Literature review: On the acoustics of the presence of tip clearances in axial fans and compressors

Reid A. Berdanier
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, 47907, USA
The presence of tip clearances in axial fans and compressors has been shown to have a signicant eect on aerodynamic performance and stall margin. The uid that passes through the blade clearance creates a vortex which propagates across the blade passage and creates a blockage to the throughow. If the clearance is increased beyond a critical height, the size of this vortex can become signicant, causing considerable losses for the compressor. Because the formation of these clearance vortices is highly unsteady, these ow structures can have crucial implications for the noise level of the machine. Specically, as the clearance height is increased, a subsequent increase of tip-clearance-induced noise has also been observed in broadband levels and limited narrow-band regions. Over the years, several experimental and numerical studies of this phenomenon have been conducted, and some suggestions for the reduction of tip-clearance-induced noise have been presented.

Nomenclature
B c D ht min p t PS RANS RI SPL SS U v x y Znoz 0 Number of blades Speed of sound Rotor tip diameter Total enthalpy Injection mass ow rate Total pressure rise Blade pressure surface Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes Rotating instability Sound pressure level Blade suction surface Rotor tip speed Velocity Observer location Source location Number of nozzles Vorticity Flow coecient = 4Q/(D2 U ) Pressure rise coecient = 2pt /(0 U 2 ) Ambient density Tip clearance height

I.

Introduction

Initial comments on the eects of tip clearance eects in axial compressors can be dated to the late 1800s1 and have been extended by Betz2 and Lindsey.3 Formal studies of the aerodynamic eects of tip clearances (i.e., the tip leakage ow and the formation of the tip clearance vortex) were rst conducted by Dean4 and
Research

Assistant, School of Mechanical Engineering, 500 Allison Road, AIAA Student Member.

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Rains.5 As a result, an understanding of the fundamental principles governing tip leakages is still relatively young and tip leakage ows are largely regarded as a eld which is not well understood.6 Similarly, analyses of tip-clearance-generated noise are relatively young, developing from the studies of Lighthill7, 8 and formally studied by Tyler & Sofrin9 in the mid-1900s. Thus, tip clearance noise is also regarded as a eld which is not well understood because the noise generation mechanisms are dicult to identify and largely unknown.1012 Since the studies of TCN began approximately 50 years ago, several experimental methods and simulation models have been created which have helped to mold the knowledge of the eld.

II.

Aerodynamic Background

Smith & Cumpsty13 investigated the eects of rotor tip clearances and observed a distinct dependence of pressure rise capability and stall margin on tip clearance height in compressors.a Khalid16 discussed the implications of endwall formations and, through the data of Smith & Cumpsty, deduced that the observed dependencies were the result of blockages in the ow. Furthermore, Khalid concluded that tip clearances can be charged as a primary limiter of pressure rise capability. From the standpoint of optimal performance, these data suggest it is desirable to have tip clearance heights approaching zero. However, clearance heights are necessary due to thermal expansion and undesirable, yet possible, eccentricities of the rotor shaft with respect to the compressor casing (or duct, in acoustic terms). Ultimately, the limiting factors are largely machining techniques and the cost of high tolerances. As alluded to earlier, the presence of tip clearances in axial compressors and fans invites the development of a tip leakage ow. The formation of this leakage ow can be traced to two primary contributors: (1) the pressure dierence across the blade and (2) the rotationally-induced ow due to wall motion relative to the blades.5, 17 Due to the direction of rotation relative to the blade conguration in a compressor, the rotationally-induced ow is an additive component to the pressure-driven ow. The pressure-driven leakage contribution occurs as a result of the blade shape, which creates a high-pressure PS and a low-pressure SS. The clearance between the blade tip and the casing allows communication between these two ow regions, thereby presenting a ow which is comparable to traditional incompressible Poiseuille ow.18 Dittmar notes, however, that the communication between these two pressure regions (PS and SS) could interact slightly downstream of the blade, even if there were no clearance present.19 For the other driving component, the eect of the moving wall relative to the blades is a derivation of the traditional Couette ow problem and is discussed at length by several authors.2022 After the leakage uid travels through the clearance gap, the dierence in ow direction of the leakage uid with respect to the main throughow necessitates the formation of a shear layer. This interaction causes the roll-up of a tip clearance vortex, as shown in gure 1(a). This vortex then grows in size6 and is convected downstream by the main throughow. In addition to this tip clearance vortex, Kameier & Neise23 discuss the development of a reversed ow condition which develops as a result of the pressure dierence between upstream and downstream regions of the blade row. The authors suggest that it is this secondary ow (shown in gure 1(b)) which generates the tip clearance noise. Under heavy loading, Longhouse24 suggests that this pressure dierence between regions upstream and downstream of the blade row becomes extreme and can cause the clearance ow to jet out in front of the blade, thereby preventing the formation of a vortex. Such phenomena has been observed by other authors in aerodynamic performance studies and could explain the suggested secondary ow proposed by Kameier & Neise23 in gure 1(b).

