Project 5 LandingGear

Table of contents
Summary ................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 2 1 Aspects of a Landing Gear 3
1.1 Types of Landing Gear ................................................................................................ 3 1.2 Physics ......................................................................................................................... 5 1.2.1 Mechanics ............................................................................................................. 5 1.2.2 Aerodynamics ....................................................................................................... 9 1.3 Shock Absorbers ......................................................................................................... 10 1.4 Retraction ..................................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Wheels and Brakes ...................................................................................................... 12 1.5.1 Wheels .................................................................................................................. 12 1.5.2 Tires...................................................................................................................... 13 1.5.3 Brakes .................................................................................................................. 14 1.6 Laws and Regulations ................................................................................................. 18 1.6.1 General ................................................................................................................. 18 1.6.2 Retraction ............................................................................................................. 18 1.6.3 Wheels and Tires .................................................................................................. 18 1.6.4 Breaking System ................................................................................................... 19 1.6.5 Nose Wheel .......................................................................................................... 19
Airbus A320 Landing Gear
20
2.1 General ......................................................................................................................... 20 2.1.1 Systems ................................................................................................................ 20 2.1.2 Cockpit .................................................................................................................. 21 2.2 Landing Gear and Doors ............................................................................................. 22 2.2.1 Main Landing Gear Doors ..................................................................................... 23 2.2.2 Nose Landing Gear Doors .................................................................................... 24 2.3 Components of a Brake and Wheels .......................................................................... 26 2.3.1 Wheels .................................................................................................................. 26 2.3.2 Normal Brakes ...................................................................................................... 27 2.3.3 Auto Brake and Anti-skid System .......................................................................... 29 2.3.4 Air Ground Logic ................................................................................................... 30 3 Troubleshooting 32
3.1 Failures ........................................................................................................................ 32 3.1.1 Flat Tire................................................................................................................. 32 3.1.2 Gear down Failure ................................................................................................ 33 3.1.3 Failure of Brakes ................................................................................................... 33 3.2 Maintenance ................................................................................................................. 34 3.2.1 Tire Replacement.................................................................................................. 34 3.2.2 Brake Replacement............................................................................................... 34 3.2.3 Costs .................................................................................................................... 34 3.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 35
Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek
Aviation Studies
Summary
The aim of this project is to gain knowledge of an aircraft landing gear through analysis and research of that aircraft segment and its subsystems. In this aim, the general theory of an aircraft landing gear is the first point of focus. Having thoroughly looked into all the facets of general landing gear theory, the second step is the landing gear of an Airbus A320. The main problems and maintenance of an Airbus A320 landing gear are the last described subjects. The landing gear is one of the most important parts of an aircraft. The main and most important functions of a landing gear are to enable the aircraft to land, take off, and to taxi. The landing gear has to carry the full weight of an aircraft on ground and has to absorb most of the created forces during landing. The shock absorber are created to absorb these forces. Aircraft without a retractable landing gear, cause a lot of drag. To prevent this from happening, a retraction system retracts the landing gear in the landing gear compartment. The wheels and tires of an aircraft have the full weight of the aircraft on them and need to be able to handle extreme temperatures and friction. The brakes reduce the speed of an aircraft during taxiing phase and landing, and have to convert the kinetic energy to heat. The landing gear has to conform to the regulations applied to the retraction system, the brakes, the wheels and tires and the steering system. These requirements are documented in the certification specification 25. The landing gear of an Airbus A320 consists of a nose landing gear and a main landing gear. The landing gear systems are hydraulically powered by the hydraulic power systems of the aircraft. The landing gear system can be fully controlled from the cockpit. Several controls control the retraction/extension of the landing gear, and the steering of the nose wheel. The brakes can be controlled manually or automatically. The construction of the nose and main landing gear are different from each other. The main landing gear will have to absorb most of the shocks during landing, and the controls for the nose gear allow for change in steering angle. The A320 has four brakes which are hydraulically pressurized and has two brake systems: the normal brake system and the alternate brake system. The automatic brake and the antiskid system are integrated in the normal braking system and help the pilot in unforeseen circumstances. Like everything the landing gear can undergo failures. These failures can be as harmless as a flat tire or as hazarders as a gear down failure. The landing gear of an aircraft is heavily under influence of wear and tear. Especially the brakes. Therefore good maintenance is required to keep the aircraft operational and to minimize the chances of any failure that can occur.
Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L
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Aviation Studies
Introduction
The project group 2A2L, from the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, is requested by the engineering department of Amstel Leeuwenburg Airlines to analyze a landing gear. This analyze is requested to solve problems or interruptions and errors that could occur in the future, which can save money on the long term. The project group that consists of eight members analyzed the landing gear of an Airbus A320. The content of this report is divided into three chapters. First of al the different types of landing gears and the physics such as aerodynamics and mechanics are described. To understand a normal common landing gear, the elements of the gear are clarified. These elements are the shock absorbers, the retraction mechanism, the wheels and the breaks. The know which rules are involved with a landing gear, the rules and regulations are explored. (1) The landing gear of an Airbus A320 is analyzed. The elements that are analyzed of the Airbus are the systems and cockpit that are involved with the gear. The landing gear and doors of the main gear and the nose gear and the braking systems. (2) Trouble shooting and maintenance are two important aspects. Failures such as, flat tires gear down failure and brake failure are investigated. Research has been din considering maintenance and costs. (3) In addition to this report, an appendix list is made, to clear up some subject mentioned in the report. The most important sources used during this report are: Wentzel (2006) and the college vliegtuig systemen (VLS*). Besides this report the group had to make an assignment about the forces on a landing gear, this assignment can be found in the appendix list.
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Aspects of a Landing Gear
The landing gear of an aircraft is an important component which gives the aircraft the ability to land safely without causing any damage to either the aircraft or the surface. Because not every aircraft or landing field is the same, many different types of landing gears have been designed. (1.1) Although not every landing gear is the same, its purpose remains the same: to ensure a safe landing. A landing gear is exposed to many types of force during the different phases. (1.2) These forces would need to be absorbed to ensure a soft and safe landing. To absorb these forces, an aircraft uses its shock absorbers. (1.3) A non-retractable landing gear greatly reduces the aerodynamic properties of an aircraft. It is therefore important to find a good method of retracting the landing gear. (1.4) The brake system allows the aircraft to come to a full stop once the aircraft has landed. (1.5) The laws and regulations for the airworthiness of an aircraft are made by the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA*). These regulations also contain the requirements for a landing gear. (1.6)
1.1 Different Types of Landing Gear

