POLI227: Handleman Chapter 1 [text]: Understanding Underdevelopment Chapter 2: The Explosion of Third World Democracy Intro - Mouhamed Bouazizi

in tunisia - throughout the middle east and north africa power has remained in the hands of military strongmen - many analysts believed that some aspects of arab culture inhibited democratic values - distorting effects of the oil curse - dictators appealed to nationalism, resentment against Israel, sympathy for Palestine and antiwestern grievances to deflect attention - Ben Alis fall in Tunisia convinced people that toppling a long standing dictatorship was possible - Egypts uprising was more significant due to a larger population, united states ally, israels crucial partner and the arab worlds most important cultural and religious voice - revolutionaries were astonishingly diverse - representing demographic and ideological groups - successes in organization: false rumors, staging field tests and planning protests to conserve firepower - military caretaker government - in both countries long term dictatorships had failed to address widespread poverty and unemployment +extensive government corruption - demonstrators were disciplined and nonviolent - the generals in both countries chose not to attack the demonstrators - other factors bolstered other governments: - monarchs that enjoy considerable legitimacy, particularly those who have introduced progressive reforms - repressive grip on society - too early to tell if even the Egyptian or Tunisian revolts will actually sustain democracy - most troubling: military putting off time when it will transfer power.. - ultimate outcome of the arab spring unclear - difficult time for dictators: - milosevic became the first to be tried in international court - most sweeping democratic change in latin america - only cuba and haiti failed to establish functioning electoral democracies - latin american countries among the first to achieve levels of literacy and economic development that are generally associated with stable democracy Democracy Defined - democracy is measured by the transparency and fairness of the essential procedures governing the election and behaviour of government officials - countries that meet the minimal standard= electoral democracies

- semidemocracies/partly free= those electoral democracies whose governments regularly repress civil liberties and breach the principles of a free society - full/liberal democracy= as political system that conforms to the following conditions: most of the countrys leading government officials are elected, there is universal or near universal suffrage, elections are largely free of fraud and outside manipulation,, oppositions candidates have a realistic chance of being elected, and civil liberties are respected guarantees of free speech, free assembly, free press, and freedom of religion. - + vigorous civil society Democratic Transition and Consolidation - democratic consolidation: democratic norms become accepted by all politically influential groups in society - democratic values predominate Authoritarian Beginnings - now the consensus is that democracy= best; not always so - latin america had the most experience with self-rule, greater socioeconomic development and experience with democracy - not till 1980s did democracy become the norm of the Americas Justifying authoritarian rule - worry that exceeding their governments capacity to accommodate all the new political demands - justified authoritarian rule as a stopgap - strong and stable authoritarian rule could jump start economic modernization and growth - insisted democracy was inappropriate for countries in the early stages of social and economic development - vanguard party one that knew what was best - the mid to late 1970s seemed a low water mark for democracy and the empirical trends were reified by intellectual fashions dismissing democracy as an artifice, a cultural construct of the west, or a luxury that poor states could not afford the third wave and its effect on the third world - global trend toward democracy - huntington: - democratic ideals and movements in key countries spread to other nations - 1st wave - longest, american and french revolutions and brought to an end by the great depression - confined to europe and former british colonies - 2nd wave - struggle against fascism during WW2 - number of LDCs but only electoral democracy - 3rd wave - most dramatic was eastern and central european communist bloc - first two waves followed by reverse waves

- freedom house: a nongovernmental research and advocacy group, evaluates the worlds nations on two dimensions of democracy - level of political rights - quality of civil liberties and prevalence of rule of law - either free, partly free or not free - proportion of free countries remained fairly constant, but more partly free International Causes and Consequences of the third wave - broad currents that transcend the politics of particular nations - economic crises revealed that authoritarian regimes were no more effective and no less corrupt than the elected governments - their support depends much more heavily on satisfactory job performance - demise of communist regimes= deficiencies in their ideology and behaviour The prerequisites of democracy in individual countries - international developments were catalysts, incentives to democracies but what accounts for differences? - social and economic modernization - lipset: industrialization leads to increases in wealth, education, communication and equality; these developments are associated with a more moderate lower and upper class and a larger middle class which is by nature moderate and this in turn increases the probability of stable democratic forms of politics - philips cuthright: correlation between the extent of a countrys mass communications and its degree of democracy, stronger even than economic development + democracy link - axel hadenius: democracy correlates most strongly with higher levels of literacy and education - more likely to follow politics and more capable of defending own interests - higher per capita income - generally a correlation between econ dev. and democracy - class structure - the way growth affects a countrys social structure - the middle class tends to be moderate and serves as a bridge between upper and lower - independent and influential business class is essential - barrington moore jr.: 3 paths - path 1: - modernization led by strong state allied with powerful and antidemocratic agricultural landowners + bourgeoisie dependent on the state - resulted in fascism or far right authoritarian - path 2: - highly centralized state, repressive landowning class, weak bourgeoisie, large and eventually rebellious peasantry - result was communist revolution - path 3: - weak state and strong bourgeoisie at odds with rural landowning elite

- bourgeoisie powerful and independent political role led to liberal democracy - but sometimes those sectors are not democratically oriented - role of organized labor - countries have achieved comprehensive democracy only when they also have had a politically potent, unionized working class that has pushed for broader political representation and increased social justice - political culture - cultural beliefs, norms and values relating to politics - unless the people values democratic objectives, constitutional protections are unlikely to have great weight - commitment to democracy - broad segment of the pop. share these values, democracy can survive crisis - 1. police must be willing to submit to command of democratically elected civilian authorities - 2, government and society must tolerate and legally protect dissident political beliefs - cultural explanations difficult to prove and often simply reflect their proponents prejudice and ethnocentrism - political culture and religious beliefs are capable of change do not permanently mire a country - the curse of oil wealth - almost all countries whose exports and government revenues are dominated by petrol have been woefully unable to democratize curse of oil - new oil wealth strengthens the power of the state, providing funds for the military and police and funding large government bureaucracies that offer patronage jobs to government supporters - these nations do not produce the independent bourgeoisie that has historically been crucial - fails to challenge state power - without taxation they have no effective representation - massive corruption - concentration of economic power in the hand of the state, clientelism, capitalist and middle class dependency and corruption impeded the growth of democracy How do democracies perform? public policy compared - citizens of democracies live longer, healthier lives, on average, than those in autocracies [with comparable per capita income] - economies less volatile, more predictable, paid better wages to workers, could handle adverse shocks (like the asian financial crisis or severe jumps in oil prices) much better - spent more on public education, had higher enrollments, higher literacy rates, and greater access to health care services - not necessarily superior in all areas Democratic Consolidation - political change can occur in both directions

