
4
.
4
8
8
4
.
7
7
3
4
.
9
2
4
7
,
1
7
,
2
7
,
1
7
,
2
1
2
,
5
5
,
5
5
,
5
S
a
i
n
t

K
i
t
t
s

&

N
e
v
i
s
1
1
.
3
9
0
1
0
.
8
1
5
1
0
.
5
5
4
1
0
.
8
2
1
1
,
4
1
,
2
1
,
2
1
,
3
-
1
0
,
6
-
1
,
9
6
,
7
S
a
n

V
i
c
e
n
t
e

&

t
h
e

G
r
e
n
a
d
i
n
e
s
5
.
4
6
2
5
.
5
8
4
5
.
4
3
0
5
.
5
7
1
6
,
4
7
,
5
6
,
2
5
,
3
1
5
,
2
-
1
8
,
6
-
1
4
,
4
S
a
i
n
t

L
u
c
i
a
5
.
6
5
8
5
.
8
2
4
5
.
9
4
0
6
.
0
2
0
3
,
8
4
,
2
3
,
4
2
,
5
-
5
,
4
-
1
5
,
7
-
2
8
,
0
S
u
r
i
n
a
m
e
3
.
0
2
6
3
.
4
0
2
3
.
6
1
4
3
.
7
4
9
6
,
3
6
,
6
7
,
2
7
,
2
1
2
,
1
1
5
,
8
3
,
6
T
r
i
n
i
d
a
d

&

T
o
b
a
g
o
1
3
.
7
8
4
1
4
.
2
0
8
1
4
.
1
5
2
1
3
.
9
0
6
0
,
5
0
,
3
0
,
5
0
,
5
-
3
2
,
4
6
0
,
2
-
4
,
1
U
r
u
g
u
a
y
5
.
6
4
4
6
.
2
8
9
6
.
8
2
6
7
.
1
9
2
9
,
4
8
,
4
7
,
8
7
,
7
1
,
6
0
,
5
4
,
4
V
e
n
e
z
u
e
l
a

(
B
o
l
i
v
a
r
i
a
n

R
e
p
u
b
l
i
c

o
f
)
6
.
0
3
0
6
.
1
9
9
6
.
0
1
0
6
.
1
6
4
3
,
7
3
,
8
3
,
9
3
,
6
1
,
0
0
,
9
-
2
,
4
L
a
t
i
n

A
m
e
r
i
c
a

&

t
h
e

C
a
r
i
b
b
e
a
n
5
.
2
1
4
5
.
3
2
2
5
.
5
7
8
5
.
7
5
6
5
,
7
5
,
6
5
,
7
5
,
6
-
3
,
8
6
,
6
1
,
6
A
m
r
i
c
a

L
a
t
i
n
a
5
.
1
8
7
5
.
2
9
7
5
.
5
5
7
5
.
7
3
6
5
,
8
5
,
7
5
,
7
5
,
6
-
3
,
9
6
,
6
1
,
6
E
l

C
a
r
i
b
e
7
.
4
4
3
7
.
4
0
9
7
.
3
8
2
7
.
3
9
1
3
,
4
3
,
5
3
,
6
2
,
6
4
,
2
3
,
9
1
,
4
T
a
b
l
e

A
4
.

G
r
o
s
s

d
o
m
e
s
t
i
c

p
r
o
d
u
c
t

&

a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

v
a
l
u
e

a
d
d
e
d
S
o
u
r
c
e
:

e
c
l
a
c
:

E
c
o
n
o
m
i
c

C
o
m
m
i
s
s
i
o
n

f
o
r

L
a
t
i
n

A
m
e
r
i
c
a

&

t
h
e

C
a
r
i
b
b
e
a
n

:

O
w
n

e
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n
s

b
a
s
e
d

o
n

o
f
f
c
i
a
l

s
o
u
r
c
e
s
,

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

u
p
d
a
t
e
d

a
s

o
f

M
a
y

2
0
1
2
C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
P
r
o
p
o
r
t
i
o
n

o
c
c
u
p
i
e
d

i
n

a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

1

L
a
b
o
u
r

i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

o
f

t
h
e

e
c
o
n
o
m
i
c
a
l
l
y

a
c
t
i
v
e

r
u
r
a
l

o
c
c
u
p
i
e
d

p
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

2
,

3

p
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
s
P
e
r
c
e
n
a
t
g
e

o
f

t
h
e

p
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

o
c
c
u
p
i
e
d

4

E
m
p
l
o
y
e
r
s
A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

s
a
l
a
r
i
e
d
N
o
n
-
a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

s
a
l
a
r
i
e
d
S
e
l
f
-
-
e
m
p
l
o
y
e
d

a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e
S
e
l
f
-
e
m
p
l
o
y
e
d

n
o
n
-
a
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
9
/
2
0
1
0
1
9
9
9
/
0
0
2
0
0
9
/
2
0
1
0
1
9
9
9
/
0
0
2
0
0
9
/
2
0
1
0
1
9
9
9
/
0
0
2
0
0
9
/
2
0
1
0
1
9
9
9
/
0
0
2
0
0
9
/
2
0
1
0
1
9
9
9
/
0
0
2
0
0
9
/
2
0
1
0
B
o
l
i
v
i
a

(
9
9
-
0
7
)
3
6
,
8
3
3
,
7
1
,
2
3
,
1
2
,
7
3
,
3
6
,
5
1
0
,
2
8
2
,
1
7
3
,
0
7
,
5
1
0
,
4
B
r
a
z
i
l

