G en eral Rela tiv ity an d G ravi tation , Vol. 2 9, No.

1 , 1 997

Cosm ological Models W ith Variable Cosm ological

and Grav itational ª Constantsº and B ulk Viscou s
Mod els

Arbab I. Arbab 1

Rece ived October 30 , 19 95. Rev. ver sion A u gu st 2 3, 1996

A v iscous m odel w it h variable grav it at ional an d cosm ological con st ant

has b een considered. Several solutions are present ed an d som e are shown
t o be equivalent t o B erm an, Kalligas et al. an d B ran s± Dicke solut ions.

KE Y W ORDS : Fried m an n cosm ological m odels ; in¯ at ion

1. INTRODUCTION

T he role of viscosity in cosmology has been studied by several aut hors [1± 4].
T he bulk viscosity associat ed with grand uni® ed t heory phase transit ion
can lead to the in¯ ationary universe scenario. It is well known that in
an early stage of the universe when neut rino decoupling occurred, the
matt er behaves like viscous ¯ uid [22]. T he coe cient of viscosity is known
to decrease as the universe expands. B eesham [20] studied a universe
consist ing of a cosmological constant ( L ~ t - 2 ) and bulk viscosity. He
showed that the Berman model could be a viscous model for n = 12 . More
recently Abdel Rahman considered a model in which the gravit ational
constant , G , varies wit h time but energy is conserved [11]. et al. [8,19].
In the present work we will invest igat e t he eŒect of viscosity in a universe
where G and L vary in such a way that energy is conserved.

1
Depart m ent of P hy sics, Facu lty of Science, Un iversity of Kh art oum , P.O. 321, Khar-
t oum 11115, Sudan
61
0001-7701/ 97/ 0100-0061$09.50/ 0 1997 P lenum P ublishing Corporation
62 A rbab

2. THE MODEL

In a Robert son± Walker universe

[ ]
dr 2
dt 2 = dt 2 ± R 2 ( t) + r 2 (d h 2 + sin h 2 dw 2 ) , (1)
1 ± kr 2

where k is the curvat ure index.

Einst ein’ s ® eld equat ions with time dependent cosmological and grav-
itat ional ª const ant sº
1
Rmu ± 2 gm u R = 8pG Tm u + Lgm u (2)

and the perfect ¯ uid energy momentum tensor

Tm u = (r + p)Um Uu ± pgm u (3)

yield the two indep endent equat ions

3
RÈ
R
= ± 4pG 3p + r ±
( L
4pG ) , (4)

3
RÇ 2
R 2
= 8pG r +
L
8pG ( ) ±
3k
R2
. (5)

Eliminat ion of RÈ gives

3(p + r) RÇ = ±
( GÇ
G
r + rÇ +
LÇ
8pG ) R. (6)

T he conservat ion of energy and moment um yields

dr
3(p + r) = ± R . (7)
dR

T he eŒect of bulk viscosity in the ® eld equat ion is to replace p by p ± 3gH ,

where g is the viscosity coe cient. It follows immediat ely t hat

9gH RÇ =
( GÇ
G
r+
LÇ
8pG ) R (8)

and
rÇ + 3H (r + p) = 0 . (9)
C o s m olo g ic a l M o d e l s W it h V a r ia b le L a n d G 63

Equat ion (8) can be written as

H G9 L9
9g = r+ , (10)
R G 8pG

where prime denot es derivat ive w.r.t scale factor R while dot is the deriva-
tive w.r.t t o cosmic time t. In what follows we will consider a ¯ at universe,
k = 0.
Equat ions (5) and (17) lead to

8pG r = 3( 1 ± b )H 2 (11)

and the equat ion of st ate

p = (c ± 1)r (12)

in eqs. (8) and (9) leads to

3c
r = AR - , (13)

where A is a constant .