- democracy, they found, is most fragile in poor countries and it becomes more stable as income rises: above 6000 per capita real income democracies can be expected to be impregnable and last forever - class conflict over the distribution of economic rewards is typically less intense in more affluent societies - democracy is contagious - consolidating democracies must strengthen their judiciary systems so that they can stand up to power hungry presidents or prime ministers and so that court decisions are respected by the electorate. - Improving the Quality of Democracy - procedural dimensions: procedures must be honest, fait and equitable - A. participation - suffrage - not allow apathy to restrict participation - no intimidation - B. competition - free and fair elections - no built in advantages - C. accountability - accountable for actions in between elections - supreme court - free media - D. rule of law - apply equally; known and clear - Substantive Dimensions - A. respect for civil liberties and the pursuit of freedom - respect for individual liberty, security and privacy freedom of information, expression and religion and due process - B. Reductions in political, economic, and social inequalities - reduce sharp income gaps - Result Dimensions - responsiveness. the democratic process induces the government to form and implement policies that the people want. Chapter 3 [text]: Religion and Politics - modernization theorists believed the separation of church and state was inevitable part of development - yet many countries have held on to deep roots of religion - islamic fundamentalism has supplanted soviet communism as the biggest threat to western security - lots of attention on religion and politics especially since 9/11 the Meeting of Church and State - US and canada have separation of church and state constitutionally engrained - many european nations do not

- most prevalent affect in theocratic states Great Religions of the Third World big 4: - catholicism - islam - Buddhism - Hinduism - there are other religions that have an impact of politics but for analytic purposes will focus on the big 4 - none are monolithic; catholicism comes the closest - clashes between different branches - islam: sunni and shiites - 85-90% of muslims are sunni, shiite minority - the argument that modernization requires secularization has two approaches: - normative: not just a common trend but desirable as it increases religious freedom and prevents the state acting with religious bias - empirical: western example. flaws are that sometimes religion does come into politics of western sphere Structural and Theological Bases of Church-State Relations - impact varies considerably 2 factors: - theological views concerning the relationship between temporal and spiritual matters - degree of hierarchy amongst the clergy - donald smith: organic vs church - organic: weak or non-existent hierarchy, cant influence political decisions - church: strong organized ecclesiastical structure, exerts influence - islam - religious muslims believe God wants them to live under islamic law as outlined by the Koran - secular state, islamic state, muslim state - secular: turkey, religious freedom - islamic: supremacy of islamic law, governing philosophies are based on the Koran - muslim: intermediary like egypt, national religion of islam and head of state must be muslim but the impact of religion is less prominent on politics - catholicism - hierarchical structure Chapter 4: the politics of cultural pluralism and ethnic conflict - no cleavage in modern times as pronounced and violently polarized nations as ethnicity - internal conflict between competing groups defining ethnicity - ethnic identity is a social construction

- once individuals begin to accept the group label imposed upon them even artificially created ethnic classifications become politically relevant - perceived otherness ethnic and state boundaries - ethnic tensions within nations - in 30 percent of the worlds countries there is no a dominant ethnicity that accounts for the majority (more than 50%) types of ethnic and cultural divisions - nationality - nation referring to a population with their own language, cultural traditions, historical aspirations and sometimes geographical location - sovereign states with many nationalities - becomes politically relevant when nationalities see themselves as distinct from other ethnicities in their country - nationalist movements seeking to maintain their culture and promote their economic interests - tamils in sri lanka--> ethnic minority is concentrated in one region, represents the majority in that region - tribe - subnational groups share a collective identity and language and believe to hold a common lineage - e.g. rwanda conflict and nigerian conflict - race - only in multiracial settings do individuals identify using race - south africa most notorious example - religion - involves deeply felt values, source of bitter communal strife - concerned not with the political ramifications but the conflict between religious groups - two factors influence the likelihood of tensions: - extent one religious community feels ill treated by another - the degree a religion sees itself as the only true faith and rejects alternate theologies - catholics and protestants in US and germany rather harmonious but in northern ireland different story because of differences in political and economic power - lebanon: another battlefield for religious factions - outdated census reflected untrue distribution of muslims, political leaders avoided a new cenus fearing results would set off sectarian violence - elsewhere the conflict between Sunnis and Shia in iraq dependency, modernization and ethnic conflict - literacy, urbanization and modern values factors that mobilize ethnic groups - long run vs. short run levels of interethnic conflict

- comment on the nature and intensity of conflict minimal conflict - modernization can antagonize in the short run but ameliorate in the long run uneasy balance - in which different groups predominate in specific areas of society - e.g. malay and chinese populations in malaysia - one group dominates politically another economically enforced hierarchy - in enforced hierarchies both forms of power are concentrated in the hands of the ruling ethnic group - south africa - flexible cultural definition can facilitate upward mobility but sometimes affords that mobility at the cost of abandoning their culture - racial and class distinctions are closely intertwined systematic violence - sudan, mass violence and civil war outcomes and resolutions - constrained by the history and intensity of their ethnic cleavages, degree of previous ethnic cooperation and by the countrys political culture power sharing: federalism and consociationalism - federalism: a system of government that emanates from the desire of people to form a union without necessarily losing their various identities - usually a constitutional arrangement which grants provinces certain degrees of autonomy - consociationalism: divisions of political power designed to protect the rights of all participants - 1. the leaders of the major ethnic groups form a ruling coalition at the national level - 2. each group has veto power over government policies that affect them - 3. public employment such as civil service is divided between ethnicities with each receiving a number of posts roughly proportional to its population. often the most important political posts are reserved for specific ethnicities - 4. each specific ethnic group is afforded a high degree of autonomy over its own affairs - framework for stability and peace by giving minorities a share of political power - need trust secession - secession frequently provokes bitterness and hostility - only when the group looking to secede predominates in a clearly defined territory - central governments always try to repress them because they do not want to lose territory or resources outside intervention