Not every aircraft or airfield is the same. For this reason many different types of landing gear have been developed. Some of these types include: 1 2 3 4 5 Ad 1 Conventional Landing Gears Tandem Landing Gears Floater Landing Gears Ski Landing Gears Tricycle Landing Gears Conventional Landing Gear
The conventional landing gear (Fig. 1.1) consists of two wheels under the nose (1) of the aircraft and one wheel located at its tail (2). This type of landing gear is mostly used by smaller aircraft. Larger aircraft do not use this configuration due to difficult ground maneuverability. Another disadvantage of this type of landing gear is its raised nose, resulting in less runway visibility for the pilot.
1 2 Two front landing gear wheels The tail wheel
1 2
Fig. 1.1: Conventional configuration.
Ad 2
Tandem Landing Gear
The tandem landing gear (Fig. 1.2, pg. 4) is used on aircraft with a limited maximum payload such as gliders and military aircraft. This landing gear consists of a main back wheel (1), a nose wheel (2) and two wheels in line with one another connected to the wings (3).
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1 2 3
1 2 3
Main back wheel Nose wheel Wing wheel
Fig. 1.2: Tandem configuration.
Ad 3
Floater Landing Gear
A floater landing gear (Fig. 1.3) is designed to make it possible for an aircraft to land on water. Aircraft which are equipped with a floater landing gear are called seaplanes and service in areas without airstrips or with an abundance of water.
1 Water 2 Floater landing gear
2 1
Fig. 1.3: Floater configuration
Ad 4
Ski Landing Gear
In the polar regions, the winter season lasts for almost the entire year. The terrain is frozen and covered with snow for a great time of the year. To land aircraft in such areas, it is necessary to modify the landing gear and fit the aircraft with a pair of skis (Fig 1.4). The landing gear consists to main skis located under its wings (1) and a nose ski (2).
1 2
1 2
Main skis Nose ski
Fig. 1.4: Ski configuration.
Ad 5
Tricycle landing gear
The tricycle type landing gear (Fig. 1.5, pg.5) is the most common type of landing gear used for larger aircraft. It has the Main Landing Gear (MLG*) (2) under the body of the aircraft and a Nose Landing Gear (NLG*) under the nose (1). In comparison to the conventional landing gear, this configuration provides much better maneuverability on the ground, and at the same time keeps the aircraft vertically aligned. This makes it easier to land and load cargo.
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1 2
Nose landing gear Main landing gear
1 2
Fig. 1.5: Tricycle configuration.
1.2 Physics
Physics is the science that deals with matter, energy, motion and force. To understand how and why an aircraft landing gear works, it is necessary to analyze the physics of a landing gear. Many forces are constantly pushing or pulling on landing gear components during different phases of flight. Analysis of these forces is necessary to understand the design of a landing gear (1.2.1). The flow of air around an aircraft can be severely affected by objects sticking out of its fuselage. Therefore it is also necessary to analyze the aerodynamics of a landing gear (1.2.2).
1.2.1 Mechanics
Mechanical forces can be divided in two categories. Static forces represent forces on stationary objects (A). Dynamic forces are forces which influence or affect moving objects (B).
Static Forces
Static Forces are forces in equilibrium or the forces on an object at rest. There are different types of landing gear and it is to the engineers to calculate which gives the best distribution of the weight of an aircraft. These forces will be further examined in the following topics: 1 2 3 Ad 1 Center of Gravity Forces in Equilibrium Forces on an Airbus A320 Center of Gravity
The centre of gravity is determined with help of the Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC*) line (Fig. 1.6), which is the average chord of a wing. The MAC therefore has to be calculated first before the centre of gravity can be determined.
A B S Y C D
Root chord Tip chord Sweep distance Half wing span Sweep distance at MAC MAC distance from root Sweep distance angle
Fig. 1.6: Determining the MAC and CG.
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The root chord, tip chord, sweepback angle and the wingspan can be found in the aircraft manufacturers manual. The sweep distance, sweep distance at the MAC, the MAC distance from the root and the mean aerodynamic chord have to be calculated using several different equations (Eq. 1,2,3) which are also dependant on one another.
arctan
where
S Y
S Y
Y sin
= = = Sweep distance in [m]. Sweepback angle in [degrees]. Half wing span [m].
(1)
MAC
where
2( A B) (0.5 A B) 3( A B)
MAC = A = B = Mean Aerodynamic Chord in [m]. Root chord in [m]. Tip chord in [m].
(2)
S ( A 2 B) 3( A B)
c S A B = = = = Sweep distance at MAC in [m]. Sweep distance in [m]. Root chord in [m]. Tip chord in [m].
(3)
where
The results from the previous three equations can now be filled in the equation for center of gravity (Eq. 4).
CG
where
%MAC MAC c
CG = %MAC = MAC = c = Centre of gravity in [m]. Location on the MAC Mean aerodynamic chord in [m]. Sweep distance in [m].
(4)
Another way to find the center of gravity is by choosing a reference line near the aircraft, for example in front of the cockpit, and then categorize the aircraft into different sections. This could be the payload, the engines, the wings, the fuselage, the fuel, the vertical and the horizontal tail. The next step would be to determine the distance to each of these sections from the reference line. With this information the center of gravity can now be determined with the second center of gravity equation (Eq. 5, pg. 7).
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CG
where
Dl Wl
Dr Wr
Dt Wt...
Wl Wr Wt ....
CG D W = = = Center of gravity in [m]. Distance in [m]. Weight in [kg].
(5)
Ad 2
Forces in Equilibrium
The forces and moments at any point of a non-moving aircraft, can easily be calculated by assuming that all forces are moments are in equilibrium (Eq. 6). When all forces and moments are in equilibrium, their sum results in 0.
FX FY
FR
FX 1 FY1
FX
2
FX 2 FY 2
FY
2
... 0 ... 0
(6)
M
where
F1 a1
F2 a2
FX FY FR F1 a1 M = = = = = =
... 0
The sum of all horizontal forces in [N]. The sum of all vertical forces in [N]. The resulting force in [N]. One of the forces in [N]. The distance from a reference point to F1 in [m]. The moment at a certain point in [Nm].
Ad 3
Forces on the Airbus A320
After having determined all the needed information about the Airbus A320, such as the wingspan, and root chord. The information can be entered in the seven equations to determine the location of the center of gravity (Appendix I). The weight of the center of gravity differs from that of the main and nose landing gear. One can conclude from this that, when the center of gravity lies at a forward distance of 27% from the MAC and the aircraft is in dry weather conditions, the nose gear will bare most of the weight. The closer the center of gravity gets to the trailing edge of the MAC, the less weight the nose gear would have to bare. The aircraft developer would have to take this into consideration when deciding on which brakes to use and what tire pressure would have to be used.
Dynamic Forces
Dynamic forces cause objects to move or affect their movement. For example, an aircraft is pushed forward because of a force produced in the opposite direction by the gas turbine engine. While the aircraft is moving, many of such forces constantly push or pull the aircrafts structure and its surroundings. To understand these forces better, we will look at the dynamic forces affecting an Airbus A320 aircraft during the following three phases: 1 2 3 Taxiing Take-off Landing
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Ad 1
Taxiing
The first step in calculating the forces on the landing gears during taxiing phase is to determine the aircrafts weight during that phase. The maximum weight an aircraft may have during this phase is called the Maximum Taxiing Weight (MTW*). The MTW is the maximum weight at which an aircraft can still safely maneuver without sustaining or causing any damage to the aircraft or the surface it has contact with. The MTW of an Airbus A320 is 77.400 kg, which is equal to a downward force of 759.294 N located at the center of gravity. To know how much force is pushing down on each landing gear one must use a weight and balance chart. A weight and balance chart shows the weight of the aircraft at many points using a reference line. The aircraft is causing drag and friction. The whole structure of the aircraft is causing drag and the landing gears are causing drag and rolling friction while taxiing. The drag caused by the aircraft and its landing gears will not be taken into account because a lack of information on specifics needed to calculate the drag. During the taxiing phase the aircraft tires make contact with the ground, this causes rolling friction. This type of friction can be calculated with the equation of friction (Eq. 7). The equation incorporates the coefficient of friction, which itself incorporates the aircraft tire contact area with the speed. The value for this coefficient cannot be calculated and must be found through measurements during experiments, which is assumed to be 0.025 at 30 knots. Another assumption that is made is the weight distribution over the aircraft, 18.5% (140469.39 N) on the NLG and 81.5% (618824.61 N) on the MLG.
FW
FN
= = = The friction force in [N] The coefficient of friction The force perpendicular to the surface of contact in [N]
(7)
where FW
W
FN
So assuming the aircraft is moving at a constant speed without alteration of its linear movement and change in weight and balance. When these values are inputted in the equation, it will be clear that the total friction drag force on the NLG is 3511.73 N and 15470.61 N on the MLG. At a constant speed, drag is equal to the forward force. This means that the two gas turbine engines have to provide 18982.34 N of force to make the aircraft move forward at a speed of 30 knots. There is also a rotational force during this phase, called a torque or moment. This force can be calculated by multiplying the moment arm by the force. In this case one finds a clockwise direction of the force around the center of gravity of the aircraft. There are many of such torques during this phase. These are caused by forces exerting pressure around a single point of an object, for example a joint of a landing gear. Ad 2 Take-off
By looking at a single moment in time when the aircraft is in take-off phase, we can see two main forces exerting pressure on the aircraft. These forces are the rolling friction which is caused by the aircrafts tire making contact with the runway strip and drag c aused by the aircrafts structure moving through the air. To calculate the rolling friction, again the equation of friction can be used. In this case, however, the coefficient of friction is much higher because of a higher speed. Assuming that the aircrafts weight and balance does not change during take-off, the rolling friction can
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simply be calculated with the new coefficient of friction, but with the same Fn used in the previous example. Assuming the aircrafts acceleration during take-off is equal to 4.5 [ms-2] and the aircrafts weight is equal to its Maximum Take Off Weight (MTOW*) of 77.000 kg, we can simple enter this value in Newtons second law equation (Eq. 8) to find out the forward force.
m a
= = = The force vector in [N]. The mass in [kg]. The acceleration vector in [ms-2].
(8)
where F
Entering these values in the equation, gives us a forward force of 346.500 N. According to Newtons third law, this force is equal to the drag caused by the aircraft moving through the air. In the second part of the take-off phase, the aircraft no longer makes contact with the surface and has retracted its landing gears. During this part there no longer is a rolling friction or drag caused by the landing gears. Ad 3 Landing During landing, or touchdown, there are many forces that exert pressure on the aircraft. The landing gears, or shock absorbers to be exact, have to absorb a large amount of kinetic energy. The amount of kinetic energy can be calculated by entering the aircrafts vertical speed and landing weight in the equation of kinetic energy (Eq. 9).
m v2 E (9)that TheKmaximum landing weight (MLW*) of an Airbus A320 is 66.000 kg. We will assume 2
the aircraft has a vertical speed of 2 m/s. where E K = = = The kinetic energy in [J]. The mass in [kg]. The speed of the center of mass in [m/s].
m v
Entering these values in the equation produces 1,320 MJ of kinetic energy.
1.2.2 Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics is a branch of fluid dynamics, which focuses on the study of forces generated on a body in a flow. This plays an important role on aircraft during flight. During flight a lot of drag is created, which should be minimized as much as possible. To calculate this drag, the equation for drag (Eq. 10, pg 10) is used. There are many types of landing gear (Appendix II). Aircraft with non-retractable landing gear create more drag than those with a retracted one. Another problem that could occur is that of strains due to wind and movement of the aircraft. These strains can become so high, that an aircraft landing gear could deform.
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v 2 CD S
D V S Cd = = = = = Drag in [N]. Air density in [kg/m3]. The true airspeed (TAS) of the aircraft in [m/s]. Area of the wing in [m2] Drag coefficient.
(10)
where
In this equation can see that the drag dependents on several different factors. If we assume that D, and S stay the same, than the drag would depend on TAS2Cd. Therefore if the speed of the aircraft increases, the drag would increase twice and the aircraft will experience more forces on it. The higher the aircraft flies, the lower the drag becomes. This is because the air density decreases with height. So for an aircraft with non-retractable landing gear, it would be best to fly at high altitudes to minimize drag. This is however not possible with small aircraft.
1.3 Shock Absorbers