(
9
9
-
0
9
)
2
2
,
8
1
7
,
0
2
,
0
2
,
2
1
5
,
6
1
6
,
8
1
8
,
6
2
3
,
0
5
6
,
4
4
9
,
9
7
,
3
8
,
0
C
h
i
l
e

(
0
0
-

0
9
)
1
3
1
1
,
4
2
,
4
2
,
8
4
0
,
2
3
4
,
4
2
3
,
0
3
6
,
7
2
2
,
8
1
5
,
5
8
,
1
1
0
,
5
C
o
l
o
m
b
i
a

(
9
9
-
1
0
)
2
2
1
8
,
5
3
,
7
5
,
6
2
5
,
9
2
2
,
5
2
1
,
3
1
2
,
5
2
7
,
9
3
8
,
6
2
1
,
2
2
0
,
8
C
o
s
t
a

R
i
c
a

(
9
9
-
1
0
)
1
6
,
9
1
5
,
0
8
,
2
3
,
4
2
1
,
3
2
3
,
8
4
7
,
9
4
8
,
0
9
,
5
1
1
,
0
1
3
,
1
1
3
,
8
E
c
u
a
d
o
r

(
0
0
-
1
0
)
2
8
,
5
2
8
,
2
2
,
0
2
2
,
8

2
0
,
2
4
4
,
6
1
0
,
5
E
l

S
a
l
v
a
d
o
r

(
9
9
-
1
0
)
2
0
,
7
2
2
,
2
4
,
1
3
,
1
2
0
,
2
2
0
,
0
3
0
,
5
2
8
,
6
2
6
,
3
2
8
,
1
1
8
,
8
2
0
,
2
G
u
a
t
e
m
a
l
a

(
9
8
-
1
0
)
3
6
,
5
3
3
,
8
2
,
0
1
,
9
2
6
,
6
1
6
,
0
1
6
,
3
2
1
,
6
3
4
,
8
4
0
,
0
2
0
,
2
2
0
,
6
H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s

(
9
9
-
1
0
)
3
4
3
7
,
5
3
,
1
1
,
3
1
6
,
4
1
6
,
8
1
7
,
1
1
5
,
5
4
1
,
3
4
5
,
3
2
2
,
1
2
1
,
1
M
e
x
i
c
o

(
0
2
-
1
0
)
1
7
,
5
1
3
,
5
3
,
3
1
3
,
9
1
5
,
7
1
5
,
8
3
6
,
7
4
5
,
9
2
5
,
4
1
1
,
6
1
8
,
9
1
2
,
7
N
i
c
a
r
a
g
u
a

(
9
8
-
0
5
)
3
2
,
4
3
,
3
2
3
,
7
2
0
,
0
3
9
,
7
1
3
,
3
P
a
n
a
m
a

(
0
2
-
1
0
)
1
7
1
8
,
1
2
,
0
2
,
6
1
4
,
2
1
3
,
0
2
5
,
8
3
1
,
6
3
9
,
3
3
5
,
2
1
8
,
7
1
7
,
5
P
a
r
a
g
u
a
y

(
9
9
-
1
0
)
3
0
,
8
2
5
,
8
3
,
4
3
,
6
7
,
2
6
,
8
1
9
,
8
2
3
,
2
5
4
,
0
5
1
,
8
1
5
,
6
1
4
,
6
P
e
r
u

c
/

(
0
3
-
1
0
)
3
2
3
1
,
6
5
,
0
5
,
1
8
,
2
1
0
,
2
6
,
3
1
3
,
5
6
9
,
5
5
8
,
4
1
1
,
0
1
2
,
9
D
o
m
i
n
i
c
a
n

R
e
p
u
b
l
i
c

(
0
2
-
1
0
)
1
5
,
9
1
4
,
5
1
,
7
2
,
5
5
,
5
4
,
8
3
1
,
1
3
3
,
9
3
5
,
0
2
8
,
6
2
6
,
7
3
0
,
3
U
r
u
g
u
a
y

(
1
0
)
9
,
8

9
,
5
3
2
,
4

2
2
,
0
2
8
,
5
7
,
5
V
e
n
a
z
u
e
l
a
1
0
,
6
T
a
b
l
e

A
5
.

A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
a
l

&

r
u
r
a
l

e
m
p
l
o
y
m
e
n
t
S
o
u
r
c
e
s
:

1
/

e
c
l
a
c
,
A
n
n
u
a
l

S
t
a
t
i
s
t
i
c
s

2
0
1
1
2
/

e
c
l
a
c
,
P
a
n
o
r
a
m
a

S
o
c
i
a
l

2
0
1
1

(
b
a
s
e
d

o
n

d
a
t
a

f
r
o
m

h
o
u
s
e
h
o
l
d

s
u
r
v
e
y
s

i
n

t
h
e

r
e
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
.)
3
/

R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e

a
g
e

o
f

1
5

y
e
a
r
s

f
o
r

t
h
e

p
e
a

4
/

Y
e
a
r

c
l
o
s
e
s
t

t
o

t
h
e

h
e
a
d

o
f

t
h
e

c
o
l
u
m
n
.
C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
P
o
v
e
r
t
y
,
e
x
t
r
e
m
e
p
o
v
e
r
t
y
&
m
e
d
i
a
n
i
n
c
o
m
e
s
I
n
c
i
d
e
n
c
e

