position of adverbs

There are three normal positions for adverbs in a sentence: 1) initial position (before the subject) 2) mid position (between the subject and the verb or immediately after be as a main verb) or 3) end position (at the end of the clause). Different types of adverbs favour different positions and I describe these trends below. There are sometimes exceptions to the general rule, so please regard this as a basic guide

Initial position Linking adverbs, which join a clause to what was said before, always come here. Time adverbs can come here when we want to show a contrast with a previous reference to time. Comment and viewpoint adverbs (e.g. luckily, officially, presumably) can also come here when we want to highlight what we are about to say. Compare the following: Two of the workers were sacked, and, as a result, everybody went on strike. We invited all the family. However, not everyone could come. The weather will stay fine today, but tomorrow it will rain. Initially, his condition remained stable, but over the last few weeks it has deteriorated. Margaret ran the office, although, officially, Trevor was the manager. I haven't made any plans yet, but presumably you'll want to show her around London

mid position Focusing adverbs (e.g. just, even), adverbs of indefinite frequency (e.g. often, always, never) and adverbs of certainty and degree (e.g probably, obviously, clearly, completely, quite, almost) all favour this position. Note that when auxiliary verbs (e.g. is, has, will, was) are used, they normally go between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: She's been everywhere - she's even been to Tibet and Nepal. Tom won't be back yet, but I'll just see if Brenda's home. I'll give her a ring. My boss often travels to Malaysia and Singapore but I've never been there. Have you finished yet? I haven't quite finished. I've almost finished. She's obviously a very bossy woman. ~ I completely agree!

end position

Adverbs of time and definite frequency (e.g. last week, every year) and adverbs of manner when we want to focus on how something is done (e.g. well, slowly, evenly) and adverbs of place (e.g. in the countryside, at the window) usually go in end position: I had a tennis lesson last week, but I'm usually travelling in the middle of the month, so I don't have a lesson every week. How long have you been here? Not long. We arrived about five minutes ago. I chewed the food slowly because it hadn't been cooked very well. She was standing at her window, looking out at her children who were playing in the garden.

Note that when more than one of this type of adverb is used, the order in which they are placed is normally: manner, place, time: They played happily together in the garden the whole afternoon.

adverb-adjective When adverbs modify adjectives, they are placed immediately before them: We had some really interesting news last night. John's been offered a job in Australia. He's absolutely delighted. I bought an incredibly expensive dress last week which fits me perfectly. But John says I shouldn't wear it. He says it's too tight.

An exception to this rule is enough which is placed after the adjective or adverb that it modifies: I got up quite early but not early enough to eat a good breakfast.

too much/many, fewer/less, little, as much as

little / few and a little / a few Little is used with uncountable and few is used with countable nouns. When we use few and little without the indefinite article, they usually have a negative meaning, but when we use them with the indefinite article, a little or a few, they have a more positive meaning. Compare the following: I have few friends in England and I feel quite lonely. I have a few friends in England, so I don't miss home so much. I have little interest in classical music. I much prefer pop. I have a little wine in the cellar. Would you like some?

Rather than little or few, we sometimes prefer to use a negative construction with much or many in conversational English, as it sounds slightly less formal: He has little money. > He doesn't have very much money. She had few friends. > She didn't have many friends

a little / a bit A little, a bit and a little bit are often used as adverbs in colloquial British English with little or no difference in meaning. Compare the following: You're driving too fast. Could you please drive a little (bit) more slowly? It was a long journey and I was feeling a bit / a little (bit) tired.

Bit can also combine with of before nouns to suggest a limited amount of something. Compare the following: Let me give you a bit of advice. Don't drive so fast in built-up areas. I'm not very hungry after the journey. I'll just have a bit of bread and cheese. I've got a bit of a problem. The car has overheated, so we'll have to wait for it to cool down.