III.

Acoustic Sources

In principle, the acoustic sources of interest here can be largely explained as uid-structure interactions. The tip clearance vortex described above convects downstream and strikes the downstream blade row (i.e., the stator vane). These regions of poor ow quality downstream of the rotors create uctuating velocities and air angles on the stator blades which, in turn, produce unsteady lift conditions and create noise. The content of this noise source can be divided into broadband and narrowband/tonal components (to be discussed later).19 These uid-structure interactions can be formally addressed utilizing Lighthills acoustic analogy under the assumption that the Mach number is small.26 In compressor and fan applications, the relative Mach
a See

Lakshiminarayana14 or Cumpsty15 for additional information on axial compressor fundamentals and tip clearance ows.

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(a) Tip clearance and leakage ow.25

(b) Reversed ow condition in tip region.23

Figure 1. Schematic showing the leakage ow and the formation of vortices.

number with respect to the blade can easily approach or exceed supersonic conditions, especially in the tip regions. However, the leakage ows discussed here are low Mach number and, as a result, the assumption of Lighthills acoustic analogy applies.27 Under the assumption of uniform uid ow in an axial compressor (or any other turbomachine), the principal sound sources are quadrupoles and dipoles. Applying the low-Mach number assumption from above, though, the quadrupole sources are dominated by the dipoles. Dunne & Howe26 dive into the fundamentals of this interaction. A. Fluid-structure Interaction Fundamentals

After the tip clearance vortex develops, it intersects with the downstream blade. The unsteady forces on the blade create the dipole source, but this source can have two components: (1) the vorticity of the colliding vortex and (2) additional vorticity shed by the blade itself (see gure 2(a)). If the vorticity of this source is known, the aeroacoustic sound can be determined applying the acoustic analogy for low-Mach number ow in the form 1 2 2 ht = ( v )26 (1) c2 t2 where the right-hand side of equation (1) ( v ) (2) represents Powells sound source term (used to identify vortex-generated sound sources).28 Applying Greens function, equation (1) has a solution in the form ht (x, t) = ( v )(y, ) G (x, y, t ) d3 y d 26 y (3)

whereby, in the far eld, the acoustic pressure can be linearized as p(x, t) 0 ht (x, t).29 (4)

In order to determine the contribution of the sound propagated to the acoustic far eld, it is appropriate to replace Greens function G with the compact Greens function under the aforementioned assumption of small Mach number. Under such an approximation, Dunne & Howe show the acoustic pressure as a function of non-dimensional retarded time, as shown in gure 2(b). In gure 2(b), the large dots represent the contribution from the incident vortex and the dashed line represents the contribution from the shed vorticity; the solid line is the total acoustic pressure. B. Rotating Instability

Liu et al.30 propose that the tip clearance noise propagated to the acoustic far eld is due to a rotating instability (RI) which exists only if there is reversed ow in the tip clearance gap (see gure 1(b)). Under
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(a) Fluid-structure interaction model.

(b) Acoustic pressure.