- problems of national sovereignty and questions of effectiveness - frequently comes too late and often ends badly - only assist persecuted ethnic groups when that help furthers their own national interests - unwilling or unable to stay the course - conflict that lasts for generations rather than years, an intervention for humanitarian purposes in such cases becomes a major military commitment and one of long duration - generally intensifying rather than containing settlement through exhaustion - desire for the conflict to end out weighs ethnic strife toward a peaceful resolution of conflict - attempts to reduce ethnic tensions - repairing damage done to pluralistic societies conclusion: ethnic pluralism and democracy - democracy is harder though far from impossible to establish and maintain in multiethnic countries - newly formed political parties often base their support along ethnic lines - means of gaining political support - domination of one ethnic group can lead to a tyranny of the majority - indicates the importance of limiting majority rule Chapter 5 [text]: Women and Development Women hold up half the sky. - in asia and latin america women made up roughly half of all professional and technical workers but less that 20% of the administrative and managerial employees - gender inequality and exploitation exists in most societies but most severe in LDCs - honor killings, high rape rates - womens empowerment - new social movements (NSMs) in latin america - growing number of developing countries with reserved seats for women in government - gender quotas The political and socioeconomic status of third world women - fewer educational opportunities - gender gap - GII (gender inequality index) is a composite index comparing men and women on three dimensions: - empowerment - labor force participation - heath - during the last decade or so the gender gap in literacy has narrowed considerably in most developing countries

- GEM (gender empowerment measure) is an index comparing men and womens income; share of professional, technical, managerial and administrative jobs and share of influential political positions - Nordic countries have the highest GEM ratings - factors such as religion and culture are powerful determinants of womens status that exceed the influence of socioeconomics Modernization and womens economic status - widens the gender gap in the short term, decreases in the long term Women in the economy: rural and urban - women produce between 60 and 80% of the food in most developing countries - many women benefit from urbanization but many are left behind - once settled in the city most women are only able to secure low end jobs - domestic service, informal sector - 2/3rds of the women in third world cities work in the informal sector - in NICs, women are often employed in low wage manufacturing - east asias industrial boom created many jobs for women in labor intensive industries - prefer young unmarried women bc. - require manual dexterity - willing to work for lower wages - less likely to join unions or participate in strikes - women commonly first to be fired - bc. limited educational opportunities occupational prospects are limited - prostitution - in the philippines estimated 400,000-500,000 prostitutes approximated the number of its manufacturing workers - many forced or tricked into prostitution - in cambodia 60% Women and politics - US and most european democracies legalized female suffrage in the first 2 decades of the 20th century, only 7 of the 20 latin american countries allowed women to vote before the close of WW2 - ecuador first, paraguay last - traditional cultural values have limited womens political participation and activism Womens political activism at the grassroots - community-based groups afford opportunities for participation and leadership usually absent at the national or regional level - address issues of immediate concern - accessibility and relevance to their own lives - rural women greater aggressive approach probably due to the more hostile political atmosphere they face - in latin america antiauthoritarian movement catalyst for grassroots political activity - 3 types of organization

- feminist groups (mostly consisting of middle class women) - neighborhood organizations (women from urban slums) - third strand devoted to human rights - military governments view women as inherently less political than men and less dangerous, they allowed womens human rights groups greater freedom - most socially integrated branch bringing together participants from the middle and working classes - ironically, the restoration of democracy reduced the unity of the movement - return to party politics, lose touch with community groups - demobilization - local NGOs contributed enormously to the expansion of civil society - provide a political voice to otherwise powerless groups seeking reform women as national leaders - women heads of government - most of them emerged from the tiny elite of highly educated, upper class women in powerful families - many of the most influential women leaders particularly in asia, have been the widows, wives or daughters of charismatic national leaders - although, this does not imply that women lacked political ability or leadership qualities - women cabinet ministers - cabinet posts traditionally believed to be suited for womens nurturing role Reserved seats and quotas: female representation in parliament - nordic countries come the closest to perfect gender equality - supply and demand - supply: number of women who meet the typical socioeconomic standards of public officeholders - lower levels of education, lower status, fewer economic resources limit supply of viable candidates - demand: measure of societys acceptance of female resources - widespread cultural prejudice - reserving a designated number of parliamentary seats for women - however, typically the number of reserved seats is small - can signal to voters that women have gotten their fair share and do not deserve to be elected beyond their guaranteed quota, glass ceiling - initially women were not elected to those reserved seats by the voters but rather appointed - rwanda: worlds only parliament where women MPs are the majority - 30% reserved, 21 additional elected - quotas for the slates of parliamentary candidates, may take 2 forms: - individual political parties may voluntarily guarantee their slates will contain a certain number of women - most successful example in south africas dominant party ANC - candidate quota is legislated and binding to all parties - can subvert this by putting women in regions the party is not likely to win in

- goal of quota is to give women greater opportunity - single member districts (SMD) vs. PR - ranking in PR can subvert - in general elections through zipper style PR with closed lists benefit women candidates more than SMD - how much difference does increased female representation have on government policy? - depends, in middle east very little women and revolutionary change - revolutions tend to alter or destroy many of the traditional social structures and values previously held women back - in south africa and namibia many women developed their political skills in their countrys national liberation movement - china - huge gender gap - one child policy in rural china - newborn girls abandoned to orphanages 95% are female - abortions of female fetuses - infanticide - cultural preference for boys - china recognizing problems of sex imbalance seeking to mitigate via pro-female propaganda - cuba - revolutionary government trying to improve the status of women by changing traditional, cultural values - chastised by peers for holding unrevolutionary values - federation of cuban women increased women in the workplace women as peacekeepers - blue helmets UN peacekeepers - still only account for 10% [countries determine who they send] - nigeria and india are the leading contributors of female peacekeepers - they widen the net of information gathering - women more likely to provide information to a female peacekeeper - empowering women in the host community; interacting with women in societies where women are prohibited from speaking with men; and performing the cordon and search of women the status of women: the roles of modernization, globalization and regime type - three factors: - countrys dominant cultural values - level of socioeconomic modernization - type of political system - women tend to fare worse under right wing authoritarian military regimes and better under democratic leftist regimes