If we use it with a determiner or pronoun, little can also be used in this way: Would you like to try a bit of this / a little of this very sweet dessert? I'd love a bit of your / a little of your apple and walnut cake. It looks and smells delicious

fewer / less Fewer and less are the comparative forms of few and little and are used with countable and uncountable nouns, respectively. Compare the following: I've got a little (bit of) money in the bank. Not very much. Less than I had last year. The weather was awful and fewer children took part in the procession this year.

too much / too many Much and many can be used as an alternative to a lot of. Much is used with singular nouns and many is used with plural nouns. They can be used without nouns if the meaning is clear. Too expresses the idea of more than enough or more than necessary. Compare the following:

There were many / a lot of people in the dining room, but there wasn't very much / a lot of food left on the breakfast buffet tables. I haven't eaten very much! ~ You've eaten far too much in my view. Much too much. I had put too much salt in the soup and nobody ate it.

too or very Make sure you can distinguish between too and very. Learners of English often confuse these two adverbs. Very means extremely and too means more than is wanted. Too is often followed by adjective + infinitive clause. Compare the following: The maths problem was very difficult. It was too difficult for me to solve. We arrived at the hotel very late - too late to have dinner there. The lake was very muddy. It was too muddy to swim in. A pity! It was perfect weather for swimming. Not too hot.

as much / many as We can use as much / many as when we are talking about quantity and want to compare things or people that are more or less equal. Much and many can be used in this way as determiners or pronouns or as an adverb in the case of many. Compare the following: Share prices were falling and she didn't have as much money as she thought she had. She won't be able to buy as many clothes this year as she bought last year. The breakfast buffet at the hotel was great. You could eat as much as you wanted. Would you like some strawberries with your cereal? Take as many as you like. I don't expect you to finish the report. Just do as much as you can this evening. You can criticise my lifestyle as much as you like. But it's my life!

however / nevertheless / moreover

However and nevertheless: to express a contrast We can use either of the adverbs however or nevertheless to indicate that the second point we wish to make contrasts with the first point. The difference is one of formality: nevertheless is bit more formal and emphatic than however. Consider the following:

I can understand everything you say about wanting to share a flat with Martha. However, I am totally against it.

Rufus had been living in the village of Edmonton for over a decade. Note that however and nevertheless are normally placed in initial position in a sentence when contrasting two ideas. They can, however, also come in mid position or end position: There will be no more pay increases this year. That is for sure. We have, however, agreed to carry out a full review of pay and conditions. We have agreed, nevertheless, to carry out a full review of pay and conditions. He's still able to get around quite well. His whole life has been plagued by illness, however. His whole life has been plagued by illness, nevertheless

Less formal equivalents of however and nevertheless would be even so, in spite of this, yet or yet..still. These alternatives would be better suited to spoken English discourse: She's really quite ill and has been for some time. Even so / In spite of this she remains in good spirits. He has over a million pounds in his bank account. Yet he still gets up at six every morning to go to work. Nevertheless, the villagers still considered him to be an outsider.

however and nevertheless: for counter-argument If you need to write essays, it is also useful to use however, nevertheless, nonetheless or even so to introduce the final part of a three-part structure: * in the first part you might outline an argument, introducing it perhaps with it is often said; * in the second part you might indicate that there is supporting evidence using it is true or certainly to introduce these ideas; * in the third part introduce the counter-argument with however or one of the other discourse markers listed above. It is said that water pollution is one of the greatest evils in this country. It is true that more and more factories are being built along this stretch of the river and that a certain amount of waste will inevitably be discharged into the river. However, in all the discussions that I have had with these firms' representatives, I have not found one who does not have a responsible attitude to environmental protection.

moreover: for adding I often find when marking essays that moreover is used as an alternative to however. But be careful here. It does not have the same meaning. Moreover is the very formal equivalent of futhermore or in addition which would be the least formal of these three. These adverbs should be used to support or to add information to what has already been said: The refugees are desperately short of food. They have very little shelter to protect them from the winter winds that are now blowing. Furthermore, they are desperately in need of medical supplies. She had noticed that there was a man sitting in the second row of the stalls to her right who was observing her, rather than watching the play. Moreover, he seemed to be smiling at her as if he recognised her