H H9 2b H9
9g = 2 r± r9 + r (14)
R H (1 ± b ) H

or
H9 3c ( 1 ± b ) 1 9(1 ± b )g0 A n - 1
3c n + 3c - 1
+ = R- , (15)
H2 2R H 2
where we have taken the viscosity coe cient to have the power law

g = g0 rn , g0 ³ 0, n const., (16)

and the ansat z

L = 3b H 2 , b const . (17)
T he solut ion of eq. (15) is obt ained as follows. Let y = 1/ H and a =
[3c (1 ± b ) ]/ 2. T herefore

d ± 9(1 ± b )g0 A n - 1
yR - a
= R - 3c n + 3 c - a - 1 , (18)
dR 2
9(1 ± b ) g0 A n - 1 - 3 c n + 3 c - a
yR - a
= R , (19)
2(3c n ± 3c + a)
9(1 ± b ) g0 A n - 1 - 3 c n + 3c
y = R , (20)
2(3c n ± 3c + a)
64 A rbab

and ® nally
2(3c n ± 3c + a) 3 c n - 3c
H = R . (21)
9(1 ± b ) g0 A n - 1
Equat ions (11) and (21) give

3D 2 (1 ± b ) 3 c ( 2 n - 1)
G = R , (22)
8pA

where
2(3c n ± 3c + a)
D = .
9( 1 ± b )g0 A n - 1
Equat ion (21) gives

R (t) = [3D c ( 1 ± n )] [1 / 3 c ( 1 - n ) ] [1 / 3 c ( 1 - n ) ]
t . (23)

Hence eqs. ( 13) and (22) become

r(t) = A 9 t [- 1 / ( 1- n ) ] , (24)
G (t) = B 9 t [( 2 n - 1) / ( 1 - n ) ] , (25)
and
1 / ( 1- n ) ]
g(t) = A 0 t [- , (26)

where

1 / ( 1- n ) ]
A 9 = A[3D c (1 ± n ) ] [- ,
2
3D (1 ± b ) 1 ) / ( 1- n ) ]
B9 = [3D c (1 ± n ) ] [( 2 n - ,
8pA
and
A 0 = A 9 n g0 .

T he Hubble param eter is

1 1
H (t) = , (27)
3c ( 1 ± n ) t

where 0 £ n £ 1. T his condit ion on n rules out some models with n > 1
[3]. T he cosmological constant becomes

b 1
L= . (28)
3c 2 (1 ± n ) 2 t2
C o s m olo g ic a l M o d e l s W it h V a r ia b le L a n d G 65

T his law of variat ion of L is thought t o be fundament al [20]. T he deceler-

ation param eter is given by

R RÈ
q= ± ,
RÇ 2
q = 3c ± 3c n ± 1. (29)

T his shows that the decelerat ion paramet er is constant . T he constant

decelerat ion models have considered by Berman and Som [9,15]. Equa-
tion (27) can be writt en as
1 1
H = , (30)
(1 + q) t

and for the present phase ª pº

1 1
tp = . (31)
(1 + qp ) H p

It is evident t hat negat ive qp would increase the present age of the universe.
From eq. ( 25) we obt ain

GÇ 2n ± 1 1
= , (32)
G 1± n t
and the present value is

( )GÇ
G p
=
2n ± 1 1
1 ± n tp
=
2n ± 1
1± n
(1 + qp )H p . (33)

A power law dependenc e of G was obt ained by Kalligas et al. [19], and was
shown to lead nat urally to L ~ t - 2 . Unlike the model of Abdel Rahman
and Beesham, this model shows a constant G does not imply constant L.
We see that the quant ity G r satis® es the condit ion for a Machian
cosmological solut ion i.e G r ~ H 2 (see Ref. 25) . T his also follows from
the model of Kalligas et al.
T he analogy of our model and that due t o Kalligas et al. is manifest ed
in t he following replacem ent:
1 + nK nK
n = and b= ,
2 + nK 2 + nK
where n K is n due to Kalligas et al. T his furnishes the resemblance. Hence
the Kalligas model is equivalent to a viscous model.
66 A rbab

3. THE HORIZON PROBLEM

T he horizon dist ance, i.e., the size of the causally connect ed region,
is given by
t
d H = R (t)
t0 R
dt 9
(t9 )
, s
3c ± 3c n
d H (t, t 0 ) = (t, t 0 ) .
3c ± 3c n ± 1
We would like to have 3c ± 3c n = 1 so
3c ± 1
n = .
3c

Note t hat 3c ± 3c n > 0 implies n < 1. In what follows we will discuss

some classes of models.
3.1. Mod el w ith n = 1
Equat ion (7) becomes

d 9(1 ± b )g0 A n - 1
yR - a
= ± R- 1- a
, (34)
dR 2
9( 1 ± b )g0 A n - 1
yR - a
= R- a , (35)
2a
or
c
H = = H0 . (36)
3g0
Hence
R (t) = F exp H 0 t, F const.
which is an in¯ ationary solut ion.
Such a solut ion has been obt ained by several aut hors [2,5,13]. * Here
the density is not constant but has the following variat ion:
- 3c
r = AF exp ± 3c H 0 t .