- unlikely that socioeconomic modernization or the spread of democratic norms will automatically bring gender equality conclusion: democracy and the role of women in society - democratic ideology endorses equal opportunity and equal rights for all citizens - women helped to topple many repressive regimes - restoration of democracy had contradictory effects - more opportunities for political activism but reduced comparative advantage of gender oriented organizations as conduits for social demands - in time democratic governments generally better advance womens rights and opportunities, particularly when democracy is coupled with social and economic development - countries that ranked free had the highest average GEM rankings overall Chapter 6: The Politics of the Rural and Urban Poor Intro - rural and urban poor are the largest segment of the pop. in the 3rd world - lack the power resources; wealth, education, professional skills, organizational ability The rural poor: 3rd world peasantry - rural residents still constitute over half of the 3rd worlds pop. - wide urban-rural gaps also persist in literacy, health care, and life expectancy - less likely than urban poor to have access to clean drinking water, schools, electricity - constitute 50% of LDCs pop and 75% of those living in absolute poverty (1.25$/day PPP) - political + econ. power concentrated in cities - modernization theory argues that as countries develop modernity will spread from the cities - dependency theory argues that urban and rural areas replicate core-periphery relationship Rural class structures - within the countryside, substantial disparities exist in landownership - at the apex, large powerful landowners sometimes known as the oligarchy - land concentration in most intense in latin america dating back to the colonial era - since the middle of the 20th century the economic and political powers of rural landlords has declined considerably - radical revolutions in China and vietnam - peaceful agrarian reforms in peru and south korea - local and regional levels landlords still exert considerable power - chico mendes union leader in brazil killed - mid-sized landlords (kulaks) - affluent peasants - can afford to hire some other peasants - peasants: family farmers who work small plots, maintain a traditional lifestyle - typically poor and uneducated - largely dependent upon individuals and institutions outside the peasant community - smallholders and the landless

peasant politics - rural poor have not readily converted their numbers into political influence - Marx: lack of solidarity, lack of class consciousness, sack of potatoes - sense of powerlessness resulting in political apathy - typically are wary of radical change and respectful of community traditions - everyday forms of resistance foot dragging, false deference - Zapatista rebels - peasants are neither inherently conservative nor intrinsically radical, vary considerably in their ideological propensities and their capacity for collective political action - mutually understood boundaries usually limit the extent of exploitation - patron-client relations - BUT - if rural modernization and commercialization of agriculture disrupts moral economy - threats to the peasants traditional way of life posed by the rise of rural capitalism - but this doesnt always radicalize them - depends on: - extent of perceived exploitation - how desperate their economic condition is - degree of internal cohesion and cooperation within their community - ability to form political linkages - extent of political ties with leaders - outside groups/allies - last 2 suggest the quality of the political system matter just as much as the nature of the peasantry - revolution is an act of desperation - peasantrys political power is usually not proportional to their numbers - huntington: which role the peasant plays is determined by the extent to which the existing system meets his immediate economic and material needs - 4 broad issues - the prices they receive for their crops, consumer prices, taxes and the availability of land the politics of agrarian reform - 2 components: - land reform, redistribution - mix of technical support, credit, improved access to markets and social services such as health care - patterns of land concentration - most pronounced in latin america - brazil for example 3% of farms control 56% - MST landless workers movement - substantial pressure on the government, involved 1.5 million people - actually land concentration has increased - the case for agrarian reform

- social justice and equity - millions of rural families with little or no land are among the poorest of the poor trapped in a web of malnutrition and illiteracy - political stability - justification: reduces the likelihood of peasant unrest - productivity - economies of scale - argue that large farms are more productive, easily mechanized use of infrastructure - smaller is actually better - families living standards depend on their productivity, incentive to be productive, work hard out of economic necessity - ranching and cultivation of crops suitable for mechanical harvesting larger farms typically do better - a land and capital scarce country should favor 40 2 and a half acre farms over a single owner 100 acre farm - economic preservation - environmental protection, reducing the amazon contributes to the greenhouse effect - jungle is very bad land for farming - the decline of agrarian reform - most influenced by the balance of power between peasants and landlords - perception of whether land redistribution would help or hurt - in countries where the landed elite have enough political power they water down reform effects - US very successful in imposing reform on Asia but rarely has the desire or leverage to do so - peasants hope revolutionary change that divides up large estates but historically resulted in collective farms in china and russia - crop pricing: another approach to rural poverty - prices for food crops are determined by free market forces - but some nations subsidize farming to guarantee the country a sufficient supply of basic foods, secure farmer support - many LDCs actually lower food prices in order to satisfy urban pop. - controls are designed to promote industrialization by providing workers with cheap food, but this further impoverishes peasant producers - generate government revenues from exports - lower incomes of farmers, discentive driving farmers out of business - short term political pressures and long term production needs - lifting price controls can lead to riots the future of the rural poor - emphasized industrialization and urban modernization often to the detriment of rural sector

- stagnant agricultural production growing food imports, rural poverty, heavy rural to urban migration - process known as proletarianization - need to promote balanced economic and political development that gives proper weight to the rural poor - small holders still produce about 60% of food consumed in the developing world rapid urbanization and the politics of the urban poor - tons of urbanization to be expected in coming years the 3rd worlds urban explosion - chinas floating population - represents one fifth of chinas urban residents - 11 of the worlds 15 megacities are in the 3rd world - urban growth will slow but 3rd world cities will continue to grow 5-6 times faster than the developed world - latin america and the caribean are the most urbanized 80% in 2010 the political consequences of urban growth - problems: - to political leaders and government planners - political attitudes and behaviour of the urban lower class the search for employment - rapid urbanization in europe and north america occurred during an era of unprecedented industrialization and economic growth - contrast: LDCs unable to provide sufficient employment to their rapidly expanding urban workforce - unable to find work in the formal sector turn to the informal sector - unregulated by the institutions of society in a legal and social environment in which similar activities are regulated - informal may generate 70% or urban employment and 30% of GDP - earning power varies greatly - do not have access to minimum wage or welfare programs - informal employs and also provides a substantial amount of consumer goods and services - public sector - boon to the urban middle class since there is not enough in the private sector - in efforts to gain popular support, padded with unnecessary jobs - adds to government deficit and highly inefficient - jobs going to activists rather than most qualified - jobs as a form of political patronage - forced to reduce the size of their state sector - communist states are major employer of blue collar jobs - employ macroeconomic austerity measures to cut inflation= cutbacks

