Wen (Sophia) Chu Section 102, Tu 2-5 Lab 01: Basics of Mechanical Behavior Introduction

February 05, 2013

The comparison of various physical, or mechanical, properties of materials is often needed in all engineering, but particularly materials science engineering. The characteristics desired in the material created can be optimized by a clear understanding of mechanical properties such as hardness and the ability withhold stress or tension without deforming. In this experiment, Aluminum, four kinds Copper varying in purity, two kinds of Steel, and Brass were measured in their ability to withstand penetration of loads by a round, spherical surface in the Brinell scale and a diamond-tipped point in the Rockwell scale, comparing materials across each test. In areas of imperfection or discontinuity, the stress concentration in those areas could overrule the local stress such that the stress concentration exceeds the elasticity of the material, or the crack point, the material could potentially fail. To measure strain and stress, a rubber plate with a through-hole that distributes strain was measured instead of metallic specimens so the strain could be measurable and documented with the naked eye; change in the x and y dimensions of the hole and when there was no hole were measured as increasing weight was added with times in between for the rubber to return to its original state. The photoelastic plates, one without holes and two with different-sized holes, are placed in a special chamber with polarized illumination to indicate using cycles of color the various levels of stress as weight is applied increasingly at the bottom. The number of cycles is then documented along with pictures of each stage arranged by weight. In the following laboratory report, the method and equipment used will be detailed such that the experiment can be repeated, the summary of the data collected, graphs and tables, an analysis of theoretical predictions as compared to the results, and a brief

conclusion of this experiment and future research. An appendix will be provided for reference in the discussion and results section, along with references properly cited used resources to write this report. Experimental Procedure The hardness tests for Brinell and Rockwell both utilize the concept measuring the extent of the indentation into the metals as a measurement of hardness. For the metals Aluminum, Copper (0.250), and Brass, the indenter is loaded with 500kg, using oil pressure to push a flat, unaltered area of the metal for fifteen seconds, and the same is done for the Stainless and Mild Steel except they are loaded with 3000kg for thirty seconds. The diameter of the hemi-spherical indentation is then measured under a Brinell Light Microscope and used in the equation:

The projected area (Ap) and the actual indentation area (Ai) should also be calculated with the respective equations: and

On the Rockwell machine, the three impure forms of copper along with the five other metals measured in the Brinell test will be penetrated by a minor load of 0 kg and then readjusted to the major load of 60 kg. The reading in black on the meter is in the Rockwell A scale and is documented for all three trials per material for a more accurate result; the averages would be calculated and converted using the Rockwell Conversion Chart for Scale A. Note that after conducting the experiment and documenting data, there was a miscommunication that may have caused results to be smaller, so data was provided for analysis in this report. The first stress concentration analysis is conducted with the rubber plate with throughhole as stress raiser. The difference between the small pins, or landmarks, is measured in for

the nominal strain of the plate (x1, y1) and the local strain on the four sides of the hole vertically and horizontally, which were deemed the left and bottom side to be (x2, y2), right and top side to be (x2, y2). These three coordinates were measured initially when zero pounds where placed, then each time as increments of ten pounds with one minute intervals of no weight in the middle to allow the rubber to elastically return to its original state were added until a maximum of sixty pounds. In the photoelastic plates, each plate had weights of zero to seven pounds gradually added in increments of one pound, beginning with the plate with no holes, to the plate with two thin elliptical holes, and then to the plate with circular and one thick elliptical holes. With each pound added, the visible changes in color pattern and the cycles of colors were observed and documented along with a picture captured, as can be found in the appendix.

Results Table I- Rockwell Test

Table II- Brinell Hardness Test

Table III- Stress Concentration of Rubber Plate

Table IV- Stress Concentration of Photoelastic Plates

Discussion In the Rockwell test, it is apparent that the hardest metal in response to the 60 kg major load is Stainless Steel while the softest metal is 0.250 or the most pure form of copper compared. As the fraction of copper decreases, its hardness increases. The Mild Steel trails behind Stainless Steel

in hardness by 65 units after the conversion, but is still significantly stronger than the strongest non-steel metal, brass by 83 units. The remainder of the measured metals decreases in hardness starting from Copper 0.066, Aluminum, Copper 0.156, Copper 0.230, and finally Copper 0.250. The Rockwell test successfully measures and compares all the given metals across a single scale like above. The Brinell Hardness test can be analyzed using the calculated Brinell Hardness number (BHN); in this case, the Load/Indentation Area column of the table is equivalent to such number. From the five samples of metal measured in this test, the stainless and mild steel were loaded with 3000 kg while the Copper (0.250), Aluminum, and Brass were loaded with 500 kg as they are considered soft metals. Between the two steels, the BHN number indicates that Mild Steel is stronger than Stainless Steel. Within the three other metals, Aluminum is the strongest, and then follows Copper and Brass who are both at a hardness of 89 units. The Brinell and Rockwell test have contrasting results; while the Brinell test indicates Mild Steel to be harder than Stainless, the Rockwell data displays otherwise. Similarly, the Brinell test indicates Aluminum is stronger than Brass and Copper, but in the table for the Rockwell test, Aluminum is softer than brass, but stronger than Copper. The trend of the purity of Copper versus the hardness of that copper cannot be determined in the Brinell test as it was too thin to be measured. Possible errors causing the derivation of the Brinell test from the Rockwell test and the actual known data include the dwell time and the parallax of the microscope. Miscommunication of the dwell time in the Rockwell test also caused inaccurate data throughout the class, which resulted the new set of data seen in Table I to be given to students. The data displayed in Table I is not the recorded data during the experiment of three trials of each material. Dwell time was not consistent when the Rockwell test was conducted in class due to confusion of whether the machine should be stopped

