Chapter 14

Just stare at the machine. There is nothing wrong with that. Just live with it for a while. Watch it the way you watch a line when fishing and before long, as sure as you live, youll get a little nibble, a little fact asking in a timid, humble way if youre interested in it. Thats the way the world keeps on happening. Be interested in it. Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Spur Gears

Figure 14.1 Spur gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing spur gears; (b) a collection of spur gears.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Helical Gears

Figure 14.2 Helical gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing helical gears; (b) a collection of helical gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Bevel Gears

Figure 14.3 Bevel gear drive. (a) Schematic illustration of meshing bevel gears; (b) a collection of bevel gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Worm Gears

(a)

(b)

Figure 14.4 Worm gear drive. (a) Cylindrical teeth; (b) double enveloping; (c) a collection of worm gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Pinion Line of action

Ou ts P iid te ch (
Base circle

r bp rp r op
pdd )iam

Spur Gear Geometry

ete

r, d

Pitch circle

op

Pressure angle, F

Tooth profile Pitch circle Whole depth, ht Addendum, a

Center distance, cd

Working depth, hk Clearance, cr Base diameter, dbg Ro ot dia me ter Circular tooth thickness Chordal tooth thickness

Dedendum, b

Root (tooth) Fillet Top land

r bg
rg

rog
me te r, d
g

Circular pitch, pc

Gear

Figure 14.5 Basic spur gear geometry.

Pit ch

dia

Pitch point

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Gear Teeth
id th Fa c To p ew la nd

Addendum

Circular pitch

Dedendum

Tooth thickness

Width of space

Pitch circl e

Fa c Fl a Bo tto m la nd

Outside c

ircle

Clearance

Fillet radius

Dedendum circle

Clearance circle

Figure 14.6 Nomenclature of gear teeth. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

nk

Standard Tooth Size

21 2

Class Coarse Medium coarse Fine Ultrane

Diametral pitch, pd , in1 1/2, 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 12, 14, 16, 18 20, 24, 32, 48, 64 72, 80, 96, 120, 128 150, 180, 200

10

12

14

16

Figure 14.7 Standard diametral pitches compared with tooth size.

Table 14.1 Preferred diametral pitches for four tooth classes

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

200
h;
d
it c

=8

n (m .00 i

= 8; d

= 20 0

100 70 50 30 Power transmitted, hp 20

3p

Data for all curves: gr = 4, NP=24 Ka = 1.0 20 full depth teeth

150 100

Power vs. Pinion Speed

70 60 =4.00 in (m=4; d=100 mm) 50 6 pi tc h ; d 40 30 20 15

(m=2; d 00 in . 2 = d
) =50 mm

10.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0

10.0 7.0 5.0 3.0 2.0

12 p

i tc h ;

24

;d p i t ch

= 1. 0 0

m) d=25 m ; 1 = m in (

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.7 0.5

Power transmitted, kW

1.0 0.7 0.5 0 600 1200 1800 2400 3000

Figure 14.8 Transmitted power as a function of pinion speed for a number of diametral pitches.

3600

Pinion speed, rpm

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Gear Geometry Formulas

Parameter Addendum Dedendum Clearance

Symbol a b c

Coarse pitch (pd < 20 in.1 ) 1/pd 1.25/pd 0.25/pd

Fine pitch (pd 20 in.1 ) 1/pd 1.200/pd + 0.002 0.200/pd + 0.002

Metric module system 1.00 m 1.25 m 0.25 m

Table 14.2 Formulas for addendum, dedendum, and clearance (pressure angle, 20; full-depth involute).