o
f

p
o
v
e
r
t
y

a
n
d

e
x
t
r
e
m
e

p
o
v
e
r
t
y

(
1
8

C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
)
,
p
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e
s
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

m
o
n
t
h
l
y

h
o
u
s
e
h
o
l
d

i
n
c
o
m
e

(
1
7

C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
)
(
m
u
l
t
i
p
l
e
s

o
f

t
h
e

p
o
v
e
r
t
y

l
i
n
e
)
T
o
t
a
l

P
o
v
e
r
t
y

2

P
o
v
e
r
t
y

i
n

R
u
r
a
l

A
r
e
a
s
T
o
ta
l E
x
tre
m
e
P
o
v
e
rty
2
E
x
t
r
e
m
e

P
o
v
e
r
t
y

i
n

R
u
r
a
l

A
r
e
a
s
U
r
b
a
n

A
r
e
a
s
R
u
r
a
l

A
r
e
a
s
2
0
0
3
/
0
5
2
0
0
9
/
1
0
2
0
0
3
/
0
5
2
0
0
9
/
1
0
2
0
0
3
/
0
5
2
0
0
9
/
1
0
2
0
0
3
/
0
5
2
0
0
9
/
1
0
2
0
0
3
/
0
5
2
0
0
9
/
1
0
2
0
0
4
/
0
5
2
0
0
9
/
1
0
A
r
g
e
n
t
i
n
a

(
0
4
-
0
6
)
2
9
,
4
8
,
6
1
1
,
1
2
,
8
8
,
8
1
8
,
8
B
o
l
i
v
i
a

(
0
4
-
0
7
)
6
3
,
9
5
4
,
0
8
0
,
6
7
5
,
8
3
4
,
7
3
1
,
2
5
8
,
8
5
9
,
0
6
,
8
2
,
9
3
,
5
B
r
a
s
i
l

(
0
5
-
0
9
)
3
6
,
3
2
4
,
9
5
3
,
2
3
9
,
3
1
0
,
6
7
,
0
2
2
,
1
1
5
,
2
1
0
,
8
1
2
,
5
6
,
3
7
,
8
C
h
i
l
e

(
0
3
-
0
9
)
1
8
,
7
1
1
,
5
2
0
,
0
1
0
,
4
4
,
7
3
,
6
6
,
2
4
,
4
1
3
,
9
1
4
,
8
1
1
,
1
1
2
,
5
C
o
l
o
m
b
i
a

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
4
6
,
8
4
4
,
3
5
0
,
5
6
2
,
7
2
0
,
2
1
4
,
8
2
5
,
6
2
6
,
7
8
,
3
8
,
1
6
,
2
4
,
4
C
o
s
t
a

R
i
c
a

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
2
1
,
1
1
8
,
5
2
2
,
7
2
0
,
8
7
,
0
6
,
8
9
,
0
9
,
9
1
0
,
7
1
1
,
3
9
,
8
1
0
,
7
E
c
u
a
d
o
r

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
4
8
,
3
3
9
,
2
5
4
,
5
4
3
,
2
2
1
,
2
1
6
,
4
2
9
,
2
2
0
,
8
7
,
4
7
,
7
5
,
8
6
,
3
E
l

S
a
l
v
a
d
o
r

(
0
4
-
0
0
)
4
7
,
5
4
6
,
6
5
6
,
8
5
5
,
8
1
9
,
0
1
6
,
7
2
6
,
6
2
3
,
5
6
,
7
6
,
0
5
,
2
4
,
9
H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s

(
0
3
-
0
0
)
7
4
,
8
6
7
,
4
8
4
,
8
7
6
,
5
5
9
,
3
4
2
,
8
6
9
,
4
5
6
,
8
5
,
6
5
,
8
3
,
1
4
,
4
M
x
i
c
o

(
0
4
-
0
0
)
3
7
,
0
3
6
,
3
4
4
,
1
4
2
,
9
1
1
,
7
1
3
,
3
1
9
,
3
2
1
,
3
8
,
9
7
,
8
7
,
1
6
,
7
N
i
c
a
r
a
g
u
a

(
0
5
)
6
1
,
9
7
1
,
5
3
1
,
9
4
6
,
1
7
,
3
5
,
3
P
a
n
a
m

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
3
1
,
0
2
5
,
8
4
7
,
2
4
4
,
8
1
4
,
1
1
2
,
6
2
7
,
5
2
6
,
6
1
1
,
4
1
1
,
6
6
,
8
7
,
3
P
a
r
a
g
u
a
y

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
6
0
,
5
5
4
,
8
6
8
,
1
6
6
,
6
3
2
,
1
3
0
,
7
4
4
,
2
4
6
,
8
5
,
5
6
,
2
4
,
8
5
,
2
P
e
r

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
4
8
,
7
3
1
,
3
7
0
,
9
5
4
,
2
1
7
,
4
9
,
8
3
7
,
9
2
3
,
3
7
,
7
9
,
5
3
,
4
5
,
1
R
e
p
b
l
i
c
a

D
o
m
i
n
i
c
a
n
a

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
4
7
,
5
4
1
,
4
5
1
,
4
4
5
,
2
2
4
,
6
2
0
,
9
2
8
,
8
2
6
,
5
7
,
9
8
,
6
6
,
2
6
,
6
U
r
u
g
u
a
y