Figure 2. Fluid-structure interaction fundamentals from Dunne & Howe.26

these reversed tip ow conditions, if the reversed ow is strong enough to counteract the axial velocity of the ow in the tip region, then the vortex separation occurs at at the blade tips.23 These rotating instabilities are distributed non-uniformly around the circumference of the compressor. Moreover, the RIs rotate about the compressor axis in the same direction as the blade rows, but at a rotational speed which is a fraction of the wheel speed.23, 30 The work of Kameier,31 Liu et al.,30 and Kameier & Neise11, 23 has shown that these RI components are heavily dependent on ow rate and clearance size. It should be noted that this RI is only observed at low ow rates (i.e., below design point and approaching stall). The reversed ow which causes the RI component develops as a result of the inception of localized stall in the tip region. When the mean ow of the compressor is further decreased, these localized reversed ow regions expand such that ow separation takes place over the entire span of the blade(s), but only part of the circumference of the blade row.23 This condition is better known as rotating stall, a condition that is well-known to be a signicant source of noise in compressor operation. As the tip clearance size is reduced, the presence of RI components begins to disappear as the machine is throttled toward lower ow rates.31 Once the tip clearance height becomes suciently small, the RI component is absent from the blade pressure spectra altogether.11 This observation can be correlated with the discussion of compressor stability discussed in Section II. The reduction of tip clearance height has been shown to have a benecial eect on the stability of the compressor by increasing stall margin. In other words, the compressor has the ability to run more eectively at lower ow rates before experiencing stall conditions. By this observation, the reduction of the tip clearance height is preventing the reversed ow condition which is explained here to cause the RI component. As a result, the reduction of tip clearance height suppresses the RI so that it becomes eectively non-existent for suciently small tip clearance height, . Despite the fact that the RIs suggested here were observed in axial fan facilities, their existence has also been noted in axial compressor stages.32 C. Initial Model

As one of the early researchers of tip clearance noise, Dittmar19 sought to create a model with which the generation of tip clearance noise could be described. Specically, Dittmar looked to compare (a) the noise created by a downstream stator vane cutting an upstream-generated tip clearance vortex with (b) well-documented interactions between stators and upstream-generated rotor wakes. In principle, these two phenomena are dierent for several reasons: (1) the former involves a vortex and the latter a velocity defect; (2) the tip irregularities (tip clearance vortex) are locally conned to the tip region of the machine, whereas wakes aect the entire blade span; and (3) the swirling motion of the vortex creates regions of ow which have velocities in opposite directions (i.e., the top vs. the bottom of the vortex), whereas the wake velocity defect has the same direction for upwash (or downwash) across the entire blade span. This last dierence poses the most signicant problem because the rapid changing of upwash to downwash created by the vortex in a small reference distance creates the potential for a more compact source, thereby generating stronger relative noise than the wake. Nonetheless, Dittmar was able to show using turbine and fan data

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that the noise created by the tip defect (tip clearance vortex) interacting with the downstream stator was within 1-2 dB as strong as the noise created by the rotor wake interacting with the downstream stator.

IV.
A. Broadband Noise Components

Acoustic Spectra

Under landing conditions, the broadband noise components of an aircraft gas turbine engine may be responsible for up to 50% of the overall noise.27 In addition, a majority of this noise can be traced back to the axial fan, of which the primary contributor is known to be the tip-clearance-generated noise.33 Several authors have shown that the overall broadband noise in a fan increases directly with increased tip clearance height, .10, 11, 31 An example of this eect is shown in gure 3. Despite this apparent connection, however, Grilliat et al.34 have admitted in recent years that the relationship between the tip leakage ow and its directly-induced broadband noise is extremely dicult to establish due to extensive interaction occurring in the duct.

Figure 3. Sound pressure spectra in fan outlet duct for dierent tip clearance heights. Frequency range 0-10 kHz, fB = 12.5 Hz.23

B.

Tonal Frequency Components

Due to the rotational nature of gas turbine engines, discrete frequency noises make up a majority of the overall sound radiated from an engine. Moreover, these discrete frequency noise components (e.g., compressor whine) are often considered more displeasing to the observer than broadband noise.9 In addition to the broadband component introduced above, additional discrete tonal spikes occur in the spectra at frequencies not equal to the blade pass frequency (BPF) or its harmonics.24 This observation indicates that the tip-clearance-generated noise must create a tonal frequency which is independent of the machine rotation (supporting the ndings related to the rotational instability discussed above). Fukano et al.10 explain that this pure tone noise is generated from an interaction between the blade tip and the outer duct, and that the noise propagates as a plane wave. From knowledge of the cut-o frequencies in the inlet duct of their implemented fan rig, Kameier & Neise11 deduced that the tonal components produced by the BPF are caused by an interaction of the fan blades with inlet distortions.b However, comparing with results of Kameier et al.,37 Kameier & Neise11 concluded that tip clearance eects are independent of the rotor inlet ow conditions. This conclusion was made based on information that dierent inlet conditions do not aect the sound pressure spectra radiated for various tip clearance congurations. Additional tonal frequency components can be generated in the sound spectra if eccentricities exist in the alignment of the rotor relative to the outer casing.38 Fukano et al.10 observed the convection of this
analyses of the eects of inlet ows on clearance noise and overall compressor/fan noise have been conducted by Cumpsty35 and Robbins.36
b Additional