The shock absorber is an important part of the undercarriage of an aircraft. It makes a landing much smoother and pleasant. To know what the use of a shock absorber is, the purpose of it is described (A). Different types of absorbers are used for different kind of aircraft (B). For the large aircraft, oleo struts are used (C).
Purpose
As an aircraft touches the ground during landing, large forces are generated on the landing gear. To prevent any damage to the undercarriage of an aircraft, the shock must be absorbed, therefore shock absorbers are installed. A shock absorber absorbs the kinetic energy that is created during touchdown and converts this energy into heat. If the absorber does not convert all the kinetic energy into heat, it will bounce the aircraft back in the air.
Absorbers
There are different kinds of shock absorbers which can be used for an aircraft. One thing that they all have in common is that they have some sort of spring base. The only undercarriage which does not use a spring base, is the rigid axe landing gear. Small aircraft like for instance the Cessna-172 practically do not have an absorber. The only way these smaller planes absorb the shock of a landing is through the flexibility of the metal that is used for the landing gear. These types of absorbers are called solid spring absorbers. Rubber can also be used for spring purposes in a shock absorber. Rubber is used in different ways. With the levered bungee method rubber strings are attached from the body of the aircraft to the gear. Another method is when rubber is placed in the gear. One of the negative points in using rubber as shock absorber is that you need large amounts of rubber for heavy aircraft. Another one is that it does not absorb the shock, rather it will bounce the aircraft in the air.
Oleo Pneumatic Struts
The techniques with rubber and flexible materials are not suitable for larger aircraft. These larger aircraft use shock absorbers that are called oleo pneumatic struts (Fig. 1.7, pg 11) that uses a mixture of gas and oil. The oil is not a real oil, but it is a hydraulic fluid that is called phosphate ester. The company Skydrol manufactures these fluids for many aircraft companies. Airbus uses the variant NSA 307.110, the characteristics of this fluid can be found in (Appendix III).
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1 2 3
Compressed air or nitrogen Oil Orifice
3 2
Fig. 1.7: Oleo Pneumatic Strut.
The spring is provided by compressing gas (1), usually nitrogen. The oil (2) is used to prevent the bouncing effect during touchdown. In other words, the oil absorbs the shock. During touchdown the oil is pressed through a narrow calibrated hole, also known as the orifice (3), this section prevents the wheel base of flinging back after touchdown. As the oil is pressed through the orifice, the kinetic energy is converted into heat. While the oil is pressed through the orifice, the gas on top of the oil becomes compressed. These shock absorbers are almost perfect, but there is only one problem. After using the absorber a while, the oil gets mixed up with the gas which creates bubbles, and bubbles take away the absorbing effect. Therefore they invented a model that separates the gas from the oil (Fig. 1.8).
1 2 3
4
4 3
The gas The oil Separator Valve plate
Fig. 1.8: Oleo Strut with separator.
The gas (1) is now separated from the oil (2) by a separator (3). Instead of a narrowed section, a valve plate (4) is installed to prevent the wheel base of flinging back after touchdown.
1.4 Retraction
A non-retracted landing gear causes a lot of drag during flight, so when it is not needed, it is retracted into the wings or fuselage of most aircraft. There are several types of retraction mechanisms (Appendix III). However in most cases, a hydraulic jack is used to pull landing gear legs up, about a pivot at the top. Because of a lack of space, making it difficult to store
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not only the leg and wheels, but also the retraction mechanism, careful design of the retraction mechanism is needed. Careful design of the retraction arrangement minimizes the size and weight of the jack. Strong points must be properly located on the aircraft for the landing gear and jacks. The leg must also be properly held together to prevent collapse from the drag loads from ground traction and application of the brakes, and from side loads caused by gust and crosswind. In many cases the landing gear needs to fit into a very small space and therefore needs to be turned, twisted or folded. In case of an hydraulic system failure, the aircraft must be capable of lowering and locking the landing gear so that the aircraft can land safely. Nose legs usually retract forwards, which means that they will fall under gravity and aerodynamic drag if the hydraulic system fails. It is common for pressure bottles to be fitted, which store enough pressure to allow the landing gear to extend in case of a system failure. Most aircraft use hydraulic systems for retraction and extension. However, there are also electrical and pneumatic systems. All landing gears are required to be positively locked in both positions, and to have lock indicators for each leg in the cockpit, also called the three greens (Appendix IV). The uplocks and downlocks operate automatically as part of the retraction and extension sequence, usually by cable. Where an aircraft is used for short-haul feeder liner flights, between about 100km and 200km, the mainwheel landing gear doors may be omitted to save weight. In most cases however, especially with commercial aircraft, the landing gears is well closed off by a door or set of doors to reduce drag (Appendix V). The doors to the landing gear may be attached to the legs, or may use separate jacks to open and close them. It is important Fig. 1.9: Sequencer valve. that the landing gear doors open before the landing gear extends or retracts. Usually a sequencer valve (Fig. 1.9) is used to direct the supply of hydraulic fluid to operate jacks in the correct sequence.
1.5 Wheels and Brakes