after the meter stops regardless of time or after exactly thirty seconds regardless of meter movement. Parallax is site error from reading mirror images such as the one in the microscope to measure the diameter of the indentation. The Rubber Plate data in Table III indicated a greater change in the y axis than in the x axis due to the weight pulling on the rubber plate vertically. The distance between the pins around the hole indicated a greater change both in x and y axis than that of the nominal, reflecting the theory that breakage or discontinuity in the plate results in greater stress on the edges. Photoelastic sample can be analyzed by counting the number of cycles of colors around each circle, which was recorded in the Table IV in Results. While cycles generally go from yellow to orange, then red and green, the starting color varies for each plate, but indication of more than a cycle is denoted on Table IV as the number of cycles next to an initial of one of the four colors, the color seen on the outermost edge (R= Red, Or= Orange, G=Green, Y= Yellow). It can be concluded that an elliptical hole with x axis as the longer axis goes through more cycles than the elliptical hole with the y axis as the longer axis. The greater the area of the holes, such as the ones in the second plate, the more stress cycles it goes through which represents the greater amount of stress it must endure for the same amount of weight. The number of cycles for the two holes of the second plate are relatively close to one another, always within the same cycle number, due to possessing relatively the same area and the minor difference between the radius in the x and y direction for the elliptical one, making it almost a circle. Question 1 There is a difference between the tips of the two tests, a spherical cap for the indentation in Brinells and the diamond-tipped cone in Rockwells, and a difference in weight loaded, 60 kg

load in Rockwells and either 500 or 3000 kg load in Brinell. These differences result in no direct, mathematical conversion from Rockwell to Brinell values or vice versa. Using such a conversion is dangerous in the industry because of the rough estimate such a conversion is and might cause mechanical failure with lack of a true hardness value. Question 2 The Meyers hardness test produces a value P/A that is less sensitive to the change in loads applied in the Brinell test and remains constant despite the difference between the 3000kg and the 500kg loaded. Thus, in the case of the experiment, the Meyers hardness value would prove to be a much better hardness index due to this difference. With the Brinell test, with increasing load, the values decrease and allows a misconception that the metal is less hardened. Question 3 Hardness tests are less expensive than tensile tests because the material does not have to be destroyed to collect data as part of the test. They are also faster, each one less than two minutes even with multiple trials as seen in the lab experiment. As a result, hardness tests are much simpler. However, tensile tests are more accurate in preventing material failure in engineering and design of materials. Tensile tests, or equivalent tests, are much safer and sufficient than hardness tests, which are rough estimates on a scale, for quality control. Question 4

Nominal X Strain vs. Nominal Stress

60 50 40 30 20 10 y = -1759.4x + 16.429 0 -0.025 -0.02 -0.015 -0.01 -0.005 0 0.005 0.01 Series1 Linear (Series1)

Local X Strain vs. Nominal Stress

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 y = 514.39x + 19.173 Series1 Linear (Series1)

Nominal Y Strain vs. Nominal Stress

60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Series1 Linear (Series1) y = 1074.2x + 2.7394

Local Y Strain vs. Nominal Stress

80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 Series1 Linear (Series1) y = 471.53x + 12.192

Question 5

Question 6 As seen from Figure, the rank from highest lowest in stress concentration would be 1,2,3 and 4. The highest areas of stress occur when the pressure/cross-sectional area is the greatest. In this case, the shape of the openings in the photoelastic plate affects the area; thus, where the holes had the sharpest curves, or greatest difference in length of y and x radius. The hole with the greatest stress concentration, or the most cycles, was hole number 1 since the pull of gravity and the weights create a sudden change in the cross-sectional area. Question 7

Conclusions For the hardness tests, it can be concluded that without errors, such as dwell time and parallax, the stainless steel should be harder than the mild steel; together they are both significantly greater than Brass, Aluminum, and Copper. As the fraction of copper decreases, its hardness increases. In the rubber- plate, the stress concentration was obtained by the ratio of the longitudal strain at the edge of the hole to the longitudal strain in the uniform section far removed from the hole. It is also evident that the vertical displacement is greater than the horizontal in both the nominal and local measurements. Photoelastic samples indicate that the increase in area of the

hole increases the stress placed on points, or the cycles of colors that it shifts through. For future experiments, more metal, such as silver, gold, or other periodic metals, could be measured for a greater comparison and analysis of the optimal material. Also, the differences in Brinell and Rockwell should be eliminated so that they yield a same result by eliminated the parallax error. This error could be done by eliminating the use of a microscope. For stress concentration measurements, References Lab 01: Basis of Mechanical Behavior. Diss. University of California Berkeley, 2013. Web. <https://bspace.berkeley.edu/access/content/group/c103fe5b-b984-4649-ae13a715ec43dfda/Lab Resources/Manuals/Lab01 Manual.pdf>. "Hooke's Stress and Strain Calculation." ETBX. Engrasp, Inc., n.d. Web. 12 Feb. 2013. <http://www.fea-optimization.com/ETBX/hooke_help.html>. Berg, G. "Meyer's Hardness Law and It's Relation to Other Measures of Ball Hardness TEsts." Crystal Research and Technology (2006): n. pag. Web. 12 Feb. 2013. <http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/crat.2170320115/pdf>. Appendices