Such a solut ion was obt ained by Berman and Som for B rans± Dicke theory
for scalar ® eld w where w = 1 / G [26]. In t he present case, however, G is
not const ant during this epoch, viz.

G (t) = M exp 3c H 0 t,

*
E di tor ’ s n ote : H. Oleak also m ad e a ª Rem ark on t he In¯ at ionary Un iverse Gen erat ed
by B ulk V iscosity º in 1987; see A n n . P h ys. (Lei pzi g) 4 4 , 74.
C o s m olo g ic a l M o d e l s W it h V a r ia b le L a n d G 67

where
3H 02 F 3 c (1 ± b)
M = .
8p A
3.2. Mod el w ith n = 1/ 2, c = 1
Equat ions (23) ± (25) become

R (t) = E t 2 / 3 , r = A 0 t- 2 , and G = const.

2 - 1
where E and A 0 are const ant s. T he Hubble param eter is H (t) = 3t .
T his is the ¯ at f rw universe result .
T he decelerat ion paramet er is

1
q = ± 3n + 2 = 2 .

Since several aut hors claim t hat t he age of the universe comput ed from the
f rw ¯ at model tends to be smaller than the range given by observat ion,
0 .6 < H p t p < 1 .4, our model could give a better value for any depart ure
from n = 12 . However, it has been found that only n = 12 solut ions are
st ructurally stable [21].
It was shown by B eesham that the Berman solut ion (a power law for
R ) is a viscous solut ion with n = 12 . T he relat ion between our model and
Berman’ s [9] is
m = 3c ( 1 ± n ) .

T he value of m in our case is not put by hand, but emerges nat urally from
the dependen ce of the viscosity on the energy density (g ~ rn ) in a given
epoch. T his solut ion seems more elegant .
3.3. Mod el w ith n = 0, c = 1
Equat ions (23) ± (25) give

R (t) = F 9 t 1 / 3 , r = A 9 t- 1 , and G (t) = B t - 1 ,

where F 9 , A 9 and B are const ant s. T his is a model of constant bulk

viscosity. It resembles the Brans± Dicke model [16]. We see that

GÇ 1
= ± = ± 3H - 1 , (37)
G t

( )GÇ
G p
= ± 3H p- 1
(38)
68 A rbab

T his solut ion was obt ained by Berman [15] for the Bertolami equat ion for
the present phase. Note that in g r , k = 0,

1 - 2
r= t . (39)
6pG
W hether our result is acceptable or not depends up on the value we measure
for ( rÇ / r) p for the present phase.
T his also resembles the Dirac no-creat ion model. For this class of
solut ions q = 2.
3.4. Mod el w ith n = 2/ 3, c = 1
T he scale factor is

R (t) = R 0 t, r = A 9 t- 3 , and G = B t,

where A 9 , R and B are const ant s. T his linear variat ion of G has been
found by Berman [15] for the Bertolami solut ion for B rans± Dicke ( bd )
theory with a t ime-varying cosmological constant for the present phase.
For t his model q = 0.
3.5. Mod el w ith n = 3/ 4, c = 4/ 3
T he scale factor is given by

R(t) = F t, r = A 9 t- 4 , and G = B = const.,

where F , A 9 and B are constant s. T his solut ion was obt ained by B erman
[15] for the B ert olami theory for t he radiat ion era. He also found that
T µ R - 1 , preserving Stefan’ s law. It was also found by Abdel Rahman
that a variable G and L model leads t o a similar result for the radiat ion
universe [11]. In his model he considered L ~ R - 2 . For this class of models
q = 0.
3.6. Mod el w ith n = 1/ 2, c = 4/ 3
For this model

R (t) = F t 1 / 2 , r = A 9 t- 2 , and G = B = const .,

where F , A 9 and B are constant s. T his special value for n gives a constant
G in bot h radiat ion and matter epochs. T his is equivalent to a f rw ¯ at
universe. For t his class q = 1.
3.7. Mod el w ith g = g 0 H
Using eq. (13) in eq. (14) we obt ain

H9 3c (1 ± b ) 1 9(1 ± b )g0 3 c - 1
+ = R . (40)
H3 2R H2 2A
C o s m olo g ic a l M o d e l s W it h V a r ia b le L a n d G 69