in conclusion Finally, remember that if you are writing essays, it is useful to introduce the final paragraph with one of these expressions: to conclude, in conclusion, to sum up: In conclusion, it is clear that pollution will continue to plague our planet for the foreseeable future. However, if individuals and governments act responsibly, there may come a day in the not too distant future when a more optimistic outlook is justified Irregular adjectives and adverbs Expensive / dear / costly These adjectives are all synonyms though they are used in slightly different ways and in different collocations. It is also the case that dear as an adjective has two meanings, it means both expensive and well-liked, as well as featuring in expressions such as Oh dear! or in letters as in Dear Sir. The problem with costly may be that it looks like an adverb as it ends in -ly. This is confusing as most adverbs end in -ly, but costly is an exception and is an adjective. Compare the following uses and collocations in these examples: It was an expensive suit, but if you want to work for this firm, you have to dress well. These are very nice. ~ They're a bit too dear / expensive, I'm afraid. Haven't you got anything cheaper? Agatha is a dear friend of mine. She is so kind and gentle in everything she does. Oh dear! I've forgotten to bring my ID and I shan't be allowed to take the IELTS test. It was a costly mistake and it meant I wouldn't have another chance until the autumn.

Dearly

Dearly can only be used as an adverb and normally collocates with the verbs love / like and in this sense means a lot or very much:

He's such a nice man. I love him dearly. I would dearly like / love to be in your shoes and to have the whole summer free to travel around Europe

Common adjectives ending in -ly There are not very many, but other common adjectives apart from costly ending in -ly include: friendly, lively, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely : It was a lively party and there were lots of very friendly people there. He was really quite ugly and unlikely to succeed in the blind date competition.

Adverbs formed by adding -ly As you no doubt know, most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the adjective: He is a slow and careful driver. He drives slowly and carefully. I'm going to give a house a thorough clean. I'm going to thoroughly clean the house.

But note that we cannot form adverbs in this way when the adjective ends in -ly. We cannot say: friendlily or uglily or sillily. We have to find some other way of modifying the verb, e.g.: They greeted us in a very friendly / silly manner.

Adjective and adverb with the same form A number of adverbs have the same form as adjectives. The most common include: hard, fast, straight, early: I know he has a fast car, but he doesn't need to drive so fast. It's hard work, but if you work hard and really concentrate, you'll finish it by bedtime. I caught the early bus to be sure of arriving early. The Aurelian Way is a very straight Roman road which goes straight from Rome to Pisa.

Adverbs with two forms

Some adverbs have two forms. Sometimes there is a difference in meaning. Sometimes there is not very much difference. Compare the following: I haven't seen very much of you lately (lately = recently). You always seem to come home late from work.(late = arriving after the expected time) Mary can jump really high on the trampoline.(high = vertical distance) Yesterday she jumped right off it. It was highly amusing. (highly = very) Alfonso can eat free in the restaurant where he works. (free = without paying) You can speak freely. Nobody can hear us. (freely = without feeling restricted) Can you please be waiting for me outside at nine o' clock sharp? (sharp = punctually) I thought she spoke to him rather sharply. (sharply = in a harsh tone) Don't talk so loud. Everybody in the room can hear you. (loud = informal usage) Jonathan spoke loudly and convincingly about the advantages of leasing rather than buying cars. (loudly = more formal usage)

Compound adjectives Words like densely-populated are compound adjectives and they are made up of two or more words, normally with hyphens between them. Something that is dense contains a lot of things or people in a small area. Thus a densely-populated town or city is one with a high population count within the city boundaries. A denselywooded hill would be one that is difficult to get through because the trees are so close together. adj / adv + past participle Adjective or adverb plus past participle is one of the most common patterns for forming compound adjectives. Some common examples would include: cold-blooded brightly-lit kind-hearted deeply-rooted old-fashioned densely-populated open-minded well-behaved

Most animals are warm-blooded but all reptiles are cold-blooded. He was a cold-blooded murderer and showed no emotion of any kind. She lived in an old-fashioned house, but was kind-hearted and openminded. Nevertheless, she held deeply-rooted beliefs about the sanctity of marriage. The dimly- / brightly-lit streets in our town encourage / discourage burglars.

Note that adverb / past participle combinations when they are used with a copular verb like be or seem, and come after the noun they modify, are not hyphenated: The streets in our town are dimly / brightly lit and encourage / discourage burglars.