the urban poors struggle for housing - public housing rents still too high - commonly live in squatter settlements - spontaneous shelter self help --> occupants build their own houses - city of the dead allowed to live there if they guard the tombs in Cairo public housing and the role of the state - in china, commonly assigned housing linked to their employment - public housing cannot provide sufficient housing for the poor - in order for a government to recoup its construction costs must rent or sell at higher rates than the urban poor can afford - 2 options: - subsidize - goes to the middle class - subsidized housing is costly for most developing nations to sustain - often allocated to supporters of the government rather than the most in need - lack the resources to provide enough housing spontaneous housing - many think its the most effective remedy - erroneously viewed by politicians and planners as a problem - really a major part of the solution - actually serves the poor - allows the opportunity to upgrade their homes - better address the needs and desires of their owners sites and services programs - pursue a middle ground policy - sold or rented parcels of land to the poor that come with basic services such as running water, sewage, and electricity - allow the government to steer self- built housing to locations that are safe and environmentally sound the problem of urban crime - origins of crime often lie in poverty, discrimination, income inequality, inadequate schools, and broken families - urban poor make up a disproportionate share of perpetrators and victims - income inequality rather than absolute poverty levels exerting influence - higher income inequality typically leads to higher rates of violent crime than other countries with comparable or lower per capita income but greater equality - asia followed by europe had the lowest violent crime rates - region rankings follow similar pattern - government crime by corruption or intimidation - esp. mexico the politics of the urban poor: conflicting images

- slums may appear horrendous but most migrants find them preferable to their previous life in the countryside - oscar lewis - culture of poverty - inherently a political - marginals allegedly show little class consciousness - perceived impracticality of the urban poor changing the existing order - when there is a realistic chance of attaining some benefits from the political system many low income communities have seized the opportunity forms of political expression among the urban poor - individual political behaviour - opportunities for individual political activity are rather restricted - clientelism (patron-client relations) - collective goals: housing and urban services - government protecting against police eviction for electoral support - SINAMOS in peru - community leaders in mexico city - controlled from the top down, tended to be short lived - generally resemble peruvian and mexican model - scope of their claims and their relationship to the national political system - limited and pragmatic demands - nature of their political organizations limits the demands of low income communities - in relatively democratic systems the poor have broader opportunities to organize, demonstrate, petition and vote. capacity to demand is greater than in authoritarian regimes - radical political behaviour - do support radical movement under certain circumstances - realistic chance of winning - position to deliver tangible benefits conclusion: the role of the rural and urban poor in democratic change - rate of urbanization has slowed but the absolute increases will be greater than ever - heed urban needs - sufficient jobs, housing and sanitation - poor will need to refine their strategies for securing state resources Chapter 7: revolutionary change Intro - may be witnessing a new wave of revolution this time in the name of democracy? - modern revolutionary movements taken place almost exclusively in the developing world fought primarily by peasants - sometimes gains occur but at a great cost, human suffering and loss of life during the revolutionary struggle - most unfortunate cases (angola, mozambique, cambodia)

- large portions of the population died, revolutionary conflicts and their aftermaths with little to nothing positive to show for it - cambodia: Khmer Rouge murdered or starved more than a million - apparatchiks (government bureaucrats who never risked anything for revolutionary ideals) Defining Revolution - Peter Calvert: simply a form of governmental change through violence - Huntington: a revolution is a rapid, fundamental and violent domestic change in the dominant values and myths of society in its political institutions, social structure, leadership and government activity and policies. Revolutions are thus to be distinguished from insurrections, revolts and coups and wars of independence. - Skocpol: social revolutions are set apart from other sorts of conflict by the combination of two coincidences: societal structural change with class upheaval; and political with social transformation. - almost always violent - usually more brodly participatory and egalitarian than the regimes that they have toppled - text: any insurgency that brings about these kinds of comprehensive political and socioeconomic changes. Underlying Causes of Revolution Inexorable Historical Forces - Karl Marx - influenced many communist leaders (Mao, Stalin, Lenin...) - examples of bourgeois revolutions: british civil war, french revolution - revolution as a part of an unfolding historical process-->inevitable - Regime Decay - neither the repression nor the skills of revolutionary leadership alone bring about successful social revolutions - international pressures undermine the state - skocpol and others have argued most significant factor contributing to a successful revolutionary struggle is the internal rot of the decaying old order - military defeats have frequently delegitimized the existing political order - war: effect of disrupting peasant life, forcing many to seek the new social structure and physical protection offered by the revolutionary forces - other factors: prolonged dictatorships very corrupt (nicaragua and cuba) - subservience to the united states - cuba and Nicaragua, the combination of rampant corruption and injuries to nationalist self respect united people across class lines against the government - economy deteriorates standards of living decline and the government is unable to meet long standing economic responsibilities - decay of state authority also arise from the breakdown of authority at the local level - Challenges from Below - must also mount a well organized and politically coherent challenge from below - otherwise,will either cling to power or collapse into disorder/anarchy