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discrete frequency noise as an axially-directed plane wave which moves without decay through the compressor. In addition to the structural instabilities that these eccentricities can create, the authors concluded that misalignments of the rotor shaft relative to the casing and deformations of the outer casing should be avoided at all costs.

V.

Eect of Clearance Size on Sound Pressure Level

The eect of the clearance size on the radiated sound pressure level (SPL) was alluded to above in Section III.A and shown through the spectrum in gure 3. However, several authors have shown the eect of the overall SPL for various tip clearances as a function of ow rate. One of the rst studies of this form was performed by Longhouse24 and the results are presented below in gure 4(a). In gure 4(a), A-weighting was applied to the SPL data in order to lter out low-frequency background noise in the experiment. It is apparent in this gure that the change in tip clearance has little or no eect at high ow rates and low ow rates. The explanation for this comes from the fact that, at high ow rates, the overall noise level is dominated by rotational noise and, thus, the contributions from the tip clearance noise are masked.33, 39 Further, the low ow rates are dominated by stall-induced noise and, again, the tip clearance noise contributions are masked. However, the lowest stable ow rate has been shifted toward lower values, signifying that the smaller tip clearance height has, in fact, stabilized the compressor as discussed earlier. A similar, more recent study conducted by Karstadt et al.25 is shown in gure 4(b) with comparable results. In this gure, though, it can be seen that a reduction in tip clearance height from 1% to 2% of outer fan diameter shows little improvement in overall sound power levels. In a study of low-pressure axial ow fans, Fukano et al.10 proposed an optimal tip clearance height of about 0.6 mm, which corresponds to approximately 1% of outer fan diameter in the experiment. Kameier & Neise11 observed the presence of a tip-clearance-generated noise component in the far eld spectrum for tip clearance heights as small as 0.27% of outer fan diameter. Comparing these results with the data shown in gure 4(b), one can assume that the limit for decreasing noise would be reached at a condition close to these values suggested by Fukano et al. and Kameier & Neise. Further reduction of the tip clearance height beyond 1% would likely generate little or no improvement in overall sound power level, yet cause a signicant increase in manufacturing cost and time, thereby suggesting the appropriateness of the 1% suggestion by Fukano et al. Alternatively, Mugridge & Morfey40 advise that optimal tip clearance height exists for the location at which the broadband noise is minimum due to counteraction of the tip clearance ow with the blade passage vortex.c The validity of this statement can also be conrmed through a noteworthy experimental study performed by Gbadebo et al.17

VI.

Controlling Tip Clearance Noise

As with the aerodynamic performance implications of tip clearance ows, the implications from tipclearance-induced noise inherently lead to the development of techniques to reduce their negative eects. Understandably, however, the incorporation of these techniques into new axial compressor designs requires signicant increases in cost and manufacturing that often need to be weighed against the aforementioned negative eects. The more primitive passive control methods provide an advantage through their simplicity, but results suggest active control methods may be more eective. A. Passive Control Methods

One of the rst authors to introduce passive control for the purpose of reducing tip clearance noise was Longhouse.24 The rst method implemented by Longhouse was the use of tip serrations with the goal of preventing (or at least breaking up) the tip clearance vortex formation. Ideally, the serrations would act like chevrons on a jet to encourage mixing and reduce acoustic noises. However, these serrations had the eect of increasing overall noise; no comment was made on the frequency content of the serrated-tip noise. The second method attempted by Longhouse was a SS wingleta method that has been similarly applied to reduce aerodynamic losses in compressors. As with the serrations, though, Longhouse found that this method also increased overall noise, although not to the same extent as the serrations. Ultimately, Longhouse
c The passage vortex is formed by the inherent pressure-driven ow in the endwall region from the PS of one blade to the SS of the adjacent blade within a blade passage. See Lakshiminarayana14 for further details about the passage vortex.