There are sometimes many possible combinations, e.g. broad-minded, narrowminded, absent-minded, strong-minded, as well as open-minded. It is partly a matter of knowing which adjectives or adverbs collocate or go with which participles and nouns. We have brightly-lit streets, but also brightly-coloured dresses or swimsuits or sweets. Compound adjectives are regarded as productive features of English which means that use is not so restricted as it is in many categories of grammar. New combinations are always possible, so if you think something may work, try it out with your English-speaking friends, Tokmokje, and see if it is meaningful. For example, brightly-patterned curtains illustrates the productive nature of this combination, as would brightly-shining stars, and here we come to a new pattern, which is also very common: Adj / adv / noun + present participle Here are some common examples: good-looking far-reaching labour-saving hard-wearing long-lasting mouth-watering free-standing never-ending record-breaking

The good-looking chef was dressed in hard-wearing clothing and sitting in front of a free-standing cooker. The dishes he had prepared with all the labour-saving devices at his disposal were all mouth-watering. We signed a long-lasting agreement for his services which we hoped would be never-ending.

Other common patterns for compound adjectives include: noun + past participle: shop-soiled, tongue-tied, sun-dried, noun + adjective: trouble-free, lead-free, world-famous, adj + noun: deep-sea, full-length, last-minute, number + noun: two-door, twenty-page, forty-mile. When they refused to exchange the shop-soiled item, I was tongue-tied and didn't know what to say. If you want trouble-free motoring, make sure you use only lead-free petrol. The sun-dried tomatoes that we sell are world-famous. She was wearing a full-length dress, quite unsuitable for deep-sea diving.

The forty-mile journey in the two-door, open-top convertible was illadvised in such inclement weather.

Try out other combinations of these patterns for yourselves, e.g. four-door saloon, five-page document, well-advised, etc. Make a note of compound adjectives that you come across in your reading and note the way they are used with particular nouns.

always or ever? ever = at any time Ever usually means at any time and can be used to refer to past, present and future situations. The converse, meaning at no time, is never. Ever is mainly used in questions. Sometimes it is used in negative sentences (not ever) as an alternative to never. Compare the following: Were you ever in the Boy Scouts? ~ No, I never was. Have you ever been to the Everglades in Florida? ~ Yes, I was there once, but it was years ago. Will you ever speak to her again? ~ No, I don't think I ever will. If you ever need any help, just give me a ring. ever : for emphasis We sometimes use ever to give emotive emphasis to what we are saying as an indication that we feel very strongly about it. Thus, in speech, ever receives strong word stress: If I ever catch you fiddling your expenses claims again, you'll be sacked. Don't ever do that again! How ever did you manage to drive home through so much snow? When ever will I find time to get to the bottom of my in-tray? Why ever did he marry such a domineering woman? We sometimes use ever in compound expressions with hardly or if: hardly ever = very rarely / seldom It seldom / hardly ever / very rarely rains in Puglia in the summer.

seldom, if ever = almost never Now that we have young children, we seldom, if ever, go out in the evening. ever = always? We do not often use ever to mean always, i.e. on every occasion or all the time. We have to say, e.g.: I always bike to work now. It's so much healthier. (Not: I ever bike to work now. It's so much healthier.) Compare the difference in meaning between these two example sentences. In the first sentence, they often agree, but not on every occasion. In the second sentence, they never agree: My mother and I don't always agree about the best way to rear children. My mother and I don't ever agree about the best way to rear children. ever = always But occasionally, ever is used to mean always. We sometimes end letters with Yours ever or Ever yours as an alternative to Yours sincerely. Here Ever yours means Always yours. And in these contexts too, in which we are indicating that a person has particular qualities, ever is used to mean always: Let me open the door for you. ~ Ever the gentleman! I always year loose-fitting clothes like this ~ Ever the hippie! In a number of compound expressions, ever is used to mean always. These include as ever, for ever and ever since: as ever As ever, they couldn't agree. They've never ever agreed on anything. As ever, he was dressed in the style of Eminem. I thought she might be upset by this, but she was as unperturbed as ever. for ever or forever