Let y = 1/ H 2 . T his becomes

dy 3c ( 1 ± b ) ± 9(1 ± b )g0 3 c - 1
± y= R , (41)
dR 2R A
d ± 9(1 ± b )g0 3 c - 1 -
yR - 2 a = R 2a
, (42)
dR A
9(1 ± b )g0 3 c
y = R , (43)
A(2a ± 3c )

and hence
3c A(2a ± 3c )
H 2 = N R- , N = . (44)
9(1 ± b )g0
Subst itut ing this in eq. (11) and using eq. (13) yields

3N
G = = const.
8pA

Hence
1/ 3 c 2 / 3c
R (t) = N t .
T his reduces to the ¯ at f rw model with constant G . T his is equivalent to
the solut ion with n = 12 . T herefore the assumpt ion g ~ H is equivalent to
g ~ r1 / 2 [12].
3.8. Mod el w ith n = 2/ 3, c = 2
T he scale factor is given by

R (t) = F t 1 / 2 , and r( t) = A 9 t - 3 , G (t) = B t, g(t) = g0 t - 2 ,

where F , A 9 and B are constant s. T his result is obt ainable from B erman
[2] if we let A = 1 / 16p, B = 14 and m = 2. For this model q = 1.
3.9. Mod el w ith n = 1/ 2, c = 2
T he scale factor is given by

R = F t1 / 3 , and r = A 9 t- 2 , G = B = const .

where F and A 9 are constant s. T his is the solut ion for the b d theory for
the present phase, as shown by B erman and Som [15]. For t his model
q = 2. T his solut ion was also found by B eesham for Bianchi typ e I models
for n = 0 ( where c = n + 2, i.e. r ~ t - c ).
Barrow showed that r ~ t - c dominat es the viscous term for all ¯ uids
with 1 £ c £ 2 [3].
70 A rbab

3.10. Mod el w it h n = 1/ 2, c = 2/ 3
T he scale factor is given by

R = F t, and r = A 9 t- 2 , G = const.

where F and A 9 are constant s. T hese are the solut ions obt ained by P i-
mentel [14] for the scalar ® eld of the second-self creation theory proposed
by B arber, assum ing a power law of the scalar ® eld and the expansion
factor. T he resemblance is evident if we put

n P + 3(c ± 1)
n = .
6c

n P in n due to P imentel. When n = 12 , the present case, n P = 3. For this

class of model q = 0. T here is no horizon problem associat ed with this
solut ion.
3.11. Mod el w it h n = 1/ 2, c = 1/ 3
T he scale factor is given by

R = F t2 , and r = A 9 t- 2 , G = const.

where F and A 9 are constant s. This is the wall-like matter. For this
solut ion q = ± 12 . T his solut ion has been obt ained by B erman for the
radiat ion universe, i.e. a wall-like matter behaves the same as radiat ion in
a viscous universe.
3.12. Mod el w it h n = 0, c = 1/ 3
T he scale factor is given by

R = F t, and r = A 9 t- 1 , G = B t- 1 ,

where F , A 9 and B are const ant s. T his solut ion which solves for the
power law is also Machian, i.e. G r ~ H 2 (see Ref. 25) . Such a solut ion
has been not ed by B erman and Som for t he constant decelerat ion type
with m = / 0 [25].
T his solut ion corresponds to the case m = 1. In t his case we see that
the viscosity is constant , i.e. g = g0 . T his solut ion is a wall-like matter
solut ion. T his model is free of the horizon problem . T his solut ion has been
obt ained by P imentel [24] for the solut ion of B rans± Dicke theory with a
constant bulk viscosity for the k = / 0 solut ion. He has shown that these
solut ions satisfy the Machian condit ion and the second Dirac hypot hesis.
Singh and Devi [23] studied cosmological solut ions in Brans± Dicke theory
C o s m olo g ic a l M o d e l s W it h V a r ia b le L a n d G 71

involving part icle creation and obt ained a similar solut ion for k = 0. Some
other solut ions are as follows.
a.T he Pim entel solu tion for the scalar tetradic theor y A
Case I. T his solut ion of P imentel [4] is equivalent to our solut ion provided

n P = ( bP ± 2 + 3c )

and
bP = 2 ± 6c (1 ± n ) ,
where the subscript ª P º is the P imentel value. T herefore this solut ion is
a viscous solut ion. T he viscosity ( g) varies as t - [( 2n P - b P + 2 ) ] / [( 2- b P ) ] . T he
condit ion bP =
/ 2 is equivalent to n = / 1. Note that

c = 2 1±
( 1
x nP )
or
2
x = .
3c (2n ± 1)(c ± 2)
Case II. T his solut ion is equivalent to our solut ion provided we make the
following subst itution:
3c (1 ± n ) = 1

or
2n ± 1
nP = = 3c ± 2,
1± n
and therefore
2( n ± 1)
x = .
(2n ± 1)( c ± 2)