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Pitch and Base Circles

Base circle Pitch circle Pinion

rbp rp

a Pitch point, pp Pitch circle b g

Base circle rbg Gear rg

Figure 14.9 Pitch and base circles for pinion and gear as well as line of action and pressure angle.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Involute Curve

Base circle A4 A3 A2 A1 Involute C4 B4 C3 C2 C1 A0 B1 B2 B3

Figure 14.10 Construction of the involute curve.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Construction of the Involute Curve

1. Divide the base circle into a number of equal distances, thus constructing A0, A1, A2,... 2. Beginning at A1, construct the straight line A1B1, perpendicular with 0A1, and likewise beginning at A2 and A3. 3. Along A1B1, lay off the distance A1A0, thus establishing C1. Along A2B2, lay off twice A1A0, thus establishing C2, etc. 4. Establish the involute curve by using points A0, C1, C2, C3,... Gears made from the involute curve have at least one pair of teeth in contact with each other.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Contact Parameters
Arc of approach qa Arc of recess qr

Line o f actio n
a A P B b

Outs

ide c ircle

Outside circle

Pitc h ci rcle

Motion
Lab

Figure 14.11 Illustration of parameters important in defining contact. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Line of Action

Length of line of action:

Lab =
2 r2 + rop bp 2 r 2 c sin ! rog d bg

Contact ratio:
1 Cr = pc cos !
2 r2 + rop bp 2 r2 rog bg

cd tan ! pc

Figure 14.12 Details of line of action, showing angles of approach and recess for both pinion and gear. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Backlash

P itc

h ci

ci ase

r cle

rcle

0
Base circle

Pitch

circl e Pressure line

Backlash

Backlash

Diametral pitch pd , in. 1 18 12 8 5 3 2 1.25

Center distance, cd , in. 2 4 8 16 32 0.005 0.006 0.006 0.007 0.009 0.007 0.008 0.010 0.014 0.010 0.012 0.016 0.014 0.016 0.020 0.028 0.021 0.025 0.033 0.034 0.042

Figure 14.13 Illustration of backlash in gears.

Table 14.3 Recommended minimum backlash for coarsepitched gears.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Meshing Gears
Gear 2 (N2 teeth)

Gear 1 (N1 teeth)

W2

r2 W1
r1 r2

Gear 1 (N1) r1

Gear 2 (N2)

W1

(+)

()

W2

Figure 14.14 Externally meshing gears.

Figure 14.15 Internally meshing gears.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Gear Trains
N2

Figure 14.16 Simple gear train.

N1

N2 N1

N5 N6

Figure 14.17 Compound gear train.

N3

N4

N7

N8

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Example 14.7
Input Shaft 1 A NA = 20 A Only pitch circles of gears shown

B NB = 70 Shaft 2 NC = 18 C D ND = 22 C D

Shaft 3 E N = 54 E

Shaft 4 Output

Figure 14.18 Gear train used in Example 14.7.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Planetary Gear Trains

Important planet gear equations:
R P A Ring Planet Arm Sun S R P

!ring !arm Nsun = !sun !arm Nring

S

! planet !arm Nsun = !sun !arm Nplanet Nring = Nsun + 2Nplanet

(a)

(b)

Figure 14.19 Illustration of planetary gear train. (a) With three planets; (b) with one planet (for analysis only).

Zp =

!L !A !F !A

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Gear Quality
AGMA quality index (16) (6) 14 (17) 9 8 (7) 15 13 12 11 10 (4)(5) 100

Gear shaper-hobbing Shaving Production grinding Special methods

10 Relative cost

1 0.5

1 2

4 5

6 7

8 9 10 11 12

DIN quality number

Application Cement mixer drum driver Cement kiln Steel mill drives Corn pickers Punch press Mining conveyor Clothes washing machine Printing press Automotive transmission Marine propulsion drive Aircraft engine drive Gyroscope Pitch velocity ft/min m/s 0-800 0-4 800-2000 4-10 2000-4000 10-20 > 4000 > 20

0.0005

0.0010

Quality index, Qv 3-5 5-6 5-6 5-7 5-7 5-7 8-10 9-11 10-11 10-12 10-13 12-14 Quality index, Qv 6-8 8-10 10-12 12-14

 0.00005 in.

0.00010

0.010

Figure 14.20 Gear cost as a function of gear quality. The numbers along the vertical lines indicate tolerances.