We plan to live in this village now for ever. We shall never move out. I intend to remain married to you forever. I shall always love you. ever since She's had a drink problem ever since her husband died. I first met him when I was in the army and we've remained friends ever since. Note that with the ever since construction the 'always' period commences when something happens. In the above examples, this is husband's death or army service meeting. Finally when ever is combined with a comparative adjective, it is used to mean always: The water was rising ever higher and we were in danger of being cut off. The volume of work is going to increase and I shall become ever more busy. always = very often As well as all the time or on every occasion, always can also mean very often when it is used with the progressive form: She always going on about the cost of living and how expensive everything is. I'm always losing my keys. I put them down and can never remember where I've put them. Note the difference in meaning between these two examples of use: I'll always lend you money when you have none. You know you can depend on me. (Always = on every occasion) I'm always lending you money when you have none. Why don't you try to budget more carefully? (Always = very often) actually / in fact / well hey are all very similar, but there are also slight differences in use. actually / in fact Both actually and in fact can be used to modify or contradict a previous statement:

I hear that you're a doctor. ~ Well, actually, I'm a dentist. Well, it may sound very straightforward to you, but in fact it's all very complicated. Would you agree with me that teachers should refrain from socialising with their students? ~ Well, actually I think it's a good idea for them to socialise - up to a certain point! Actually and in fact can also be used to introduce more detailed information or to make things clearer or more precise: I'm going to take on a bit more responsibility now that Kevin's left ~ John, that's wonderful news. ~ Yes, well, actually / in fact I've been promoted to senior sales manager. I got so bored listening to what he was saying that I actually fell asleep / in fact I fell asleep half way through his presentation. Note that we can also use in actual fact or as a matter of fact to clarify matters or to introduce new information: I got so bored with what he was saying that in actual fact / as a matter of fact I dozed off before he'd finished speaking. Actually is sometimes used to introduce unwelcome news: Richard wants to invite us to spend the weekend at his cottage in the Lake District. Isn't that exciting? ~ Well, actually, I've already said we can't go. Note that when actually is placed at the end of the clause, it confirms news that others do not expect: I don't suppose you've posted my letters, have you? ~ I have, actually. Did you enjoy that modern opera at Covent Garden? ~ I did, actually. Very much.

well Well is more widely used as a discourse marker than in fact or actually. As we can see from the examples above and below it is very widely used to indicate that we are about to say something. It is sometimes used to give the speaker more time to think: So how much do you want for your 1999 Renault? ~ Well, I was thinking of 2,500. So how do you propose to furnish the house? ~ Well, I thought we might invest in some second-hand furniture.

Well is also used to introduce a statement which indicates that expectations have not been fulfilled: You know I said I thought I might go skiing with Jamie this year? Well, I'm not going to now. How was the tennis lesson? ~ Well, in actual fact, we forgot to go. Well can also be used to soften corrections or criticism: You live in South Kensington, don't you? Well, Pimlico, actually. You do like my yellow dress, don't you? ~ Well, yes, it's quite nice. But I think the blue one would have suited you more. Why didn't you give Bob a lift back home? ~ Well, how was I supposed to know he was at the match? I couldn't find my way to the music centre. ~ Well, why didn't you ask me? Well can also serve to introduce important information: You know I've been seeing a lot of Eddie lately? ~ Hmm. ~ Well, we're going to get engaged. Oh well! If you say oh well, you are saying that you accept the situation as it is, even though you are not very happy about it: I'm afraid you'll have to pull out of the trip to Greece. ~ Oh well, it doesn't matter. I'm afraid I forget to save that document and now I've lost it. ~ Oh well, it can't be helped. I'll just have to re-type it. yet / still / already : position and use Yet - position in sentence I would say that your grammar book, Cambridge Dictionaries and the British Library are all correct, Maria-Leena. Yet is normally placed at the end of the clause, particularly in informal English and in questions, but can go immediately after not in negative sentences in a more formal style, such as Cambridge Dictionaries and the British Library have used. Compare also the following:

How long have you been in Britain? ~ For over a year now.

~ Have you been to Wales or Scotland yet? ~ No, not yet. I haven't even ventured out of London yet. Although she has been in Britain for more than a year, Maria has not yet visited either Wales or Scotland. Yet - meaning and use We use yet in questions to ask whether something has happened up to the present time. Not yet then indicates that it hasn't happened yet:

Is dinner ready yet? I'm starving. ~ No, it's not ready yet. It'll be another half an hour.

In a more formal style it is possible to use yet in affirmative sentences:

We have yet to discover whether there are any survivors from the plane crash. I have yet to speak to the personnel manager to discuss my future.