The tires, wheels and brakes are essential for the landing gear. The tires (1.5.1) always have to be in a good condition so they have to be checked during maintenance and also the material plays an important part that the tires do not explode during taxiing. The tires are span about the wheels where can be two different options (1.5.2). Of course the brakes are the most important during landing and also taxing (1.5.3).
1.5.1 Tires
The tires are made from a certain material because their properties are essential for the operation of the landing gear (A). The tires have a certain construction so that the pressure inside cannot get to great and that they can also be reversed if they are worn (B). The construction has a certain meaning for the operation of the tires (C).
Material
The tires of an aircraft are usually made from natural rubber, because it is more elastic, during the change in temperature while taxiing, take-off and landing, than synthetic materials, and can better conduct heat. On the other hand it is not very resistant against sun light, hydraulic oils, fats and kerosene.
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Construction
The tires of a landing gear (Fig. 1.10) consist of many layers. The outside layer is called the tread (1). If damaged, the outside layer can be repaired. The layers are usually made from nylon and steal cables integrated in the material to make it stronger. Dimples (2) are added to the tread for easy transport of water. The tread is connected to the sidewall (3) which protects the layer underneath from harmful objects. The chord body (4) gives the tire the strength and takes up the tension. It is made from plys of nylon (5). In each layer also wires are integrated. Because aircraft tires are tubeless, the chord body is made with an inner layer (6), which prevents the nitrogen from escaping. In the heal section (7) strong steal cable bunches keep the tire on the wheel. Chafers (8) between the tire and wheel, absorb the wear which is caused by rolling friction.
2 1 1 9 10 5 6 4 3 7 8
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Tread dimpels sidewall chord body chord layer inner layer heal section toe section (chafers) small holes shoulder
Fig. 1.10: Landing gear tires.
Operation
The tires are tubeless. This makes it easier to maintain and an inner tube is not needed. The tire is filled with nitrogen because it has heat resistant qualities. There are small holes (9) in the outer layer through which the nitrogen can escape, in case of over pressure. When an aircraft lands, the nitrogen is compressed and becomes warmer. This results in a greater volume in the tire, causing a further increase in pressure. The holes are there to prevent the tire from exploding. Another advantage is that the holes prevent small nitrogen bubbles from sticking between the heal section and the toe section. The tension of the tire lies between 170 to 220 psi, or 12 bar. If the tire pressure is too high, the center of the tread wears off more quickly. If the tire pressure is too low that the shoulder (10) of a tire can wear off more quickly. This is called flex heating.
1.5.2 Wheels
The wheels have a certain material to stand the forces acting on them and also generate maximum safety (A). There are two kinds of wheels which can be used (B). The operation of the wheels is based on the construction of the wheels (C).
Materials
The wheels used to made from magnesium alloy, but this was too heavy and also flammable. In modern aircraft the alloy that is used is usually aluminum.
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Construction
There are two types of wheels (Appendix VI). A fully divisible wheel can be vertically separated from the middle of the wheel. The two parts are fixed to each other with pins and nuts. The tire can be filled up via a plug at its side. There is also a fuse through which air can be carried off in case the temperature becomes too high. This process is called blow of fuse and happens when the temperature reaches 150 degrees. To remove the tire, the wheel has to be deconstructed by removing the pins and nuts on the side of the wheel. The partly divisible wheel is practically the same as the fully divisible one. The one difference between the two is that the partly divisible one can be separated by removing the border of the wheel.
Operation
When the wheels become too warm and suddenly cool off, the wheels and pins can explode. Sometimes fuses are integrated, which allows the pilot to see pressure and temperature information on his brake temperature monitor and tire indicating system in the cockpit. Sometimes shimmy can be a major problem. Shimmy happens when the wheels vibrate along the vertical axis of the wheel or the spring strut. This can cause damage or break the wheel. To prevent shimmy from happening, two tires should be installed on a rotating axis.
1.5.3 Brakes
The brakes of an aircraft allow it to come to a standstill when it is making contact with the surface. There are two types of brakes: the disc brakes (single disc and multidisc) and the drum brakes (A). Any object making contact with another wears down. This same rule applies to brakes. The anti-skid system provides maximum braking power without blocking it (B). The auto braking system stops all wheels at the same time (C).
Types of Brakes
There are three different kinds of discs: the drum disc; single brake disc and the multi brake disc. The disc brakes provide a greater braking area on the wheel basis. Another advantage is that they become less warm, because there is no direct contact between the brake and the wheel. There are also heat shields made from titanium, to prevent greater heat development. Materials The brakes are made from resistant or hardened steal and can also be made from carbon. The advantage of carbon brakes is that they are about 60% lighter than normal brakes. Another advantage is that they do not wear (about 3000 landings) off as fast as the steal brakes (about 1600 landings). They also have a higher melting point (3000 degrees instead of 1500). A major disadvantage is that they cost about 2.5 more per landing than the normal ones. Construction and Operation The two kinds of brakes work differently and also have a different efficiency. Drum brakes The drum brakes are not used very often in aviation. Sometimes they can be found on small, light aircraft. The drum brakes (Fig. 1.11, pg. 15) consist of two shoes (1) which are connected by a spring (2) at the bottom and a cylinder. This is meant to connect both shoes. As soon as the pilot uses the braking pedals, hydraulic fluid (3) enters the cylinder (4) and the shoes are pushed against the tires.
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3 4
1 2 3 4
braking shoes spring hydraulic fluid cylinder
Fig. 1.11: Drum brakes.
Disc brakes There are two kinds of disc brakes (Fig 1.12): the single braking disc and the multi braking disc. The single discs do not cover the whole wheel base and therefore cannot generate great braking on heavy aircraft. Therefore they are usually used on small, light aircraft. The multi discs on the other side can generate optimum braking, which is needed on the big commercial airliners, like the Airbus A320. A moving disk (1) and a static disc (2) are put alternately in a thick package. The rotors are attached to the wheel and rotate with it, and the static discs are attached to the axis of the wheel. As soon as the pilot operates the brakes in the cockpit hydraulic pressure is flowing through the cylinder (3) wherein a brake piston (4) can be found. The brake piston pushes against the pressure plate (5) which then presses against the rotor discs. This continues until pressure is released. Then a spring capsule (6) pulls back the pressure plate.
3 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
rotor disc static disc cylinder brake piston pressure plate spring capsule brake wear pin
2
1
1 5 7 6
Fig. 1.12: Disc brakes.
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The brake wear pin (7) shows how much the brakes are worn out. When the brake is new, the pin (Fig. 1.13, 1) is fully extended. When the top of the pin reaches the frame of the wheel, the brakes have to be replaced.
1 Brake wear pin.
Fig. 1.13: Brake wear pin.
The process of braking generates heat, which stays in the wheels. The heat can be calculated by filling in all data which are given before landing, such as the weight with which the aircraft will touch the ground and the landing speed (Eq. 11)
E kin
where
1 2 m LW v stall 2
Ekin= kinetic energy MLW= mass of the aeroplane while landing Vstall= stall speed which is taken for the landing speed
(11)
If the weight or the speed of an aircraft is very high the kinetic energy of the aircraft will be great. Since the weight of the aircraft is something that can not be altered easily, the speed of the aircraft will be the deciding factor. Thus if the landing speed is higher then v1 the aircraft can not land safely.
Anti-skid
The anti skid system is used because of safety and economic reasons, due to the passengers and the aircraft which should not get damaged. The anti-slip system reacts before it is possible for one of the wheels to blockade due to slip. Slipping happens because of aquaplaning on the runway or snow on the runway. When one of the conditions occur, then the friction between the tire and the runway gets less or even disappears at all. Then a wheel can slip and an unbalance between the different wheels which are braking can occur and the aircraft deviates from its straight path on the runway. That is way the anti-slip system has to come into action before this occurs. A wheel speed transducer calculates the angle speed of all wheels and sees when one or more of them get a greater angle speed. It sends the data to the an anti-slip control computer which reduces the braking pressure on that wheel. As soon as the wheel has accelerated again, braking pressure is set on it again. The angle speed is needed to get the slipping ratio (Eq. 12, pg. 17), which when is zero there is no wheel slipping and when is 100% means a slipping wheel.
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slippingratio
V V
100%
(12)
where V=angle speed of a non braked wheel
A= Angle speed of the brakes wheel
The braking affectivity is dependent on the friction coefficient and the normal force which acts perpendicular on the moving aircraft and the runway (Eq.13).
Fw
Where
N
Fw= braking force [N] = friction coefficient
(13)
N= Normal force [N]

is dependent of the condition of the runway, the speed and the slip ratio. The relation between and the slip ratio can be presented in a chart (Fig 1.14). is at its maximum when the slip ratio is about 15 %. The anti-skid system now regulates the braking pressure of that wheel in that manner that the slip ratio stays at that point.
Fig. 1.14: Relationship slipratio and wrijvingscoefficient
Auto brake system
The auto brake system (ABS*) causes all brakes to operate equally at the same time. It is used because if a pilot would brake the aircraft he does not know how much pressure he puts on the brakes and that could cause the passengers to feel unwell in the back of the aircraft. As soon as the aircraft has touched the ground a signal is sent to the computer to extend the ground spoilers and the thrust reverser. In this manner maximum and equally divided braking is made possible. There are different positions for the ABS, which have to be selected by the pilot:
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Off: no ABS RTO: during rejected take off, when the pilot decided to stop the aircraft by v 1. This position has to be selected before every take off. Min: This is the minimum braking used and the braking pressure is 1800 psi. Med: Medium position is used when the runway is wet, short or the visibility is low. Max: The maximum position is used when there is an emergency. Then the braking pressure is about 3000 psi. When the pilot has selected one of the positions and he pushes in the brake pedals, then the ABS is turned off. An advantage is, that it decreases the wear of the tires, because it causes all wheels to brake equally.
1.6 Laws and Regulations