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
1
8
,
8
8
,
4
4
,
2
4
,
1
1
,
4
1
,
1
1
0
,
1
1
0
,
7
V
e
n
e
z
u
e
l
a

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
3
7
,
1
2
7
,
8
1
5
,
9
1
0
,
7
A
m
r
i
c
a

L
a
t
i
n
a

3

(
0
5
-
0
0
)
3
9
,
8
3
1
,
4
5
8
,
8
5
2
,
6
1
5
,
4
1
2
,
3
3
2
,
5
3
0
,
0
C
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
C
r
o
p
s
L
i
v
e
s
t
o
c
k
F
i
s
h
i
n
g
F
o
r
e
s
t
r
y
E
x
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
I
m
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
E
x
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
I
m
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
E
x
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
I
m
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
E
x
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
I
m
p
o
r
t
s
(
%
)
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
2
0
0
0
/
0
5
2
0
0
5
/
1
1
A
n
t
ig
u
a
&
B
a
r
b
u
d
a
0
,0
0
,0
0
,0
0
,0
A
r
g
e
n
t
in
a
1
0
,7
1
3
,5
-
4
,1
1
3
,0
1
8
,6
6
,0
-
1
4
,5
1
6
,7
-
1
,2
7
,1
-
6
,7
1
3
,0
1
6
,4
3
,4
-
2
,6
6
,3
B
a
h
a
m
a
s
-
3
1
,5
3
,8
-
3
0
,8
3
,3
-
2
,8
3
,9
5
5
,2
5
,5
2
,9
-
1
,0
B
a
r
b
a
d
o
s
4
,5
4
,1
5
,6
4
,4
7
,1
-
1
1
,7
6
,5
3
,3
-
0
,9
-
1
9
,4
8
,8
-
0
,1
3
3
,3
8
2
,9
-
5
,4
1
,6
B
e
liz
e
1
1
,5
0
,0
1
,2
1
3
,3
2
9
,6
-
6
0
,2
0
,5
3
,5
2
4
,0
-
8
,0
-
3
,6
-
1
2
,7
-
7
,2
3
0
,5
-
1
0
,8
7
,8
B
o
liv
ia
(
P
lu
r
in
a
t
io
n
a
l S
t
a
t
e
o
f
)
1
0
,1
1
3
,2
-
1
,1
1
3
,5
2
,5
8
,8
-
4
,2
8
,9
-
1
9
,6
2
9
,4
9
,7
9
,1
3
,5
1
1
,5
B
r
a
z
il
1
7
,4
1
7
,4
-
3
,3
2
0
,0
3
1
,8
1
1
,5
-
1
3
,0
2
3
,4
1
1
,1
-
8
,5
-
1
,1
2
4
,3
1
3
,4
6
,5
0
,8
1
0
,7
C
a
n
a
d
a
7
,2
1
2
,7
9
,2
9
,5
4
,7
2
,7
2
,5
9
,4
5
,7
1
,5
3
,8
6
,8
2
,6
-
6
,3
4
,3
-
0
,9
C
h
ile
8
,8
1
5
,0
6
,6
1
4
,7
3
5
,3
6
,1
1
4
,5
1
4
,8
1
0
,2
2
,4
1
6
,0
1
4
,1
1
0
,3
8
,3
1
3
,5
9
,7
C
o
lo
m
b
ia
7
,1
7
,4
6
,1
1
6
,6
2
8
,7
-
1
7
,0
-
1
1
,3
1
7
,9
-
1
,7
1
,4
1
0
,5
1
5
,7
1
3
,5
7
,8
6
,5
7
,9
C
o
s
t
a
R
ic
a
5
,6
6
,3
7
,4
1
4
,3
1
0
,3
9
,9
1
,5
1
6
,9
-
0
,8
1
,4
9
,5
1
2
,9
8
,7
1
2
,3
4
,0
1
,9
C
u
b
a
-
1
0
,1
1
4
,5
6
,2
1
4
,7
-
1
,7
6
,1
6
,5
8
6
,0
3
,6
-
1
1
,5
D
o
m
in
ic
a
-
7
,2
-
6
,5
0
,1
9
,2
3
7
,3
1
,8
1
2
,0
5
0
,7
-
5
9
,6
2
,2
4
,9
1
2
,5
-
1
,1
-
1
5
,9
1
3
,2
E
c
u
a
d
o
r
1
0
,1
1
4