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(a)

(b)

Figure 4. Eect of clearance size on overall sound pressure (power) level as a function of ow rate. (a) Dashed line, = 1.33% chord; Solid line, = 0.09% chord.24 (b) Tip clearance measured relative to outer fan diameter.25

determined that the winglet would not be eective because it does not account for the downstream blades interaction with the vortex (which has been discussed above to be a primary source of noise). Therefore, the only way to reduce the tip-clearance-generated noise is to inhibit the development of the leakage ow (or at least the vortex) altogether. Since the study of Longhouse, Corsini et al. have also investigated the eects of anti-vortex appendages in the form of endplates and winglets through experiments coupled with 3D RANS simulations.28, 41, 42 Corsini et al. present their ndings cast as a distribution of Powells sound source term (see equation (2)). Figure 5 shows that the use of endplates in cases (b)(e) is eective in reducing the sound source term signicantly in the area near the SS. As an alternative to Longhouses tip serrations, Khorrami et al.43 utilized RANS simulations to apply porosity to the rotor tip surface and to the PS/SS near the tip. However, contrary to the treatment results presented by Longhouse, this porosity had the eect of moving the vortex trajectory away from the tip edge, thereby weakening a primary source of noise. In addition, the strength of the tip clearance vortex was weakened such that the vorticity dissipated more quickly, further suppressing the noise caused by an interaction with the downstream stator. A third method for introducing turbulence into the clearance ow was presented by Kameier.11 By placing a Velcro R strip in the tip clearance gap, a portion of the ow is impeded. Furthermore, the strip acts as a turbulence generator to encourage the transmission of momentum between the low-momentum leakage uid near the wall and the high-momentum uid in the main throughow. The inclusion of this Velcro R strip showed a decrease in the narrow-band tip clearance noise component by 30 dB or more, nearly eliminating its contribution altogether from the far eld spectrum. Despite this observation, hot-wire measurements showed non-zero ow velocity in the gap, signifying that the reversed ow condition (see Section III.B) was not prevented. The nal passive control method involved the use of highly three-dimensional blade stacking techniques to counteract detrimental tip clearance eects. This technique follows the use of bow, sweep, and lean techniques to prevent performance losses due to tip clearance ows in recent years. Wu et al.44 found that forwardskewed fan blades have the eect of reducing the intensity of the vortex breakdown in the mainstream ow when compared to the backward-skewed blades. Moreover, the intensity of the narrow-band tip clearance noise component was decreased using the forward-skewed blades. The forward-skew stacking method also has the secondary benecial eect of improving the stall margin (or stability) of the fan, which is expected given its benecial eect on tip-clearance-generated noise.

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Figure 5. Powells sound source distribution in the tip gap (99.8% span) from Corsini et al.28 (a) Datum fan; (b)(e) Tip endplate congurations.

B.

Active Control Methods

In order to address the issue of tip-clearance-generated noise, Neuhaus & Neise45, 46 have attempted applications of active control techniques. Specically, these authors have utilized ow injection in the tip region of an axial-ow fan, a technique that has been similarly applied for exercises in aerodynamic performance improvement for axial fans and compressors. The process of ow injection in the endwall region acts to energize the low-momentum uid in the tip clearance (i.e., the leakage uid). However, contrary to the use of suction and injection for aerodynamic performance (and stall margin) improvement, the utilization of these techniques for tip clearance noise reduction is in its infancy. Neuhaus & Neise45 rst implemented steady and unsteady ow injection from a discrete number of slit nozzles ush-mounted with the inner casing wall. In this study, the authors selected the number of nozzles, Znoz , equal to the number of blades (B ) for the fan under investigation; the selection Znoz = B = 24 allows the control of the tip vortex for each independent blade to be conducted simultaneously. However, both cases (steady and unsteady injection) showed increased noise levels for a majority of the ow rates studied. The exception to this was the low ow rate regime, which showed increased performance and a benecial decrease in overall noise radiation. This behavior should not be a surprise, however, if the ow injection for a fan is expected to show similar results to the applications in axial compressor studies. Specically, the injected uid energizes the ow and, as a result, delays the development of the rotating instabilities which are known to spawn stall conditions at low ow rates. Furthermore, a similar study by Crook et al.6 showed that these types of treatments do not suppress the formation of the tip leakage vortex but, instead, replace the low-velocity vortex core with high-pressure uid. This uid replacement could also explain the observed increases in noise radiation by the steady injection method. The overall increase in noise radiation from unsteady ow injection can be traced to an introduction of a new frequency component in the spectrum which corresponded to the frequency of injected air.45 In follow-on research to their 2002 study, Neuhaus & Neise46 continued the application of active ow control. This follow-on research sought to provide an alternative for Znoz = B = 24, which led to an increase in the tonal contribution from the blade pass frequency. The rst option studied was the selection of Znoz = 17 < 24. This reduction in the number of nozzles had the eect of reducing the blade pass frequency tone, but introduced a new tonal component at a lower frequency, corresponding to the number of nozzles. Upon a comparison of the overall sound pressure level radiated for Znoz = 24 with Znoz = 17,