The regulations concerning the landing gear of large aircraft such as the Airbus A320 are stated in the Certification Specification 25 (CS-25*) of the EASA. The landing gear as a whole must comply with the mandatory rules and must have undergone several tests proving it (1.6.1). The retraction system must be secured both in extended and retracted state, and must be equipped with emergency systems (1.6.2). The wheels must also be able to withstand the stated forces during different phases (1.6.3). The brakes are one of few means to come a hold, so there are also rules concerning the brakes of an aircraft (1.6.4).
1.6.1 General
The landing gear must sustain the usual forces to which it is exposed during take off and landing. Each aircraft that has a passenger seating configuration, excluding pilot seats, of ten or more must be designed so that with the aircraft under control it can be landed on a paved runway with either one or more landing gear legs not extended without sustaining a structural component failure that is likely to cause the spillage of enough fuel to constitute a fire hazard. The landing gear must also face several tests to ensure that it has enough energy absorbing capabilities. This means that the aircraft must be exposed to its greatest value of impact energy.
1.6.2 Retraction
The retraction system, which includes the landing gear retracting mechanism, wheel well doors and supporting structure, must be able to sustain the loads in flight conditions when the landing gear is in retracted position. The retraction system must also withstand the forces exerted on it when in extended position at landing and take off speeds. The retraction system must have a landing gear lock. The landing gear lock ensures that the landing gear is locked in its position, whether it is extended or retracted. In case of any failure of the normal retraction system there must be an emergency operation available with the means of extending the landing gear. A retractable landing gear must have a landing gear position indicator. This indicator must be placed in visible sight of the pilot. Several warning signal indicators should also be placed in the cockpit in case of a failure of any kind.
1.6.3 Wheels and tires

The quality of the main and nose wheel must be minimally at the standards set by the EASA. The maximum static load weight of each wheel may not be less than prescribed according to
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the maximum weight of the aircraft. Each wheel must be equipped with an overpressure burst prevention mechanism which prevents the bursting of tires under heavy pressure. Each wheel and tire must be placed in such a way, that when retracted, it does not make contact with other things such as the doors of the landing gear system. If an aircraft has more certificated take off weight than 34019 kg, the mounted tires must be inflated using dry nitrogen or other gasses shown to be inert. In such a case, the oxygen levels should not exceed 5% of the mixture.
1.6.4 Braking system

If any component of the braking system fails, it should be possible to get the aircraft to a complete stop within two times the prescribed stop distance for that specific aircraft. Any fluids lost by the hydraulic brake system should be insufficient to start a hazardous fire. The brakes must be designed in such a way that no excessive force is needed to operate it. Every aircraft must have a parking brake which prevents the aircraft from moving when it is supposed to be at a standstill. The controls of the parking brake must be properly placed so that it can not accidentally be activated or deactivated. Brake wear indicators must be installed for each brake so that it can be seen when the heat sink is at its maximum acceptable limit.
1.6.5 Nose wheel

The nose wheel must be designed and placed in such a way that, even with heavy crosswind or a sudden power failure, no exceptional skill are needed to maneuver the aircraft when taxiing. The nose wheel steering system must be delivered with a protection which inhibits nose wheel movement away from the center position during retraction. It should also be proven in practical tests that no single failure can result in a nose-wheel position that could cause hazardous situations during retraction.
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Airbus A320 Landing Gear
For a better understanding of the Airbus A320 landing gear, there are several aspects that should be further studied. First of all, the Airbus A320 has to be described in general. (2.1) Each landing gear compartment is divided in the gear itself and the door. (2.2) Brakes are needed to bring the aircraft to a standstill. (2.3) The technical training manual of the Airbus A320 is the main source for this chapter.
2.1 General
There are many systems in an Airbus A320, but the hydraulic system is the most important system for the landing gear (2.1.1). The landing gears can be controlled from the cockpit using the landing gear controls and indicators (2.1.2).
2.1.1 Landing Gear Systems

The overall lay-out of the Airbus A320 shows where every landing gear segment is connected to the aircraft (A). The landing gear makes extensive use of the hydraulic system when it retracts or when the brakes are in usage. (B).
Overall lay-out of the Airbus A320
The Airbus A320 is a commercial aircraft with an MTOW of 77.400 kg. The landing gear of the Airbus A320 consists of a nose landing gear section and two main landing gear sections with two wheels per gear (Fig 2.1). The main landing gear can be retracted in the wing, which is why it is also called a wing gear.
1. Nose Landing gear 2. Main Landing gear
Fig. 2.1: Airbus A320 Landing gear positions.
The nose landing gear, consisting of two wheels, is located near the front of the aircraft (1). The main landing gears, consisting of two frames with each two wheels, are located under the wings of the aircraft (2).
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Hydraulic system
The landing gear door, the retraction mechanism and the brakes are hydraulically powered. The Airbus A320 has three hydraulic systems, the green, the blue and the yellow system (Fig 2.2). Each system has a hydraulic reservoir which contains hydraulic fluid. This fluid is pressurized by an engine pump, or an electric pump. The pressure level of each reservoirs is controlled by the Power Transfer Unit (PTU). The landing gear mainly uses the green reservoir, and uses the yellow reservoir as back up.
Fig. 2.2: Hydraulic system
The users in the schematic overview could be any system, ranging from the landing gears to the flight controls of the aircraft.
2.1.2 Cockpit
The landing gear is operated from the cockpit. The pilot uses the landing gear controls to operate the landing gears, and uses the indicators to check the position and status of the gears. The cockpit systems pertaining to the landing gear controls can be divided in the following categories: 1 2 3 Ad 1 Landing Gear extension and retraction Steering Braking Landing Gear extension and retraction
The landing gear lever is used to extend or retract the landing gears. The landing gear lever must be pulled before selecting one of two possible positions. When the landing gear is not down and locked in landing configuration, the red arrow light of the control lever turns on. On the instrument panel, there are two indications (Fig. 2.3, pg. 22) provided for each landing gear. A green triangle (1) indicates whether the related gear is locked in down position. The red "UNLK" light (2) indicates whether the corresponding gear is not locked in the selected position.
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Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek 1 2

2 1
Aviation Studies NLG green triangle light NLG red "UNLK" light
Fig. 2.3: Landing gear indications. Ad 2 Steering
Nose wheel steering up to an angle of 6 is provided by the rudder pedals. For further deflection, the pilot uses the steering hand wheels (Appendix VII), which are located on the side panel near the side stick. The steering hand wheel controls the nose wheel steering angle up to 74 in either direction. On each hand wheel, a rudder pedal disconnect pushbutton allows the rudder pedal steering orders to be disconnected. Manual nose wheel steering can only be used when the nose wheel steering switch on the brake panel (Fig. 2.4) is set to ON. When the rudder pedals and hand wheel are operated at the same time, their signals are algebraically added. Ad 3 Braking
Manual braking is provided by pushing the toe brakes on the foot pedals. Automatic braking is provided by the auto brake system (Fig. 2.4), which decelerates the aircraft at a preprogrammed deceleration rate. There are two indications provided for the auto brake system (1). The "ON" light illuminates with a blue color when the system is armed. The "DECEL" light turns to green when the correct deceleration is reached. The brakes can be locked by the pilot by pushing the brake pedals and then pulling the parking brake handle. The parking brakes will be disabled when pushing the toe brakes again. Anti-skid control can be switched on with the anti-skid & nose wheel steering switch (2).
1
1 2
Auto brake setting Antiskid/Nose wheel steering switch
Fig. 2.4: Brake Panel.
2.2 Landing gear and doors