,0
1
6
,4
1
4
,7
-
1
8
,8
2
7
,4
1
6
,0
1
6
,4
9
,5
1
3
,2
2
0
,1
7
7
,3
2
4
,0
6
,9
7
,4
8
,6
E
l S
a
lv
a
d
o
r
0
,3
9
,9
8
,7
8
,9
-
0
,6
1
4
,2
6
,0
1
2
,8
2
6
,8
3
,3
3
9
,0
6
,3
1
0
,9
2
2
,8
3
,1
6
,5
U
n
it
e
d
S
t
a
t
e
s
4
,6
1
3
,0
8
,4
7
,7
-
1
,8
1
3
,3
5
,3
0
,1
6
,1
3
,7
4
,5
4
,0
1
,5
5
,9
5
,6
-
9
,9
G
r
a
n
a
d
a
-
9
,8
1
,8
3
,4
1
2
,4
-
1
7
,5
5
7
,1
4
,3
1
1
,4
-
2
,3
-
4
,1
4
,2
1
6
,3
0
,0
0
,0
G
u
a
t
e
m
a
la
2
,7
1
6
,7
1
3
,6
1
2
,7
4
,3
1
4
,4
1
0
,0
8
,5
-
3
,8
3
5
,3
2
9
,9
1
6
,6
1
8
,4
1
,8
7
,9
7
,6
G
u
y
a
n
a
6
,3
9
,4
6
,0
1
6
,4
9
,6
7
,7
6
,0
4
,9
2
,9
-
4
,8
-
1
0
,9
2
,1
2
,2
-
0
,9
1
6
,2
2
,0
H
a
it
i
3
5
,6
0
,7
2
9
,5
H
o
n
d
u
r
a
s
-
1
,6
2
0
,5
-
0
,6
2
0
,2
2
0
,9
-
0
,1
7
,6
2
2
,3
3
2
,0
7
7
,2
2
1
,5
1
4
,0
-
1
9
,5
0
,3
1
1
,6
2
,6
J
a
m
a
ic
a
0
,0
6
,5
6
,9
1
4
,0
-
1
,7
7
,2
4
,5
2
,4
-
3
,5
-
3
,5
5
,9
3
,4
9
8
,1
5
8
,4
-
7
,1
3
,6
M
e
x
ic
o
7
,9
8
,9
8
,7
8
,6
6
,6
4
,4
6
,2
4
,5
-
2
,0
4
,3
2
1
,2
4
,7
8
,1
4
,9
8
,8
4
,6
N
ic
a
r
a
g
u
a
5
,8
1
7
,1
4
,1
1
7
,4
1
3
,8
2
5
,9
-
4
,4
1
3
,5
3
,4
6
,2
-
1
2
,1
8
,3
-
3
,3
-
3
,8
9
,3
8
,6
P
a
n
a
m
a
3
,5
1
0
,9
2
5
,5
1
,2
-
9
,5
1
5
,2
1
1
,0
-
1
0
,4
1
2
,9
3
0
,0
1
2
,3
5
,5
3
,5
P
a
r
a
g
u
a
y
1
6
,6
2
3
,9
-
3
,8
1
9
,6
2
3
,3
2
0
,8
-
1
,8
1
9
,9
2
7
,3
-
3
4
,8
-
2
,3
3
1
,0
-
3
,6
1
6
,4
1
4
,7
1
6
,9
P
e
r
u
1
6
,3
1
9
,8
1
0
,5
1
7
,3
4
5
,2
1
6
,6
3
,3
1
4
,8
7
,0
1
0
,5
1
8
,7
3
0
,6
9
,7
-
4
,4
1
2
,7
1
4
,3
D
o
m
in
ic
a
n
R
e
p
u
b
lic
5
,6
0
,3
-
5
,5
1
,0
2
6
,7
8
,5
4
6
,3
3
0
,3
0
,4
8
,0
S
a
in
t
K
it
t
s
&
N
e
v
is
-
2
4
,5
5
4
,2
-
0
,2
1
5
,6
-
1
2
,4
2
0
,0
4
,2
8
,1
-
4
,5
5
9
,7
1
,1
1
5
,7
0
,0
0
,0
0
,0
0
,0
S
a
n
V
ic
e
n
t
e
&
t
h
e
G
r
e
n
a
-
d
in
e
s
-
6
,1
-
0
,4
1
,9
1
4
,2
1
6
,4
9
,9
7
,0
5
,5
-
1
4
,6
7
,7
9
,4
0
,6
5
8
,5
5
5
,9
-
2
4
,4
5
,1
S
a
in
t
L
u
c
ia
-
0
,8
4
,8
1
4
0
,2
6
,5
-
6
0
,5
8
,4
0
,0
5
,0
S
u
r
in
a
m
e
0
,5
1
3
,9
1
9
,6
1
8
,6
T
r
in
in
d
a
d
&
T
o
b
a
g
o
3
,5
-
4
,6
1
3
,0
7
,0
-
8
,5
5
,8
5
,4
1
1
,9
-
6
,6
1
,7
2
2
,2
7
,4
-
8
,4
4
1
,6
1
0
,7
-
1
,3
U
r
u
g
u
a
y
1
1
,0
3
1
,4
-
5
,4
2
4
,1
1
7
,0
1
1
,5
1
5
,0
9
,8
5
,8
8
,1
8
,2
2
7
,8
1
7
,9
4
1
,8
-
4
,8
7
,7
V
e
n
e
z
u
e
la
(
B
o
liv
ia
n
R
e
p
. o
f
)
-
9
,2
-
2
2
,0
1
,8
8
,8
-
3
0
,0
1
4
,8
8
,1
-
1
4
,8
-
3
,6
-
6
,5
0
,3
-
1
6
,2
0
,7
1
0
,6
T
a
b
l
e