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the authors showed that the reduction in number of nozzles has a benecial eect of reducing overall SPL for all ow rates, but at the expense of decreased eciency over the ow range.46 The best results observed by Neuhaus & Neise, though, were those which utilized an orientation of steady air injection through a continuous circumferential slit in the casing. As shown in gure 6, the overall SPL was improved over the entire range of ow rates, with a direct correlation visible between increased injection ow rate, min , and decreased SPL. Furthermore, the pressure rise capability increased at low ow rates with increased injection ow. The extreme shift of maximum pressure rise, max , for min > 0.5% can be explained by the corresponding absence of the rotating instability in the rotor blade SS wall pressure spectra in gure 7. Although these rotational instabilities are replaced by several tonal components below the blade pass frequency (in the wall pressure spectra), the additional tonal components are of intensity which is of equal or lesser magnitude than the similar components introduced by the discrete slits. Moreover, the use of a continuous circumferential slit prevents the increase of the blade pass frequency tone in the outlet duct spectra (as with Znoz = 24) and the introduction of a new tonal component (as with Znoz = 17).

Figure 6. Pressure rise coecient, eciency, and SPL in the outlet duct as functions of ow coecient for steady air injection ows through a continuous circumferential slit.46

Figure 7. Sound power spectra in the fan outlet duct and wall pressure spectra on rotor blade SS for steady air injection ows through a continuous circumferential slit.46

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An additional conguration was investigated by Neuhaus & Neise46 which involved the injection of uid through the rotor blade tips. However, due to facility limitations, the rotor needed to run at a decreased rotational speed, therefore preventing direct comparison with the aforementioned studies. It should also be noted, for the studies performed by Neuhaus & Neise, the injected ow was provided by a separated compressed air facility. For suitable application to in-production gas turbine engines, the injected highpressure air needs to be extracted from within the machine (usually from a location downstream of the injection). The process of extracting and then reintroducing this worked uid via injection has the eect of penalizing eciency.47 As a result, the eciency curves presented in gure 6 would likely show a more substantial decrease in eciency for all injection ow rates.

VII.

Conclusion

In recent years, the study of tip-clearance-generated noise has come to the forefront of acoustic research for axial fans and compressors. The presence of tip clearances in these machines can have signicant implications for the performance and stability, in addition to the aeroacoustic noise radiation. Despite the fact that noise generating mechanisms are dicult to determine and the noise components specic to the tip-clearancegenerated noise are dicult to separate, signicant gains have been made in recent years to help facilitate their understanding. Furthermore, advances in the research of ow control techniques to suppress the noise formation (or prevent it altogether) appear to be poised to progress further into the future.