The main landing gear of an Airbus A320 consists of two main gears that retract into the fuselage of the aircraft (2.2.1) and a nose gear that retracts in a forward motion (2.2.2). The doors that enclose the landing gear bays are electrically controlled and hydraulically powered.
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2.2.1 Main landing gear and door

The main landing gears consist of two gears under each wing of the aircraft (A). To extend the landing gear, the landing gear doors will first have to be opened and right after retracting the landing gears, the doors have to close to reduce drag (B). A Main Landing gear description
Each main landing gear (MLG) (Fig. 2.5) has a leg where all secondary parts are connected to. The oleo-pneumatic shock absorbers (1) have the task of absorbing the load of the aircraft and the shocks created during landing. A bar, or slave link (2), prevents the hydraulic pipes and electric wires from coming in contact with the wheels. The damper (3) is a two way hydraulic unit that is used to absorb the landing vibrations with the torque links. The main landing gear is connected to the wing with the side stay assembly (4). The side stay assembly also prevents a turning movement of the landing gear. A lock assembly (5) locks the landing gear after extension. The retraction actuators (6) retract the landing gear.
6
1 2 3 4 5 6
Shock absorber Bar / Slave link Torque link damper Side stay Lock stay Retraction Actuator
2 1
Fig. 2.5: The main landing gears.
Main landing gear doors
The main landing gear doors (Fig. 2.6) close upon retraction of the landing gears to lessen the drag during flight. The doors can be categorized under the following topics: 1 2 3 Ad 1 One main door One hinged fairing One fixed fairing
Main door
The main door (1) is connected to the fuselage and is operated by an hydraulic actuator (2). An uplock roller (3) and the door uplock (4) keep the doors closed. The door uplock is closed
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mechanically, locking the door in the closed position, and hydraulically opened, releasing the door during normal extension and retraction sequences. The uplock can also be opened mechanically in free fall extension and ground door opening. The steps (5) are installed to make the compartment more accessible for maintenance. Ad2 Hinged fairing
The hinged fairing (6) is attached to the wing skin by a single hinge and to the landing gear with an adjustable tie rod. The adjustable tie rod causes the hinged fairing to follow the landing gear during landing gear extension and retraction. Ad3 Fixed fairing
The fixed fairing (7) is attached to the outboard side of the landing gear. Two adjustable studs are installed at the front of the landing gear. Three rod ends are installed on the front of the landing gear.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Main door Actuator Uplock roller Door uplock Steps Hinged Fairing Fixed Fairing
4 2
3 1
Fig. 2.6: The main landing gear doors.
2.2.2 Nose landing gear and door

The nose landing gear (NLG) is used for steering the aircraft when it is on the ground (A). The construction of the NLG is very similar to the construction of the MLG (B). It also has doors to close off the landing gear compartment after retraction (C).
Steering
The Airbus A320 can steer with an angle of 6 (Appendix VIII) when using his rudder pedals or with an angle of 74 when using the electric steering system. When the aircraft is towed or pushed back, an angle of 95 is possible
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The electric steering system (Appendix IX) makes the aircraft easier to maneuver. It is controlled with a separate steering wheel (Fig. 2.7) installed in the cockpit for both the captain and the co-pilot. The pilot can make the aircraft move about its axle by steering the hand wheel (1). However, before the hand wheels can be used, the rudder pedals will have to be overruled by pressing the center button (2).
1 2 Steering hand wheel Center button
Fig. 2.7: The main landing gear doors.
Nose landing gear construction
A nose landing gear has many parts (Fig. 2.8) which make it function. To lock the NLG in extended position, the lock stay is used (1). The fore stay (2) is connected to an arm, and is used to keep the parts together. Once the landing gear has been retracted, it needs to be kept in that position. This is the function of the uplock assembly with uplock roller (3). The actuating cylinder (4) bring the landing gear in position without any vibrations. The proximity detectors (5) monitor the direct acting integral shock absorber (6) and the wheel direction and keep the The actuating cylinder (7) causes the wheels to return to the center position before gear extension. The steering actuating cylinder is parallel to the aircraft centerline.
4 3 1
7 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
lock stay fore stay uplock roller actuating cylinder proximity detector shock absorber actuating cylinder
Fig. 2.8: The nose landing gear. Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L
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Nose landing gear doors
The nose landing gear (Fig. 2.9) doors include: two main doors (1), two aft doors (2) and one leg door (3). The main doors are hydraucally powered. These two doors are mechanically connected to the aircraft. The doors are kept close by an uplock assembly. The two aft doors close when the NLG is retracted. These aft doors can close when the gear is extendend and reduce the drag this way. The leg door is a fixed fairing used to close the hole where the drug strut comes out when the gear is extended.
1 2 3 Main door Aft door Leg door
1 2
Fig. 2.9: The nose landing gear doors.
2.3 Braking component and wheel

The wheels of an aircraft are a very important part of the landing gears (3.2.1). These wheels will have to bare most of the first impact forces when the aircraft lands. The wheels can make the aircraft come to a standstill with the normal braking system (3.2.2), or the auto-braking and anti-skid systems (3.2.3). To configure the status of the aircraft, the air ground logic system is used (2.3.4).
2.3.1 Wheel description

The wheels of an aircraft are constructed in such a way that they can carry the weight of the aircraft and can house the brakes. The Airbus A320 has four wheels on the main landing gear (A) and two on the nose landing gear. (B)
Main Landing Gear Wheels
The wheels of an Airbus A320 are of the split in half type (Fig. 2.10). The reason for making the wheels separable through the middle, is to prevent the tires from getting damaged when fitting them on the wheels. When the tires are put in place, the other half of the wheel is bolted on the first half with high tensile steel bolts (1). The inflation valve (2) is then used to inflate the tire to the proper tire pressure. There are several situations that can cause the tire pressure to become too high. To prevent the tires from exploding in these situations, the vent port (3) will vent some of the nitrogen to relieve the excessive pressure. Six fuse plugs are installed to ensure that the excessive pressure is released, when the temperature becomes too high. These fuse plugs melt when the temperature becomes too high. The wheel has two sets of fuse plugs: the first set is installed on the wheel web (4) and
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has a melting point of 183 C, and the second set is placed inside the keys (5) with a melting point of 300 C. The weight of the main wheels is approximately 61 kilograms (kg).
Nose landing gear wheels
The design of the nose landing gear is very similar to that of the main landing gear. The wheels are also made from two forged pieces held together by high tensile steel bolts and sealed by an O-ring. However, the weight of the wheel is approximately 16 kg. The nose landing gear uses an overpressure relieve valve and has a bolt that can be replaced by an incorporated pressure indicator.
2 4 5 1 3
1 2 3 4 5
Steel bolts Inflation valve Vent ports Wheel web Keys
Fig. 2.10: An Airbus A320 wheel.
2.3.2 Normal Braking