- Charles Tilly: first, establish alternative sovereignty second, sizable portion of the population must support finally, old regime must be incapable of suppressing - most revolutions do not take place in either highly traditional or modern societies - modernizing countries, greater urbanization increases the demands on the political system - system will become overloaded and more unstable - Huntington notes 2 patterns: - Western model: old regime collapse followed by the mobilization of new groups - Eastern model: begins with the mobilization ends with the violent overthrow of the political institutions of the old order - recent prodemocracy movements in the Arab world do not seem to fit - James C. Davies: why particular individuals choose to join a revolution - combines economic and psychological explanations - upheaval took place after a period of sustained economic growth that was followed by a sharp downturn J-curve - gap between expectations and economic reality - important limitation: experienced a J-curve yet did not have social upheavals - common but not sufficient conditions for unrest - Ted Gurr: relative deprivation is the gap between what people want or expect from life and what they actually get - not solely economic - closer people are to attaining their goals, the greater will be their frustration if they fail to achieve them - depend on which segments of society are experiencing relative deprivation - poor alone= political turmoil - only if important members of middle and upper class - Causes of Revolution: A Summary - focus on different aspects of the question - only by comparing the political military strength of those who rebel with the states capacity to defend itself can we understand its success - incumbent regime must lose legitimacy - a democratic government provides the best inoculation - no consolidated democracy has ever been toppled by revolution Level of Popular Support - those who strongly support the incumbent government - those who support the government but more conditionally - those who support neither the government nor the revolutionaries - generally alienated, dislike both sides - those who sympathize with the revolutionary cause--occasionally lends support to the insurgents but does not actually join them - relatively small portion of the population that fully involves itself in the revolutionary struggle - in short, if a revolutionary movement is to gain power, there must be widespread alienation from the government, a disaffection that reaches beyond the ranks of the poor and oppressed to the heart of the middle class and the business community.

Peasants as Revolutionaries - why peasants rebel - rural societys transition from neofeudal to capitalist production precipitated many of the 3rd worlds 20th century revolutions - which peasants rebel - wage laborers and sharecroppers; most affected by - squatters and other peasants who face eviction from the land that they cultivate are also more prone to rebel - threatened by the prospect of losing their land and/or their livelihood - more likely to arise in areas that have traditions of rebellion Revolutionary Leadership - commonly come from middle/upper class - exceptions: pancho villa and zapata - must have a firm understanding of local culture Revolutionaries in Power - major goal: to achieve greater socioeconomic equality - revolutions open up new channels of upward social mobility for peasants and workers who previously had few such opportunities - usually do decrease economic inequality though the degree differs - sometimes a new class arises that demoralizes the public - widespread government corruption is disheartening in any setting, but even more so in a population that fought for revolution in the name of equality - huntington: a full scale revolution involves the rapid and violent destruction of existing political institutions, the mobilization of new groups into politics and the creation of new political institutions - not democratic, tend to regard opposition groups as enemies - 2nd generation of revolutionaries frequently more corrupted by power Conclusion: Revolutionary Change and Democracy - its impact was probably greatest in Asia - marxist revolutions graveyard of failed insurrections - likely that the age of radical revolution is waning to a close - may be an issue of semantics; how we define revolution Chapter 8: Soldiers and Politics Intro - third world distinguished by high instances of military interference - many military coups - last 20-25 years show a sharp decline in successful coups - armed forces still wielding considerable power; behind the scenes The Causes of Military Intervention - internal characteristics of the armed forces themselves

- political environment in which the military operates, most notably the weakness of civilian regimes - The Nature of the Armed Forces - the ability of officers to intervene in domestic politics and produce stable leadership is directly related to internal military social cohesion - huntington: impart professional values in officers, leads to a clear distinction in role and function between military and civilian leaders - alfred stepan: old [focus on external threats] and new [focus on internal] professionalism - The Nature of Civil Society - less a function of militarys own capabilities more a consequence of weak civil society - huntington: the most important causes of military intervention in politics are not military but political and reflect not the social and organizational characteristics of the military establishment but the political and institutional structure of society. - from an institutional approach, civilian regimes are strongest when broadly based political parties support them - civilian governments most vulnerable when in a state of economic decline - or when they are perceived as corrupt/political instability Progressive Soldiers and Military Conservatives - after they have established control - whether military rule produces greater political stability and socioeconomic development at least in the short run - positive evaluations predominated in the early modernization literature; idealized version of the professional soldier - some military governments championed the poor, while others have supported wealthy corporate and landowning interests-->why? - class origins of the officers corps, level of socioeconomic development, class alliances - commonly identified with the aspirations of the middle class - middle class (having achieved a share of political influence) and its military partners see the more galvanized and politicized lower classes as a threat rather than a useful ally - in short, the more underdeveloped a country is and the weaker its middle class, the greater the likelihood that the country will have a left of center military - Huntington: the more advanced a society becomes, the more conservative and reactionary becomes the role of the military The Types and Goals of Military Regimes - structures and goals - Personalistic Regimes - seize power for their own personal enrichment and aggrandizement - Samoza dynasty in Nicaragua - especially common in sub-saharan africa - lack a meaningful ideology or program to legitimize their regime, they typically must share some of the spoils with their military and civilian supporters - Institutional and Military Regimes

- a degree of institutional decision making - the goals of these institutional regimes are broader than any single leaders ambitions - can be as repressive and brutal as personalistic dictatorships--sometimes more so - BUT their day-to-day governing style is generally more bureaucratic and sophisticated - four broad objectives - usually justify their seizure of power by denouncing the alleged corruption of the government that they have ousted - advancement of the militarys own corporate interests - maintain or restore order and stability - to revive and stimulate the economy - coups frequently follow periods of rampant inflation, labor conflict or economic stagnation - militaries frequently committed to industrialization; industrial growth can provide them with arms and supplies - Bureaucratic Authoritarian Regimes - more extensive bureaucratic structure that included like minded civilian technocrats - penetrated more deeply into civil society - sometimes the goals become: to crush leftist political parties, unions, guerrilla movements; limit workers wages and create a stable environment for investment - repressing the left, the generals wanted to depoliticize society - Revolutionary Military Regimes - rather than excluding most of the population from the political system they instead extended political and economic participation to formerly excluded groups - marxist ideals that were self-taught, ideologically immature and crude and riddled with inconsistencies The Accomplishments and Failures of Military Regimes - Combating Corruption - often military officers have already become entangled in this web of corruption even before the coup takes place - even those military governments that seized power with noble intentions are generally soon corrupted - Defending military Interests - military governments have been more successful (at least in the short term) - enhance the nations defense budget - takes resources away from badly needed programs such as health care and education - may enlarge military budgets but it usually damages the armed forces in the long run by reducing their institutional cohesion - Patterns in Military Spending - military expenditures are frequently higher than their country can afford, thereby reducing badly needed social and economic investment - in general, the demise of many military governments during the 1980s and 1990s has not caused widespread cuts in defense spending - disproportionate percentage of GDP - Establishing Stability