T he viscosity coe cient in t his case varies as ~ t - ( 1+ n P ) ( bP = 0) . T he

viscosity term in t his case ~ exp ± [(n p + 1) / (n p + 2)]t.
b. Berm an solution
Berman st udied a constant decelerat ion model [2]. Berman’ s equat ions
(14) and (15) are equivalent t o our eq. (24) provided

b = 2n ± 1 £ 0,
1
A= ,
12pc 2 (1 ± n)
and
72 A rbab

2n ± 1
B = .
3c (1 ± n ) 2
2

We conclude that Berman’ s solut ion is equivalent to a bulk viscous model

with variable G and L. T he viscosity term here varies as g ~ t - [1 + ( B / 4 p A ) ] .
More recently J ohri and Desikan [27] have considered cosmological
models in Brans± Dicke theory wit h constant decelerat ion paramet er. T heir
solut ion for a ¯ at universe [their eqs. (65) ± (67) ] are equivalent to our so-
lut ion, i.e. eqs. (23) ± (25) with t he replacement of b = 3c ± 3c n ± 1,
a = 3c (1 ± 2n ).
c. Cosm ological expan sion in the presence of quadratic bulk viscosity (f)
T his t erm appears as 3fH 2 in t he pressure term. Let us consider the
f = const. case. It follows that

RÇ GÇ LÇ
(9gH + 3fH 2 ) = r+ .
R G 8pG

Using eq. ( 4) we obt ain

3( 1 ± b )c
H9 + H
2R
9( 1 ± b )g0 3 c - 3c n - 1 2 3( 1 ± b )f 3c - 1 3
± R H ± R H = 0.
2 2

T his equat ion adm its a power law of the form

H = aR m , a const .
1
Subst itut ing this in the above equat ion, we get m = ± (3c / 2) and n = 2
Hence
- (3c / 2)
H = aR

or

( )
2 / 3c
3c a
R= t2/ 3 c
2

T his is the familiar f rw ¯ at universe solut ion. If we take a general power

law for f, i.e. f ~ rr for some r , it follows that only r = 1 is possible.
T his case has been studied by Wolf [5]. He showed that a const ant r leads
to the in¯ ationary solut ion. T his model is similar t o the one considered
before (g = g0 r).
C o s m olo g ic a l M o d e l s W it h V a r ia b le L a n d G 73

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

In this work we have presented a variety of classes of solut ions to

Einst ein’ s ® eld equat ions containing variable L, G and bulk viscosity. We
have list ed the forms of R, r, G and g as funct ions of time. T hese solut ions
turned out to be power law, as are those suggest ed by Berman [2]. It was
shown by Mahara j [7] that this is also valid for the scalar tensor theory of
Lau for k = 0.
All power law solut ions exhibit the feature of viscous solut ions wit h
variable G . We have found that L ~ t - 2 for all epochs except the in¯ a-
tionary one, where it remains constant . For n = 12 , G remains constant
during radiat ion and mat ter epochs. B eesham has shown t hat variable- L
solut ions are equivalent t o a bulk viscosity one with g ~ r1 / 2 . However in
the present model this behavior is more general, i.e. for any value of n .
More experim ents are needed to limit this large number of models.
Pandmanabha n and Chit r e [28] have not ed that bulk viscosity may
be of relevance for the future evolut ion of the universe and if g decays
su cient ly slowly, i.e. g ~ rn , n < 12 , then the lat e epochs of the universe
will be viscosity-dominat ed and the universe will enter a ® nal in¯ ationary
era with a steady state charact er.
We see that n = 12 is a critical value for G since those with n > 12 are
increasing and t hose wit h n < 12 are decreasing funct ions of time. We also
not ice that as one goes back t he eŒect of viscosity may not be negligible.

ACK NOW LEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank P rof. A.-M.M. Abdel Rahman for suggest ions and
enlight ening discussions, and the University of Khart oum for research sup-
port .

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