A
6
.

P
o
v
e
r
t
y
,

e
x
t
r
e
m
e

p
o
v
e
r
t
y

&

m
e
d
i
a
n

i
n
c
o
m
e
s
T
a
b
l
e

A
7
.

A
n
n
u
a
l

g
r
o
w
t
h

i
n

t
r
a
d
e

b
y

s
e
c
t
o
r

S
o
u
r
c
e
:

e
c
l
a
c
,
P
a
n
o
r
a
m
a

S
o
c
i
a
l

2
0
1
1

(
b
a
s
e
d

o
n

d
a
t
a

f
r
o
m

h
o
u
s
e
h
o
l
d

s
u
r
v
e
y
s

i
n

t
h
e

r
e
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e

c
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s
)
1
/

I
n
c
l
u
d
e
s

p
e
o
p
l
e

b
e
l
o
w

t
h
e

i
n
d
i
g
e
n
c
e

l
i
n
e

o
r

i
n

a

s
i
t
u
a
t
i
o
n

o
f

i
n
d
i
g
e
n
c
e

(
e
x
t
r
e
m
e

p
o
v
e
r
t
y
)

2
/

D
a
t
a

f
r
o
m

A
r
g
e
n
t
i
n
a

&

U
r
u
g
u
a
y

b
e
f
o
r
e

2
0
0
7

c
o
r
r
e
s
p
o
n
d
s

t
o

T
o
t
a
l

U
r
b
a
n

A
r
e
a
s
3
/

E
s
t
i
m
a
t
i
o
n

f
o
r

1
8

c
o
u
n
t
r
i
e
s

o
f

t
h
e

r
e
g
i
o
n

a
n
d

H
a
i
t
i
.
S
o
u
r
c
e
:
:
I
n
t
e
r
-
A
m
e
r
i
c
a
n

I
n
s
t
i
t
u
t
e

f
o
r

C
o
o
p
e
r
a
t
i
o
n

i
n

A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

(
i
i
c
a
)

b
a
s
e
d

o
n

i
n
f
o
r
m
a
t
i
o
n

f
r
o
m

t
h
e

U
n
i
t
e
d

N
a
t
i
o
n
s

(
c
o
m
t
r
a
d
e
)

&

f
a
o

(
f
a
o
s
t
a
t
)
.
N
o
t
e
:
a
r
g
,
b
r
b
,
b
l
z
,
c
h
l
,
d
m
a
,
s
l
v
,
g
t
m
,
g
u
y
,
j
a
m
,
m
e
x
,
n
i
c
,
p
a
n
,
d
o
m
,
v
c
t
,
t
t
o
,
u
r
y
,
t
h
e