- military officers almost always react negatively to popular unrest and political instability - particularly well suited for controlling civil unrest - force with impunity - extensive intelligence agencies, enabled them to penetrate deeply into society to control dissent - those that seize power to restore order in highly polarized societies are normally the most brutal - in the long term the military has not been particularly successful in providing stability - successes are the exception - military rule, no matter what its accomplishments, ultimately impedes the maturation of political parties and other civilian institutions necessary for long term stability - turned politics into a fight for survival - Improving the Economy - promise to impose fiscal discipline and revitalize the economy - proponents of military dictatorships assert that they can more easily make economic decisions because they dont have to pander to special interest groups - critics counter that soldiers lack the expertise to manage an economy - frequently failed to understand development economics - systematic statistical comparison of regime types; look at economic indicators such as growth rates and inflation - compared the econ. performance of military and civilian governments - run into methodological problems--> world economic conditions, a military regimes economic policies may either negatively or positively influence the performance of the civilian government that replaces it - cant control for all factors - in general cross national statistical research has uncovered little difference between the economic growth rates of democratic and military governments Military Withdrawal from Politics - dislodging them is no easy task - domestic protests, external intervention but mostly armed forces voluntarily relinquish control - having accomplished their major objectives they see no value in retaining power - deteriorating economic conditions - extended rule has undermined internal military cohesion - regime is so unpopular that staying in power would reduce the militarys legitimacy as an institution - military rule may aggravate ethnic tensions within the armed forces. - e.g. officers from one tribe or religion dominate top positions - recently, influential nations and international organizations have taken a stronger stance against military takeovers - international pressures are usually ineffective unless the military has also lost its legitimacy at home - while some combination of these factors has accounted for the departure of most military regimes, it has not guaranteed that the armed forces would stay out of power

- New Roles for the Armed Forces - combatting drug trafficking, antiterrorist activity - often used their mandates to combat terrorism and internal subversion as carte blanche for violating human rights and crushing peaceful and legitimate political opposition groups - civic action - UN peacekeeping - The Military as the Deciding Factor in the Arab Spring - the willingness or reluctance of the armed forces to defend the authoritarian regime - in tunisia and egypt they decided not to use force against demonstrators - libya and syria very different - Improving Civil- Military Relationships - the armed forces in the 3rd world continue to interfere in politics - must create or strengthen political institutions, attitudes and behaviour that reinforces civilian control - education of military officers - nations constitution and legal system must bestow upon the chief executive final control over the armed forces - the countrys parliament or congress determines the defense budget - civilian officials control military intelligence activities - fund the military sufficiently and take seriously the opinions of military commanders in matters related to national defense Conclusion: Democracy and the Military - by definition spread of democracy=decline in military rule - stable and secure democracy requires a professionalized military that is committed to staying out of politics - civilians must also respect the militarys domain - politics of anti-politics --> inhibits political development - hierarchical perspective, believe in an ordered society - fail to realize the great game of politics Chapter 9: The Political Economy of Third World Development Intro - almost all 3rd world governments with to promote economic development b/c this improves living standards and provides added tax revenues which enhance government capacity - the political economy - how politics determines aspects of the economy and how economic institutions determine the political process - the dynamic interaction The Role of the State - during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, major european powers were into mercantilism - looked at a nations economic activity as a means of enhancing the political power of the state

- saw government as the source and beneficiary of economic growth - adam smith: invisible hand, ultra capitalistic - karl marx: communism, central planning - keynes: substantial degree of government oversight but still market capitalist - in reality no government is totally laissez-faire - 3rd world economies many governments assume an active economic role - many developing nations lack a strong entrepreneurial class and sufficient private capital for investment - spread of neoliberal economic policies sharply reduced government intervention - The Command Economy - Marxism - ideology appealed to many activists who were troubled by the injustices in their economic systems - dependency theorists believe that capitalist trade and investment in the developing world create an exploitative relationship between core and periphery, argued that only socialist developing countries could achieve economic independence and development - the command economys flaws are so obvious they over shadow initial achievements - jump start industrial takeoffs - reducing income inequalities - communist countries as a whole had more equal income distribution than did capitalist nations at similar levels of development - weaknesses overshadow - lacking measures of consumer demand - little concern for product quality - power tends to corrupt and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely - lost momentum as they became more complex and therefore harder to centrally control - building heavy industries - failures of the Soviet union inspired market-oriented reforms in other command economies Latin American Statism - even in capitalist 3rd world countries the state has often played a major economic role - # of latin american nations pursued state led industrialization - many government takeovers were supported by the business community - had been owned by foreign corporations rather than local capitalists - after taking control the state often provided the countrys private-sector industries with subsidized and inexpensive transportation, power and other needed resources - import substitution industrialization (ISI): replace imported consumer goods with domestically manufactured products - initially quite successful - altered the regiond demographic and class structures - rural migration to the cities

- created blue collar jobs and expanded the size of the middle class - this strategy also promoted economic inefficiencies and income inequality - nurtured industrialization in the early stages but persisted too broadly and for too long - e.g. MEXICO: both the initial accomplishments and the subsequent weaknesses of statism in the region - 1935-1970: one of the fastest growing economies of the time - economic miracle highly unequal distribution of income, substantial pockets of poverty - soon government expenditures far exceeded new oil revenues= huge budget deficits and enormous foreign indebtedness - overall 2 areas of inefficiency: - 1. large number of state owned enterprises were overstaffed and poorly run - under great pressure to hire more employees whether they needed them or not - 2. inefficiency ISI policies encouraged in the private sector - creates a wall of high import tariffs and quotas to protect emerging local manufacturers from foreign competition. over time, the government needs to scale back level of protection or else domestic firms will have little incentive to become efficient and internationally competitive - reductions in public sector activity were necessary but also came at a great human cost= job loss - reduction or elimination of government consumer subsidies sharply increased the cost of basic necessities including bread, milk and rice - debt crisis and related recession in latin america from 1980s to 1990s is called the lost decade - neoliberal reforms have been slow to increase living standards East Asias Developmental State - a number of Asian economies have grown at a phenomenal rate for most of the past 30 years - impact on world trade has been enormous - benefits have been distributed relatively equally - the private sector controlled most of the economy with relatively small state sector - specialists insist government was a key player - regulatory state: government refrained from interfering in the market place, except to insure certain limited goals - developmental state: intervene actively in the economy in order to guide or promote particular substantive goals - did not pursue identical policies - in all of them the state played an important role, guiding the private sector toward targeted economic activities and stimulating growth in areas that the government wished to expand - established relevant research institutions; granted firms in targeted industries preferential access to credit; temporarily required companies that had been importing those targeted products to