0.015

Table 14.4 Quality index Qv for various applications.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Form Cutting

Form cutter

Gear blank

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 14.21 Form cutting of teeth. (a) A form cutter. Notice that the tooth profile is defined by the cutter profile. (b) Schematic illustration of the form cutting process. (c) Form cutting of teeth on a bevel gear. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Pinion-Shaped Cutter

Figure 14.22 Production of gear teeth with a pinion-shaped cutter. (a) Schematic illustration of the process; (b) photograph of the process with gear and cutter motions indicated. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Gear Hobbing
Top view

Gear blank

(b) Helical gear

Hob rotation Hob Hob

Gear blank

(a)

(b)

Figure 14.23 Production of gears through the hobbing process. (a) A hob, along with a schematic illustration of the process; (b) production of a worm gear through hobbing. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Allowable Bending Stress

Allowable bending stress number, Sb, MPa

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 120 150 200
r Th
e ne

Grade 2
ed trid Ni
rd -h a
d

60

50

Material Through-hardened steels

ksi

Grade 1 2 1 2

Allowable bending stress number MPa 0.703 HB + 113 0.533 HB + 88.3 0.0823 HB + 12.15 0.1086 HB + 15.89 ksi 0.0773 HB + 12.8 0.102 HB + 16.4 0.568 HB + 83.8 0.749 HB + 110

ou

gh

ided Nitr

40 Grade 1

Th

ro

-h u gh

d ene ard

30

Nitriding throughhardened steels


20 10 450

250 300 350 Brinell hardness, HB

400

Figure 14.24 Effect of Brinell hardness on allowable bending stress number for steel gears. (a) Through-hardened steels. Note that the Brinell hardness refers to the case hardness for these gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Allowable Bending and Contact Stress

Material designation Steel Through-hardened Carburized & hardened Grade Typical Hardnessa 55-64 HRC 58-64 HRC 58-64 HRC 83.5 HR15N 87.5 HR15N 87.5 HR15N 87.5 HR15N 87.5 HR15N 87.5 HR15N 174 HB 201 HB 140 HB 179 HB 229 HB 269 HB Allowable bending stress, all,b lb/in.2 MPa See Fig. 14.24a See Fig. 14.24a 55,000 380 65,000b 450b 75,000 515 See Fig. 14.24b See Fig. 14.24b See Fig. 14.24b See Fig. 14.24b See Fig. 14.24b See Fig. 14.24b See Fig. 14.24b 5000 8500 13,000 22,000-33,000 22,000-33,000 27,000-40,000 31,000-44,000 5700 23,600 34.5 59 90 150-230 150-230 185-275 215-305 39.5 165 Allowable contact stress, all,b lb/in.2 MPa See Fig. 14.25 See Fig. 14.25 180,000 1240 225,000 1550 275,000 1895 150,000 1035 163,000 1125 170,000 1170 183,000 1260 155,000 1070 172,000 1185 189,000 1305 50,000-60,000 65,000-75,000 75,000-85,000 77,000-92,000 77,000-92,000 92,000-112,000 103,000-126,000 30,000 65,000 345-415 450-520 520-585 530-635 530-635 635-770 710-870 205 450 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 2 3 Class 20 Class 30 Class 40 60-40-18 80-55-06 100-70-03 120-90-02

Nitrided and throughhardened Nitralloy 135M and Nitralloy N, nitrided 2.5% Chrome, nitrided

Cast Iron ASTM A48 gray cast iron, as-cast ASTM A536 ductile (nodular) iron

Bronze Sut > 40, 000 psi (Sut > 275GP a) Sut > 90, 000 psi (Sut > 620GP a)

Table 14.5 Allowable bending and contact stresses for selected gear materials. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Allowable Bending Stress

500
Allowable bending stress number, Sb, MPa
me 2.5% Chro Grade 3 

70 60 Material Grade Allowable bending stress number MPa 50

2.5% Chro

400


2 Grade

Grade lloy - Nitra

hrome 2 - 2.5% C

ksi 0.0862 HB + 12.73 0.1138 HB + 16.65 0.1052 HB + 9.28 0.1052 HB + 22.28 0.1052 HB + 29.28