References
1 Lakshminarayana, B. and Horlock, J. H., Review: Secondary ows and losses in cascades in axial-ow turbomachines, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences , Vol. 5, No. 3, 1963, pp. 287307. 2 Betz, A., Uber die Vorg ange an den Schaufelenden von Kaplanturbinen, Hydraulische Probleme VDI-Verlag , 1926. 3 Lindsey, W. H., The Development of the Armstrong Siddeley Mamba Engine, Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society , Vol. 53, Feb. 1949, pp. 137180. 4 Dean, R. C., Secondary Flow in Axial Compressors , Ph.D. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, June 1954. 5 Rains, D. A., Tip clearance ows in axial ow compressors and pumps , Ph.D. thesis, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 1954. 6 Crook, A. J., Greitzer, E. M., Tan, C. S., and Adamczyk, J. J., Numerical Simulation of Compressor Endwall and Casing Treatment Flow Phenomena, Journal of Turbomachinery , Vol. 115, No. 3, 1993, pp. 501512. 7 Lighthill, M. J., On Sound Generated Aerodynamically, I. General Theory, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences , Vol. 211, No. 1107, March 1952, pp. 564587. 8 Lighthill, M. J., On Sound Generated Aerodynamically, II. Turbulence as a Source of Sound, Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences , Vol. 222, No. 1148, Feb. 1954, pp. 132. 9 Tyler, J. M. and Sofrin, T. G., Axial Flow Compressor Noise Studies, SAE Transactions , Vol. 70, 1962, pp. 309332. 10 Fukano, T., Takamatsu, Y., and Kodama, Y., The eects of tip clearance on the noise of low pressure axial and mixed ow fans, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol. 105, No. 2, 1986, pp. 291308. 11 Kameier, F. and Neise, W., Experimental Study of Tip Clearance Losses and Noise in Axial Turbomachines and Their Reduction, Journal of Turbomachinery , Vol. 119, July 1997, pp. 460471. 12 Ganz, U. W., Joppa, P. D., Patten, T. J., and Scharpf, D. F., Boeing 18-Inch Fan Rig Broadband Noise Test, Nasa cr-1998-208704, Hampton, VA, 1998. 13 Smith, G. D. J. and Cumpsty, N. A., Flow Phenomena in Compressor Casing Treatment, Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power , Vol. 106, No. 3, 1984, pp. 532541. 14 Lakshminarayana, B., Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer of Turbomachinery , John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 1996. 15 Cumpsty, N. A., Compressor Aerodynamics , Krieger, Malabar, FL, 2004. 16 Khalid, S. A., The eects of tip clearance on axial compressor pressure rise , Ph.D. thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, Feb. 1995. 17 Gbadebo, S. A., Cumpsty, N. A., and Hynes, T. P., Interaction of Tip Clearance Flow and Three-Dimensional Separations in Axial Compressors, ASME Turbo Expo 2006 , Barcelona, Spain, 2006, pp. 18. 18 Muthanna, C., Floweld Downstream of a Compressor Cascade with Tip Leakage Floweld Downstream of a Compressor Cascade with Tip Leakage , Masters thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, Nov. 1998. 19 Dittmar, J. H., Interaction of rotor tip ow irregularities with stator vanes as a noise source, Nasa tm 73706, Cleveland, OH, 1977. 20 Doukelis, A., Mathioudakis, K., and Papailiou, K., Investigation of the 3D Flow Structure in a High-Speed Annular Compressor Cascade for Tip Clearance Eects, International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition , Stockholm, Sweden, 1998, pp. 18. 21 Doukelis, A., Mathioudakis, K., and Papailiou, K., Hub Wall Rotation Inuence on High-Speed Compressor Cascade Performance, Journal of Propulsion and Power , Vol. 17, No. 4, 2001, pp. 902908.