switch to domestic manufacturerers; and offered trade protection to new industires for limited periods of time - skeptical about its applicability elsewhere - political requirements - authoritarian rule allowed government to repress or control labor unions and to direct management - repress democratic expression in varying degrees - require qualities such as: - skilled bureaucracy and close cooperation between business, labor and agriculture The Neoclassical Ideal - neoclassical/ neoliberal ideal assigns government a very limited role - state should provide certain fundamental public goods - state intervention distorts the choices made by producers, consumer and the government - artificial constraints are removed to get prices right - liberalized economies - deregulated the private sector, privatizing state enterprises, removing trade barriers and freeing prices - changes result of pressure from WTO and IMF - argue that east asia did not follow the market but governed the market - Hong Kong - unique case - city state with virtually no rural pop. - initial wealth derived from location - unfettered capitalist growth often has benefitted only a portion of the population, leaving the poor behind - e.g. India: 1/3rd of the pop. benefited from its economic growth namely city dwellers employed in the modern economy - strongly criticized by environmentalists - society can no longer afford to let free-market mechanisms allocate penalties for pollution Finding a Proper Role for the State - cookbook formulas for growth will likely fall short in many countries Industrialization Strategies - industrial growth has been the centerpiece of economic development for many developing nations - comparative advantage: focus on what they can produce cheaply and efficiently relative to other nations - export of primary goods except the prices tend to be volatile - should pursue balanced growth, including some industrial development - export oriented industrialization (EOI): linking industrial development to manufactured exports Import Substituting Industrialization

- econ. policies are partly the product of deliberate choice and partly the result of political and socioeconomic opportunities and constraints - ISI began as a response to an international economic crisis, subsequently transformed into a long term strategy - compare mexico with the 4 tigers: - mexico has a substantially greater population, considerable geographic advantage - yet the combined value of manufactured exports of the 4 tigers was 20 times higher than mexicos - at a competitive disadvantage depriving the country of much needed foreign exchange - capital intensive production - advanced tech and machinery while employing fewer workers - benefited a relatively small well-paid labor elite - nafta treaty is a move towards EOI Export Oriented Industrialization - east asia began with ISI diversified to manufacturing for export - forced local companies to become more competitive in the world market - east asian industrialization began in a period of unprecedented expansion in world trade inspired by the Wests post war boom - assault on trade barriers - opportunities were obvi to asian policy makers - latin A. should have moved to EOI but ISI seemed to be working so there was little incentive to change - ironically the smaller pop. of east asian countries lead them to believe ISI, which relied upon the domestic market, was NOT a feasible strategy for them Growth With Equity - market oriented economists insist that increased inequality is unavoidable - concentrate capital in the hands of entrepreneurs who can then invest more in the economy, expand and create jobs - critics say this does little for the majority - a proper development strategy entails growth with equity - widely based purchasing power helps to stimulate economic growth - pattern of land distribution in the countryside - spanish colonialism in latin america established super unequal agrarian structure - philippines shares colonial legacy also has bad income distribution - relationship between rural and urban living standards - government policy plays an important role - industrial policy also affects income distribution - east asia: - initially low wage jobs utilized cheap labor - greater demand for labor in low end export industries caused factory wages to rise - rural to urban migrants seeking factory jobs reduced the supply of rural labor thereby driving up wages for farm workers - as factory wages rose--> shifted from low tech manufactured products to more sophisticated exports

Economic Development and the Environment - enviro degradation - radical environmentalists in the US and Euro have proposed 0 growth strategies LOL NO says everyone Costs of Growth - industrialized nations continue to be the major consumers of natural resources, the leading polluters of air and water - in many parts of the developing world arable land is declining and deserts are growing - 3rd world cities polluting more Environmental Decay as a 3rd World Problem - trade off between econ growth and enviro seen most in China - biggest polluter - as this enorm. country needs to import increasing amounts of food, it will likely drive up prices of grain and other foods in the world market, with serious consequences for the poor throughout LDCs 3rd World Environmental Decay and Global Warming: A Global Problem - threatens developed countries as well - adverse effects from global warming will produce suffering on an unprecedented scale - more droughts in some regions, more floods in others etc, etc, The Search for Sustainable Development - defined as economic development that consumes resources to meet the needs of the present in a way that does not compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs. - renewable resources - you americans raped your environment in order to develop your country and raise your standard of living. now we Jamaicans reserve the right to do the same. - sentiments are understandable but unproductive - US refusal to ratify Kyoto confirms that 3rd world is being held to a double standard when it comes to economic sacrifices for the environment Some Signs of Progress - more conscious - Euro and Japan have taken new more vigorous initiatives to reduce greenhouse gases - US decline in emissions but mostly was because of economic downturn... - US trails way behind EU, considerable Congressional opposition Finding the Right Mix - the challenge is to establish strong and effective but not overbearing state--one that can promote growth, equitable income distribution and a healthy environment, while avoiding crony capitalism, political repression and unwarranted interference in the market----> HARD SHIT TO DO, HOW THE FUCK..? - fundamental concerns about universalizing the east asian model

- the extent to which the world economy can absorb mounting industrial exports - would be wise to diversify economies The Effects of Globalization on Developing Nations - the term refers to the increasing interdependence of national economies throughout the world - free flow of information and tech from the West to the rest of the world - speed and breadth of todays IT revolution greatly accelerated the interconnectedness of national economies - volume of foreign travel, international phone calls and cross border use of the internet - national markets are FUSED transnationally rather than merely linked across borders - critics say it has widened the gap between first and third world - really hard to assess because there are a number of factors at play