In a less formal style, we might say:

We still don't know whether there are survivors from the plane crash. I haven't spoken to the manager yet, so don't know what my future will be. I still haven't spoken to the manager, so don't know what my future will be.

Thus, in negative sentences, as we can see from these examples, there is considerable overlap in meaning and use between yet and still. Still is the more emphatic of the two. still - meaning and use We use still in questions, affirmative and negative sentences to indicate that something is not finished and that we are perhaps surprised or concerned about this. Because it is emphatic, it often carries considerable word stress:

Is it still raining? ~ Yes, it's still raining. No chance of playing tennis today, I'm afraid. I still don't know whether Brendan will be coming to the engagement party. I've tried to reach him several times on the phone, but can't seem to get hold of him.

already - meaning and use Whereas still and yet normally refer to present and future circumstances, already normally refers to something that is in the present or recent past. It is mainly used in

questions and affirmative sentences and usually expresses surprise that something has happened sooner than expected.

When do you expect Polly to arrive? ~ She's already here! Haven't you seen her? Can you give me a hand with the layout for this article. ~ No, I'm sorry, I'm already late. I have to leave right now. Can you help me move those boxed upstairs? ~ I've already moved them. Have you finished that typing already? Yes, I finished it about five minutes ago. By the age of three, Mozart had already learnt to play the piano.

still / already - position in sentence Note from the above examples that in contrast to yet, still and already usually occupy mid position in the clause. Especially & specially / continuously & continually
Especially and specially I don't think the distinction has been completely neutralised either. It is certainly the case that in usage these two adverbs are often confused and can sometimes be used with the same meaning. specially - for a particular purpose However, when specially is used to mean for a particular purpose, this form of the adverb is the norm: This shower gel is specially designed for people with sensitive skins. This computer programme is specially for children with learning difficulties. My father made this model aeroplane specially for me.

especially - particularly / above all We tend to use especially for emphasis, meaning particularly or above all: These butterflies are particularly noticeable in April and May, especially in these meadows. You'll enjoy playing tennis at our local club, especially on weekdays when it's not so busy.

Before adjectives, meaning particularly, especially is more usual: The road between Cairo and Alexandria is especially dangerous at night.

It is a bit nippy, but it's not especially cold for this time of year.

special - especial Note that the adjective especial is rarely used nowadays. Its use is confined to particular contexts where it collocates with particular nouns, e.g. especial interest, especial value when we want to emphasise the exceptional nature of this interest or value: The police took especial interest in his activities and watched the house continuously. The Koh-i-noor diamond, now among the British crown jewels, has especial value as its history dates back to the 14th Century.

In all other cases and contexts, when it means important or different from normal, special is preferred: You're a very special person in my life - never forget that. On special occasions we have wine with our meal, but certainly not every day. In special cases, prisoners are allowed out on day release twice a week. He has such ability, I think he'll be the next special adviser to the President. The special effects in the Lord of the Rings films are quite mind-blowing. The grapes at the supermarket are on special offer - less than half price.

Continual - continuous

Both adjectival forms, continual and continuous, mean without stopping or without a break. They are often used interchangeably:

This refectory has been in continual /continuous use since the 15th Century. The continual / continuous croaking of the frogs prevented any sleep that night.

In certain contexts only continuous is possible because continual here would imply that breaks are possible. In these examples, there are clearly no breaks, so continuous is preferred:

A continuous line of people stretched as far as the eye could see. They executed the dance in one continuous movement. The progress of pupils was measured though continuous assessment and not through examinations

When we want to describe things that happen repeatedly, continual is preferred:

His continual drinking was bound to lead to liver failure one day. He refused to give up despite the continual warnings of his family.

continually - continuously

The adverbial forms, continually and continuously, are often interchangeable.

She sniffed continually / continuously all the way through the film and disturbed everyone around her.

But when the meaning is clearly very often, rather than without a break, continually is preferred:

I've got a very bad stomach upset and I'm continually running to the loo.

Here, continually is behaving as an adverb of frequency, cf. always, all the time, constantly. If we arranged such adverbs along a continuum of frequency, starting with least often and ending with most often, it would read:

never > rarely > occasionally > sometimes > often >generally > nearly always > constantly/continually