Niralloy ksi 2.5% Chrome


Grade 1 -

1 2 1 2 3

0.594 HB + 87.76 0.784 HB + 114.81 0.7255 HB + 63.89 0.7255 HB + 153.63 0.7255 HB + 201.91

300
Grade 1
Nitrallo

me

40 30

200

20
100 250

275

300 Brinell hardness, HB

325

350

Figure 14.24 Effect of Brinell hardness on allowable bending stress number for steel gears. (b) Flame or induction-hardened nitriding steels. Note that the Brinell hardness refers to the case hardness for these gears. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Allowable Contact Stress

1400 Allowable contact stress number, Sc, MPa 1300 1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600 150 200 250 300 350 Brinell hardness, HB 400 450 75 100 Grade 1: Sc = 2.41 HB +237 (MPa) 0.349 HB + 34.3 (ksi) Grade 2: Sc = 2.22 HB +200 (MPa) 0.322 HB + 29.1 (ksi)

{ {

e2 d ra
e1 d a Gr

175

150 ksi 125

Figure 14.25 Effect of Brinell hardness on allowable contact stress number for two grades of through-hardened steel. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Stress Cycle Factor

4.0 3.0 Stress cycle factor, Yn 400 HB: YN = 9.4518 N-0.148 Case Carb.: YN = 6.1514N-0.1192 250 HB: YN = 4.9404 N-0.1045 2.0 Nitrided: YN = 3.517 N-0.0817

1.0 160 HB: YN = 2.3194 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 102 103

N-0.0538

YN = 1.3558 N-0.0178

YN = 1.6831 N-0.0323

104

105

106

107

108

109

1010

Number of load cycles, N

Figure 14.26 Stress cycle factor. (a) Bending stress cycle factor YN. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Stress Cycle Factor

2.0

1.5 Zn = 2.466 N-0.056 Stress cycle factor, Zn 1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 102 Nitrided Zn = 1.249 N-0.0138 Zn = 1.4488 N-0.023

103

104

105

106

107

108

109

1010

Number of load cycles, N

Figure 14.26 Stress cycle factor. (a) pitting resistance cycle factor ZN. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Reliability Factor

Probability of Reliability factora , survival, percent KR 50 0.70b 90 0.85b 99 1.00 99.9 1.25 99.99 1.50 a Based on surface pitting. If tooth breakage is considered a greater hazard, a larger value may be required. b At this value plastic ow may occur rather than pitting.

Table 14.6 Reliability factor, KR.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Hardness Ratio Factor

1.16 1.14 1.12 1.10 1.08 1.06 1.04 1.02 1.00 180 200 For Rap > 1.6, use CH = 1.0 250 300 350 400
R
R
R
a, p

0. 4

a,p

0. 8

(1 6

Hardness ratio factor,CH

(3 2

i n. )

ap

=1

in. )

.6

(64

in

.)

Brinell hardness of gear, HB

Figure 14.27 Hardness ratio factor CH for surface hardened pinions and through-hardened gears.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Loads on Gear Tooth

Wr W Wt Pitch circle

Figure 14.24 Loads acting on an individual gear tooth.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Loads and Dimensions of Gear Tooth

Wr Wt Wt l bw W

rf a x l t (a) (b)

Figure 14.29 Loads and length dimensions used in determining tooth bending stress. (a) Tooth; (b) cantilevered beam. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Bending and Contact Stress Equations Lewis Equation AGMA Bending Stress Equation Hertz Stress AGMA Contact Stress Equation
Wt pd !t = bwY Wt pd KaKsKmKvKiKb !t = bwY j
1/2

pH = E

W 2!

!c = pH (KaKsKmKv)1/2

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Lewis Form Factor

Number of teeth 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 Lewis form factor 0.176 0.192 0.210 0.223 0.236 0.245 0.256 0.264 0.270 0.277 0.283 0.292 0.302 0.308 0.314 0.318 0.322 Number of teeth 34 36 38 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 90 100 150 200 300 Lewis form factor 0.325 0.329 0.332 0.336 0.340 0.346 0.352 0.355 0.358 0.360 0.361 0.363 0.366 0.368 0.375 0.378 0.382

Table 14.7 Lewis form factor for various numbers of teeth (pressure angle, 20; full-depth involute). Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Spur Gear Geometry Factors

.50
1000 170 85 50 35 25 17

.40 Geometry factor, Yj

Number of teeth in mating gear. Load considered applied at highest point of single-tooth contact.