l
a
s
t

p
e
r
i
o
d

i
s

2
0
0
5
/
1
0
F
o
r

g
r
d
,
k
n
a

t
h
e

l
a
s
t

p
e
r
i
o
d

i
s

2
0
0
5
/
0
8
.
F
o
r

h
n
d
,
t
h
e

l
a
s
t

p
e
r
i
o
d

i
s

2
0
0
5
/
2
0
0
7
.
Countries
Crops Livestock Fishing Forestry
2000/05 2005/11 2000/05 2005/11 2000/05 2005/11 2000/05 2005/11
Antigua & Barbuda
Argentina 1,5 3,0 8,8 -3,9 -9,4 -2,9 6,71 -6,57
Bahamas -39,0 -38,3 -13,4 -5,94
Barbados 2,5 7,9 5,0 -8,5 -2,9 -16,4 105,21
Belize 8,9 -3,7 26,6 -61,7 21,1 -11,5 -9,37 39,08
Bolivia (Plurinational State of ) -4,5 -4,0 -11,1 -7,8 -26,3 -4,86 -7,46
Brazil 0,5 5,5 12,8 0,2 -4,9 -17,7 -2,95 -4,29
Canada 1,3 11,2 -1,1 1,3 -0,1 0,2 -2,98 -7,57
Chile -6,8 5,8 16,0 -2,4 -5,5 -5,8 -5,49 0,17
Colombia -2,9 -7,0 16,8 -28,2 -10,8 -12,2 2,98 -6,67
Costa Rica -0,8 0,8 3,6 4,2 -6,8 -3,9 2,14 6,43
Cuba -17,0 -1,9 -9,2 -1,65
Dominica -3,2 -2,3 43,6 57,2 -57,7 17,27 4,19
Ecuador -5,2 2,1 -30,1 14,0 -5,7 1,4 6,77 -4,26
El Salvador -4,3 -14,2 -5,2 -10,8 20,9 -19,4 5,81 -2,36
United States 1,4 5,9 -4,9 6,2 2,7 -2,7 -1,69 -0,66
Granada 9,9 -3,9 0,5 48,3 19,0 -9,5
Guatemala -9,2 1,7 -7,7 -0,3 -14,9 17,9 4,79 -11,35
Guyana 4,5 -1,9 7,8 -3,4 1,2 -14,6 0,48 -11,12
Haiti
Honduras -3,3 -11,4 18,7 -26,5 29,6 30,4 -20,90 15,13
Jamaica -3,5 12,2 -5,1 12,9 -6,9 1,6 91,19 71,05
Mexico 2,5 4,4 1,3 0,1 -7,0 -0,0 2,64 1,82
Nicaragua -1,4 -2,4 6,0 5,0 -3,7 -11,5 -9,95 -22,69
Panama -0,0 -39,5 -2,3 -50,7 7,2 -51,1 25,53 -38,48
Paraguay 0,9 2,1 6,7 -0,4 10,2 -46,2 -16,59 -4,06
Peru -3,5 5,0 20,5 2,2 -11,2 -3,1 -8,94 -16,16
Dominican Republic 14,6 2,6 37,6 36,32
Saint Kitts & Nevis -27,2 38,9 -15,5 8,1 -7,9 43,8 -3,54 -9,94
San Vicente & the Grenadines -1,1 -3,3 22,6 6,6 -10,1 4,5 66,92 57,61
Saint Lucia -11,9 113,4 -64,9
Suriname
Trinidad & Tobago -10,5 -3,8 -20,9 6,6 -19,3 2,6 -20,77 48,64
Uruguay 1,4 15,1 6,9 -2,3 -3,4 -5,3 7,67 35,31
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of ) -19,2 43,9 -37,7 180,1 -24,2 67,4 -10,75
Countries
Crops Livestock Fishing
1
Forestry
2
2000/05 2005/10 2000/05 2005/10 2000/05 2005/10 2000/05 2005/10
Antigua & Barbuda -2,01 2,04 -3,55 4,62 11,30 -5,18
Argentina 3,94 1,26 -0,38 1,12 0,16 -4,43 10,75 0,52
Bahamas -1,75 2,23 2,16 2,26 1,71 -0,35 0,00 16,86
Barbados -4,42 -5,04 2,07 1,79 -6,80 12,77 11,92 0,00
Belize -0,20 -2,54 9,85 0,30 -12,19 14,46 0,00 -1,05
Bolivia (Plurinational State of ) 5,26 4,13 5,19 3,03 2,55 3,60 3,17 1,08
Brazil 5,35 9,14 4,86 2,99 3,32 5,02 1,66 1,02
Canada 3,27 0,79 0,42 0,47 2,36 -2,71 0,87 -9,87
Chile 2,36 -2,67 2,78 1,45 3,25 -6,26 4,22 1,37
Colombia 2,82 -4,45 2,58 3,03 -2,54 -1,58 -2,69 -0,10
Costa Rica 1,93 -1,67 1,53 3,91 0,36 1,62 -2,47 -0,29
Cuba -12,16 0,20 -6,46 10,01 -10,73 2,50 8,55 -5,46
Dominica -4,82 3,97 -3,50 7,02 -14,60 5,14 0,00
Ecuador 2,96 3,99 16,02 3,81 -4,06 3,61 3,28 2,01
El Salvador -0,78 3,35 2,30 2,80 32,84 -4,35 -1,69 0,12
United States 1,59 1,55 0,99 1,45 0,94 -3,00 0,27 -7,28
Granada -1,84 0,10 0,45 4,40 2,29 4,20
Guatemala 5,82 0,19 2,70 1,67 -12,97 8,28 2,11 2,10
Guyana 1,60 -1,30 6,98 2,42 2,39 -4,44 3,31 -0,88
Haiti 1,26 1,76 1,71 2,85 6,33 0,44 0,33 0,36
Honduras 9,33 4,53 4,38 0,99 16,33 -13,09 0,22 -1,24
Jamaica -4,07 4,03 1,13 -0,13 10,28 -1,48 -0,90 -2,71
Mexico 2,07 0,52 1,99 1,80 -0,38 3,39 -0,38 0,45
Nicaragua 4,30 3,05 2,92 4,84 4,48 8,67 0,31 0,34
Panama 1,20 0,01 1,52 3,66 -0,87 -6,75 0,05 -3,25
Paraguay 8,73 4,25 2,09 3,75 -13,97 -21,12 1,01 1,03
Peru 0,81 5,33 3,80 5,73 -1,21 -10,46 -0,04 -1,30
Dominican Republic 2,53 1,96 1,53 5,14 -1,00 4,59 0,15 7,40
Saint Kitts & Nevis -6,24 -35,72 -0,63 -3,67 -1,41 71,72
San Vicente & the Grenadines 2,25 3,84 -2,52 3,61 -45,63 63,73 -1,89
Saint Lucia -5,16 2,57 8,75 2,69 -6,38 6,52 0,00
Suriname -3,65 6,74 1,70 3,84 5,78 1,04 0,42 4,61
Trinidad & Tobago -17,96 -34,67 7,43 -2,04 1,66 -3,03 -2,74 -5,33
Uruguay 9,87 10,40 2,40 1,32 3,07 -11,13 15,36 14,58
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of ) 1,14 1,23 -1,33 5,84 5,03 -6,39 2,72 4,09
Table A8. Participation of sector exports in total exports of goods
(Annual cumulative growth, percentages)
Table A9. Annual cumulative rate of production growth by sector, percentages
Source: Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (iica) based on information from the United Nations
(comtrade) & fao (faostat).
Note: arg, brb, blz, chl, dma, slv, gtm, guy, jam, mex, nic, pan, dom, vct, tto, ury, the last period is 2005/10