The A-320 has got four brakes which are pressurized by hydraulic pressure. The A-320 has two brake systems, the normal brake system and the alternate brake system. This subparagraph is especially about the (manual) normal braking section of the system. First the normal braking and alternate system will be overall explained (A), and then a particular part of the normal braking system will be described: the manual normal braking (B).
The difference between normal braking and alternate braking
The normal braking system is the system which is pressurized by the green hydraulic system. When this pressure is under a prescribed value, the yellow system will manage the braking system. This is called the alternate system. There are several functions which are pressurized by the green and yellow system. The green system powers the manual normal braking, the auto brake and the anti skid function. The yellow system powers the parking brake, alternate braking without anti-skid and alternate braking with anti-skid. We can conclude that the auto brake has no back up.
Manual Normal Braking
The manual normal braking means manually braking under normal circumstances. (Fig 2.11) illustrates the overall scheme of the in-and outputs.
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Manual braking is done by pedals. This input will be mechanically transmitted to the Brake Transmitter Unit (XMTR*) (1). This unit has the task to convert the mechanical input into a electrical output and will send it to the Braking and Steering Control Unit (BSCU*) (2).
Fig 2.11: Overall scheme of the manual normal braking system
The BSCU receives also an input from the green reservoir for knowing if the pressure is sufficient (3). The information of the green pressure will be send electrically by the BSCU to the selector valve (4). This valve is an on/off valve and lets the hydraulic fluid pass when the pressure is sufficient. This selector valve will receive the pressure by the automatic selector which chooses the normal and alternate braking system (5). The normal valve receives hydraulic pressure by the selector valve (6) but the amount of pressure will be regulated by the BSCU electrically (7).This normal valve will lead the pressure to the brakes (8). The pedals, XMTR unit and the BSCU are located in or under the cockpit. The green reservoir, automatic selector and the selector valve are located in the main landing gear compartment. The normal servo valves and the brakes are located on the landing gear itself For more detailed technical illustrations of the manual normal braking systems see (Appendix X)
2.3.3 Auto Brake and Anti-Skid system

The auto brake and the anti-skid system are integrated in the normal braking system. The auto brake system is a feature which let the plane brake by itself. It is particularly used at a Rejected Take Off (RTO) (A). The anti skid system is a feature which prevents slipping by means of giving the wheels the same friction; this friction will be realized by braking (B).
Auto-Brake System and the BSCU of the Auto-Brake System
The auto brake is a feature which lets the plane brake by itself by giving an input to the auto brake panel (Fig 2.12). The alternate system does not support the auto brake system. The input of the auto brake system starts in the cockpit. The auto brake panel has three different options: LO, MED and MAX. These are three different deceleration rates; the MAX option is used for a RTO. The input of the auto brake panel goes electrically to the BSCU (1). When the pedals are pushed the auto brake will directly disarm (2). The auto brake will
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activate when the ground spoilers are deployed, the spoiler is monitored by the Spoiler Elevator Computer (SEC*) (3). The AirSpeed of the plane is necessary to know for comparing it with the chosen deceleration mode, this is important for calculating the actual deceleration speed. The airspeed values are kept by the Air Data Inertial Reference System (ADIRS*). This computer will give the BSCU the required airspeed (4). Like manual normal braking, the BSCU also checks if there is enough green pressure (5).
Fig 2.12: Overall scheme of the Auto-Brake System
After checking the green pressure, the BSCU gives the selector valve an electrical input (6). And if there is enough pressure the hydraulic fluid will go through the selector valve (7), to the normal servo valve (8). This normal servo valve will gain an electrical input of the amount of pressure from the BSCU (9), and controls the pressure to the brakes (10). Here is a short explanation of the BSCU when it is involved with the Auto-Brake System (Fig 2.13)
.
Fig 2.13: Auto-Brake System BSCU
The pilot has to choose between three deceleration modes
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Because there is a choice the three deceleration modes has to lead to an OR-gate. Another requirement was that the ground spoiler has to be deployed and the green pressure has to be sufficient. The ground spoiler, the green pressure and the auto brake panel is an addition som so it leads to an AND-gate. The last requirement was that the pedals may not be pushed for auto brake activation. So the inverter inverts the signal from the pedals and sends it to a switch. This signal leads to the normal servo valve.
Anti Skid System
For preventing skidding there is an anti skid system in larger aircraft (Fig 2.14, pg. 31). The anti skid system must be activated with the anti skid & nose wheel steering switch, this will give an electrical input to the BSCU (1). The tachometer measures the wheel speed of the several wheels and gives an input to the BSCU (2). Like the auto brake, the anti skid needs also air data information for anti skid computations (3). Green pressure is also used for anti skid, but there is also the yellow system which stands by. The automatic selector lets the yellow pressure go through when the green pressure is too low. The green system gives an input to the BSCU (4).
Fig. 2.14: The anti-skid system
After this the BSCU gives an electrical input to the selector valve (5). And when there is enough pressure the automatic selector will let the green hydraulic fluid go through to the selector valve (6). The selector valve lets the hydraulic pressure go to the normal servo valve (7) which is electrically controlled by the BSCU for the amount of pressure (8). The normal servo valve will let the pressure pass to the brakes (9).
2.3.4 Air ground logic

The air ground logic system receives air ground logic signals from sensors located on each main landing gear. The information is used to configure the status of the aircraft. Both main landing gear struts are equipped with ground sensing switches. The ground sensing switches indicate if the shock absorbers are compressed. They give signal on ground when the main landing gear struts are compressed. When the aircraft is flying, there is no weight on the oleo struts and thus they are extended. A signal in flight will then be given.
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There are several important systems that depend on this air ground logic system. For instance the autobrakes and thrust reverers can only be activated in the ground mode. The autopilot, on the other hand, is only operative in flight mode.
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Troubleshooting and Maintenance
Every airliner has technical landing gear problems on their fleet. To recover the failures and to make sure that they never happen again, every regular airliner has an engineering department (3.1). While an engineer is solving the problem, the maintenance department is informed and together they will come with a solution for repair (3.2). When the maintenance and the troubleshooting has been done, the department makes a conclusion. Sometimes the manufacturer has to be contact for warning other airliners by an Service Bulletin (3.3).
3.1 Failures
When a fleet operates, at one time or another some failures will occur to the landing gear. The two parts where the most frequent failures occur are, the tyres and the brakes. The tyres are a good indicator for the braking system. If it does not work correctly, tires will run flat (3.1.1). An other failure which sometimes occurs, is that the landing gear does not extend or retract. (3.1.2). When the braking system of the landing gear fails, several things could have happened. Brakes are a serious safety issue and therefore research needs to be done. (3.1.3)
3.1.1 Flat tire

Each single tire is made out of several layers, they are called: tubules tires. The Airbus A-320 family ( A318, A319, A-320 and A321) uses the radial tire from Michelin (figure: 3.1).
Fig. 3.1: Michelin Radial Tire When a tire runs flat, the layers are penetrated or worn. When a tire is flat, it needs to be replaced. It can not be repaired like a tire of your bike. The tire needs to be taken of and a new tire must be replaced. This in according with the A-320 technical manual. A flat tire always gives trouble. Specially when it happens during a RTO or in flight. A RTO several knots before the decision speed (v1) will cause even more damage to the other tires and brakes. Due to the high friction of the tires and brakes, temperature in all wheels can reach critical heights and fire can develop. When a tire runs flat during flight, a few things may have happened: the tire was already penetrated before takeoff and exploded inside the landing gear department or the tire floated gently empty. The first reason is more likely because of the high pressure inside the tire and the low pressure in high air.
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3.1.2 Gear down failure

Probably the biggest failure which can be thought of, is a not extending landing gear.(Fig 3.2) Not only the aircraft has to make an emergency landing, it can cost lives as well . These failures are caused by an hydraulic failure in the landing gear system. The landing gear of the Airbus A-320 family have shown no failures while it was extending, but has shown seven failures with retraction. Seven times made a A-320 since 1989 an emergency lading caused by a 90 degree turned nose landing gear. During these emergency landings, there were no casualties. After investigation, it came out that there was a design problem in the shock absorber. All shock absorbers were modified.
Fig. 3.2: 90-degree turned NLG.
3.1.3 Brake failure

Brakes and tires are often replaced, the friction of the ground and the impact of the landing got a large impact on tires and brakes. Brake failures do not occur often, because brakes are inspected very often. But if a brake failure occurs, the brakes on other wheels of the boogie or the thrust reversers are used. The thrust reversers are used when an aircraft has touched down and by reversing the roll-out is decreased. From reality we learn that there is another problem with the wheels. This problem has to do with the nose wheel axle. Since 1989, 69 failures with the nose wheel axle have occurred. 43 resulted in a damaged axle and replacement of the nose wheel sliding piston. By the investigations from Transportation Safety Board of Canada, it became clear that due to friction in failed bearings the cadmium melting point was exceeded. Cadmium weakened and penetrated the inter-structure of the nose landing gear axle (Fig 3.3), causing it to fail due to hot liquid metal rip.
Fig. 3.3: Axle gear failure.
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3.2 Maintenance
In order to ensure safe operation of the aircraft and to increase the dispatch reliability of the aircraft, maintenance is done. The parts of the landing gear, which are the most liable to maintenance and therefore form the most substantive part of maintenance costs, are tires (3.2.1) and brakes (3.2.2). Visual inspections are carried out on the pre flight check by ground engineers and pilot. They provide a certain level of safety to detect clear damage to equipment.
3.2.1 Tire replacement