.30 Load applied at tip of tooth .20

.10

0 12

125 15 20 25 30 40 60 80 275 Number of teeth, N

Figure 14.30 Spur gear geometry factors for pressure angle of 20 and full-depth involute profile. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Application and Size Factors

Power source Uniform Light shock Moderate shock Uniform 1.00 1.20 1.30 Driven Machines Light shock Moderate shock Application factor, Ka 1.25 1.50 1.40 1.75 1.70 2.00 heavy shock 1.75 2.25 2.75

Table 14.8 Application factor as function of driving power source and driven machine.

Diametral pitch, pd , in.1 5 4 3 3 1.25

Module, m, mm 5 6 8 12 20

Size factor, Ks 1.00 1.05 1.15 1.25 1.40

Table 14.9 Size factor as a function of diametral pitch or module. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Load Distribution Factor

Km = 1.0 + Cmc(Cp f Cpm + CmaCe)

where
Cmc = 1.0 for uncrowned teeth 0.8 for crowned teeth

0.80 when gearing is adjusted at assembly Ce = 0.80 when compatability between gear teeth is improved by lapping 1.0 for all other conditions

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Face width, bw (in.) 0.70 0.60 Pinion proportion factor, Cpf 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Face width, b (mm)
.00 2 = 0 /d p 1.5 0 bw 1 .0 0 0.5 For bw/dp < 0.5 use curve for bw/dp = 0.5

10

20

30

40

Pinion Proportion Factor

Figure 14.31 Pinion proportion factor Cpf.

Cp f

w bw 0.025 bw 25 mm 10d b p w 0.0375 + 0.000492bw 25 mm < bw 432 mm = 10d p bw 0.1109 + 0.000815bw (3.53 107)b2 w 432 mm < bw 1020 mm 10d p

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Pinion Proportion Modier

1.0,(S1/S) < 0.175 Cpm = 1.1,(S1/S) 0.175

S1 S S/2

Figure 14.32 Evaluation of S and S1.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Mesh Alignment Factor

Face width, bw (in) 0 0.90 0.80 Mesh alignment factor, Cma 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0
e Op

10

20

30

40 Cma = A + Bbw + Cbw If bw is in inches: Condition Open gearing Commercial enclosed gears Precision enclosed gears Extraprecision enclosed gears A 0.247 0.127 0.0675 0.000380 B 0.0167 0.0158 0.0128 0.0102 C -0.765 s 10-4 -1.093 s 10-4 -0.926 s 10-4 -0.822 s 10-4
2

i ear ng

ng
se
ea dg

r un

its

i ts r un gea m d it s e o C los ar un enc ed g e s n o l o c n cisi ion e Pr e recis p a E x tr

me

o ncl al e i c r

If bw is in mm: Condition Open gearing Commercial enclosed gears Precision enclosed gears Extraprecision enclosed gears 800 1000 A 0.247 0.127 0.0675 0.000360 B 6.57 s 6.22 s 10-4 5.04 s 10-4 4.02 s 10-4 10-4 C -1.186 s 10-7 -1.69 s 10-7 -1.44 s 10-7 -1.27 s 10-7

200

400 600 Face width, bw (mm)

Figure 14.33 Mesh alignment factor.

Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements

Dynamic Factor
Pitch line velocity, ft/min 0 1.8 1.7 1.6 Dynamic factor, Kv 1.5 1.4 Qv = 10 1.3 1.2 1.1 "Very accurate" gearing 1.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 Qv = 11 2500 Qv = 5 5000 Qv = 6 Qv = 7 Qv = 8 Qv = 9 7500

Pitch line velocity, m/s

Figure 14.34 Dynamic factor as a function of pitch-line velocity and transmission accuracy level number. Hamrock Fundamentals of Machine Elements