For grd, kna the last period is 2005/08.
For hnd, the last period is 2005/2007.
Source: Inter-American Institute for Cooperation in Agriculture (iica) based on offcial fao information (faostat).
1/Comprende toda la produccin (acuacultura & captura) tanto de aguas oceanicas como aguas continentales.
Source: fisgstat fao. Available at: http://www.fao.org/fshery/topic/16140/en
2/ Comprises all wood obtained from extraction operations in forests and in other areas during the current period year or
forestry period)
Country
Total land
area *
Total
Agriculture
Area (TAA) *
Arable
Land &
Permanent
Crops
(ALPC)*
% ALPC/TAA
Grazing
Land and
Grasslands
(GLG) *
%GLG/TAA Forest area *
Protected
areas **
Antigua & Barbuda 44,0 13,0 9,0 0,7 4,0 0,3 9,8
Argentina 273.669,0 140.500,0 32.000,0 0,2 108.500,0 0,8 29.879,6
Bahamas 1.001,0 14,0 12,0 0,9 2,0 0,1 515,0
Barbados 43,0 19,0 17,0 0,9 2,0 0,1 8,4 21515***
Belize 2.281,0 152,0 102,0 0,7 50,0 0,3 1.412,2
Bolivia (Plurinational State of ) 108.330,0 36.954,0 3.954,0 0,1 33.000,0 0,9 57.811,2
Brazil 845.942,0 264.500,0 68.500,0 0,3 196.000,0 0,7 523.910,8
Canada 909.351,0 67.600,0 52.150,0 0,8 15.450,0 0,2 310.134,0 800,6
Chile 74.353,2 15.742,0 1.727,0 0,1 14.015,0 0,9 16.155,8
Colombia 110.950,0 42.540,0 3.354,0 0,1 39.186,0 0,9 60.701,0 17.066,90
Costa Rica 5.106,0 1.800,0 500,0 0,3 1.300,0 0,7 2.559,4 70.530,00
Cuba 10.644,0 6.655,0 4.025,0 0,6 2.630,0 0,4 2.800,8
Dominica 75,0 24,5 22,5 0,9 2,0 0,1 45,2
Ecuador 24.836,0 7.534,0 2.548,0 0,3 4.986,0 0,7 10.260,2 14.334,90
El Salvador 2.072,0 1.544,0 907,0 0,6 637,0 0,4 295,8 14.508,80
United States 914.742,0 403.451,0 165.451,0 0,4 238.000,0 0,6 303.256,4 1.355,80
Granada 34,0 12,5 11,5 0,9 1,0 0,1 17,0 330,9
Guatemala 10.716,0 4.395,0 2.445,0 0,6 1.950,0 0,4 3.769,4
Guyana 19.685,0 1.675,0 445,0 0,3 1.230,0 0,7 15.205,0
Haiti 2.756,0 1.840,0 1.350,0 0,7 490,0 0,3 102,6 41,6
Honduras 11.189,0 3.190,0 1.430,0 0,4 1.760,0 0,6 5.432,0
Jamaica 1.083,0 449,0 220,0 0,5 229,0 0,5 337,9
Mexico 194.395,0 102.833,0 27.833,0 0,3 75.000,0 0,7 65.112,4
Nicaragua 12.034,0 5.146,0 2.130,0 0,4 3.016,0 0,6 3.254,0 3.089,00
Panama 7.434,0 2.230,0 695,0 0,3 1.535,0 0,7 3.274,6
Paraguay 39.730,0 20.900,0 3.900,0 0,2 17.000,0 0,8 17.939,2
Peru 128.000,0 21.440,0 4.440,0 0,2 17.000,0 0,8 68.292,0
Dominican Republic 4.832,0 2.467,0 1.270,0 0,5 1.197,0 0,5 1.972,0 3163,6***
Saint Kitts & Nevis 26,0 5,5 4,2 0,8 1,3 0,2 11,0
San Vicente & the Grenadines 39,0 10,0 8,0 0,8 2,0 0,2 26,5
Saint Lucia 61,0 11,0 10,0 0,9 1,0 0,1 47,0
Suriname 15.600,0 81,4 64,0 0,8 17,4 0,2 14.765,2 18.700,40
Trinidad & Tobago 513,0 54,0 47,0 0,9 7,0 0,1 227,8
Uruguay 17.502,0 14.807,0 1.912,0 0,1 12.895,0 0,9 1.654,4
Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of ) 88.205,0 21.400,0 3.400,0 0,2 18.000,0 0,8 46.850,2
Americas 3.837.273,2 1.191.988,9 386.893,2 0,3 805.095,7 0,7 1.568.045,9
alc + Mexico 2.013.180,2 720.937,9 169.292,2 0,2 551.645,7 0,8 954.655,5 255.839,40
Table A10. Land use in the Americas by category (1,000 ha)
* Source: fao, faostat (2009).
** Source: eclac, eclacstat (2007; *** 2006).
and Rural Development
in the Americas:
2013
A Perspective on Latin
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
Address: Av. Dag Hammarskjold 3477, Vitacura, Santiago, Chile
Central telephone: (56-2) 471-2000 - 210-2000 - 208-5051
Main facsimile: (56-2) 208-0252
Postal address: P.O. Box 179-D, Santiago, Chile
Postal code: 7630412
E-mail: dpisantiago@cepal.org
Website: www.edac.org
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Regional Oce for Latin America and the Caribbean
Av. Dag Hammarskjold 3241, Vitacura Santiago, Chile
Tel: (56-2) 9232100
E-mail: FAO-RLC@fao.org
Website: www.rlc.fao.org
Inter-American Insitute for Cooperation on Agriculture
Headquarters
P.O. Box: 55-2200 San Jos, Vzquez de Coronado,
San Isidro 11101, Costa Rica
Tel: (506) 2216-0222
Fax: (506) 2216-0233
E-mail: iicahq@iica.int
Website: www.iica.int
T
h
e

O
u
t
l
o
o
k

f
o
r

A
g
r
i
c
u
l
t
u
r
e

a
n
d

R
u
r
a
l

D
e
v
e
l
o
p
m
e
n
t

i
n

t
h
e

A
m
e
r
i
c
a
s
:

A

P
e
r
s
p
e
c
t
i
v
e

o
n

L
a
t
i
n

A
m
e
r
i
c
a

a
n
d

t
h
e

C
a
r
i
b
b
e
a
n

2
0
1
3

Perspectivas en

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Perspectivas en

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Outlook for Agriculture

and Rural Development

You might also like