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22 Prato, J., Lakshminarayana, B., and Suryavamshi, N., Three-dimensional ow eld downstream of an embedded stator in a multistage axial ow compressor: Part 1: steady and unsteady ow elds, Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part A: Journal of Power and Energy , Vol. 215, No. 3, Jan. 2001, pp. 281299. 23 Kameier, F. and Neise, W., Rotating Blade Flow Instability As a Source of Noise in Axial Turbomachines, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol. 203, No. 5, June 1997, pp. 833853. 24 Longhouse, R. E., Control of tip-vortex noise of axial ow fans by rotating shrouds, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol. 58, No. 2, May 1978, pp. 201214. 25 Karstadt, S., Hess, M., Matyschok, B., and Pelz, P. F., The Inuence of Tip Clearance on the Acoustic and Aerodynamic Characteristics of Fans, ASME Turbo Expo 2010 , 2010, pp. 19. 26 Dunne, R. C. and Howe, M. S., Wall-Bounded Blade-Tip Vortex Interaction Noise, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol. 202, No. 5, May 1997, pp. 605618. 27 Grilliat, J., Jacob, M. C., Camussi, R., and Caputi-Gennaro, G., Tip Leakage Experiment - Part One: Aerodynamic And Acoustic Measurements, 13th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference , 2007, pp. 121. 28 Corsini, A., Perugini, B., Rispoli, F., Sheard, A. G., and Kinghorn, I. R., Aerodynamic workings of blade tip end-plates designed for low-noise operation in axial ow fans, ASME Turbo Expo 2007 , 2007, pp. 113. 29 Howe, M. S., Theory of Vortex Sound , Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, 2003. 30 Liu, J. M., Holste, F., and Neise, W., On the azimuthal mode structure of rotating blade ow instabilities in axial turbomachines, 2nd AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference , 1996, pp. 111. 31 Kameier, F., Experimentelle Untersuchung zur Entstehung und Minderung des Blattspitzen-Wirbell arms axialer Str omungsmaschinen , Ph.D. thesis, Technische Universit at Berlin, 1994. 32 Mailach, R., Lehmann, I., and Vogeler, K., Rotating Instabilities in an Axial Compressor Originating From the Fluctuating Blade Tip Vortex, Journal of Turbomachinery , Vol. 123, No. 3, July 2001, pp. 453463. 33 Longhouse, R. E., Noise mechanism separation and design considerations for low tip-speed, axial-ow fans, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol. 48, No. 4, Oct. 1976, pp. 461474. 34 Grilliat, J., Jondeau, E., Jacob, M. C., Roger, M., and Camussi, R., Broadband noise prediction models and measurements of tip leakage ows, 14th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference , 2008, pp. 117. 35 Cumpsty, N. A., REVIEWA Critical Review of Turbomachinery Noise, Journal of Fluids Engineering , June 1977, pp. 278293. 36 Robbins, B., Eect of inlet turbulence on compressor noise, AIAA 10th Annual Meeting and Technical Display , 1974, pp. 110. 37 Kameier, F., Nawrot, T., and Neise, W., Experimental Investigation of Tip Clearance Noise in Axial Flow Machines, 14th DGLR/AIAA Aeracoustics Conference Aachen , 1992, pp. 250259. 38 Fukano, T., Kodama, Y., and Takamatsu, Y., Noise reduction in a two-stage low pressure axial ow fan, Turbomachinery , 1981, pp. 529599. 39 Longhouse, R. E., Vortex shedding noise of low tip speed, axial ow fans, Journal of Sound and Vibration , Vol. 53, No. 1, July 1977, pp. 2546. 40 Mugridge, B. D. and Morfey, C. L., Sources of Noise in Axial Flow Fans, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , Vol. 51, No. 5A, 1972, pp. 14111426. 41 Corsini, A., Perugini, B., Rispoli, F., Sheard, A. G., and Kinghorn, I. R., Investigation on improved blade tip concept for axial ow fan, ASME Turbo Expo 2006 , 2006, pp. 113. 42 Corsini, A., Rispoli, F., and Sheard, A. G., Shaping of Tip End-Plate to Control Leakage Vortex Swirl in Axial Flow Fans, Journal of Turbomachinery , Vol. 132, No. 3, 2010, pp. 031005. 43 Khorrami, M. R., Li, F., and Choudhari, M., A Novel Approach for Reducing Rotor Tip-Clearance Induced Noise In Turbofan Engines, 7th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference , 2001, pp. 119. 44 Wu, Y., Jin, G., Ouyang, H., and Du, Z., Experimental Investigations on Tip Leakage Flow and Noise in Skewed Blades, 16th AIAA/Aeroacoustics Conference , 2010, pp. 114. 45 Neuhaus, L. and Neise, W., Active Flow Control to Improve the Aerodynamic and Acoustic Performance of Axial Turbomachines, 1st Flow Control Conference , 2002, pp. 111. 46 Neuhaus, L. and Neise, W., Active Control to Improve the Aerodynamic Performance and Reduce the Tip Clearance Noise of Axial Turbomachines, 11th AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics Conference , 2005, pp. 112. 47 Weichert, S., Day, I., and Freeman, C., Self-regulating casing treatment for axial compressor stability enhancement, ASME Turbo Expo 2011 , 2011, pp. 113.

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