Tires are the most expensive landing gear parts to maintain. The replacement interval depends on the way of usage. An average of 200 landings can be made with a full set of tires. Tires are always replaced together with the rims. They can be easily pulled off by taking off the nuts. The new tire is put on and the nuts are put back in place. The aircraft can continue to operate.
3.2.2 Brake replacement

The brakes are located in the rims. The use of brakes is resulting in a less thick brake discs, witch results in a need of brake replacement. Brakes discs are therefore checked on thickness on a regular base. When the wear pin has reached its limit, the brakes are replaced.
3.2.3 Costs
Operation costs for the landing gear part of the aircraft can be divided into two direct costs (A) and indirect costs (B).
Direct costs
Direct Costs are costs that can be associated directly with the landing gear. As they are the most liable to maintenance, the most substantive part of these costs is formed by: Airlines can lease their landing gear. In that case they do not own the landing gear itself and also dont have to pay the full purchase costs. When the landing gear is leased, the costs will be about 32.000. 1 2 Ad 1 Tires Brakes Tires
Tires are by far the most common parts to need replacement. Tires can be recovered, when the wear is within limits, to reduce operating costs. Costs are varying due to different degrees of wear, caused by different weather, taxi time, use of brakes and autobrake settings. The costs involved for tire replacement are roughly 2700 for a main gear and 1500 for a nose gear. Ad 2 Brakes
The costs for brakes can be reduced by using other ways to slow down. For instance reverse thrust and spoilers. The use of carbon based brakes is also financially attractive since they
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are relative slowly worn out in comparison to brakes made of other materials. Annual costs for wheels and brakes together are an estimated 106.000.
Indirect Costs
Indirect costs are costs that are not directly accountable to the landing gear; these are fixed costs. Indirect costs include taxes, administration, personnel and security costs.
3.3 Solution to the failures

The failures that occurred have technical backgrounds. The airlines which got strikes by the failures, contacted the manufacturer of the aircraft. Airbus at his time, contacted the manufacturer of the failed part. Airbus and the part manufacturer came with a solution. They reported their findings and modifications to the airliners which are operating with the A320. Normally an Airworthiness Directive (AD*) is issued by the aviation authorities (European Aviation Safety Agency and by IVW the Dutch aviation authority). ADs are mandatory in most jurisdictions, sometime the AD needs to be completed first to the next flight. But when the modification has not got a big priority or is more a luxury problem, the aircraft manufacturer (Airbus) gives out an Service Bulletin (SB*). The airline company can now decide on its own to modify their aircrafts. In the case of the A320 axle failure, a SB was given out, and after the SB an AD came out. Because some airliners did not modify their aircrafts, accidents happened. To be sure that no more accidents happen, EASA and FAA gave out the AD.
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Abbrevation list
A
ABS AD Auto Brake System Airwothiness Directive
B
BSCU Braking and Steering Control Unit
C
CS Certification Specification
E
EASA Europian Aviation Safety Agency
F
FAA Federal Aviation Authorities
L
LGCIU Landing Gear Control Interface Unit
M
MAC MLG MLW MTOM MTW Mean Aerodinamic Chord Main Landing Gear Maximum Landing Weight Maximum Take Off Mass Maximum Taxiing Weight
N
NLG Nose Landing Gear
P
PTU Power TransferUnit
R
RAT RTO Ram Air Turbine Rejected Take off
S
SB Service Bulliten
V
VLS College Vliegtuig Systemen.
X
XMTR Brake Transmitter Unit
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Bibliography
Books:
Airbus industrie A319/A-320/A321 Technical training manual Mechanics / Electrics & Avionics course 32 Landing gear Aircraft Landing gear design Principles and practices Norman S. Currey No specific data available EASA Cs-25 large aircrafts EU, 02-10-2006 F.J. Siers Methodisch ontwerpen: volgens H.H. van den Kroonenberg 3e druk Groningen, 2004. Langedijk, C.J.A., J.G.W. van Ruitenbeek en J.M. Nieuwenhuijse Vliegtuigen voor B1 en B3 Deel D Schiphol, 1998 Wentzel, Tilly Het projectgroepsverslag Amsterdam, 2006 Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek R. Wilkinson Aircraft Structures & Systems Essex, 1998
Websites:
Sonny T. Chai and William H. Mason http://www.aoe.vt.edu/~mason/Mason_f/M96SC.html Virginia, September 1996 Last updated:18-06-2007, last seen: 04-09-2007 http://www.easa.eu.int/home/certspecs_en.html Last updated: 05-09-2007, last seen: 02-09-2007 http://www.nasascale.org/howtos/mac-calculator.htm last updated: 2007, last seen: 24-09-2007
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List of Appendices
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII Project Assignment Pyramid Model Task and Planning Schedule Working schedule group 2A2L Mechanics Landing Gear Types Hydraulic Fluid specification Landing gear retraction Landing Gear Operation Landing Gear Doors Types of Wheels Hand wheel Steering Unit Retraction main landing gear A320 Angles Steering system Brake system A320 Process Report 1 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
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Appendix I Project Assignment

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek Aviation Studies
Periode: 5 Onderwerp: Ontwerpanalyse Landingsgestel Groep: 2A2L Uitgangssituatie Luchtvaartmaatschappij Amstel Leeuwenburg Airlines [ALA] geeft de afdeling Engineering opdracht een onderzoek in te stellen naar storingen die voor kunnen komen bij onderstellen en daaraan gerelateerde systemen. Hierbij kan gedacht worden aan het remsysteem inclusief auto brakes en anti skid, en air/ground logic voor onder andere het auto spoiler systeem of het beschikbaar komen van de thrust reverser. Opdrachtformulering Als projectteam van de maatschappij gaan jullie het ontwerp van een landingsgestel analyseren, met een verantwoording van de opbouw en werking van het gekozen systeem. Daarnaast wordt een analyse gemaakt van voorkomende storingen en hoe deze de dispatch van vliegtuigen, met name de luchtwaardigheid van het toestel, kunnen benvloeden. Hiervoor zal men de MEL of DDG moeten raadplegen. Richtlijnen Aan welke eisen moet het landingsgestel voldoen (regelgeving)? Welke ontwerpaspecten liggen aan het systeem ten grondslag (onderhoud, duurzaamheid, veiligheid en kosten)? Welke constructiemethoden zijn toegepast (let hierbij op: ligging zwaartepunt bij toepassing van een neus- of staartwiel; bevestiging aan vleugel of romp; besturingsmechanismen van neus- en hoofdonderstel; intrek-, up- en downlockmechanismen; verende stijlen; alternate gear extension; bediening en indicaties)? Hoe heeft de fabrikant zijn materiaalkeuze bepaald (sterkte, duurzaamheid, gewicht)? Welke krachten en momenten werken op het onderstel tijdens de verschillende vluchtfasen, met en zonder zijwind (taxin, start en landing)? In hoeverre kunnen trillingen ontstaan en hoe worden die voorkomen of gedempt? Hoe is de werking van subsystemen, die afhankelijk zijn van of samenhangen met het gebruik van het landingsgestel? Wat voor storingen kunnen zich zoal voordoen in het onderstel of de subsystemen? Randvoorwaarden voor het project Randvoorwaarden zijn in feite eisen van de opdrachtgever, waar het project absoluut aan moet voldoen. Deze eisen zijn: De tijdsduur van het project is zeven weken (week 35-41), het verslag moet ingeleverd zijn op 11 oktober 2007, vr 16.30u. De toetsing vindt plaats in week 43; Uiterlijk aan het eind van de tweede week moet een Startdocument worden ingeleverd, waarin de projectplanning en de taakverdeling binnen de groep is opgenomen; Het project wordt aangepakt volgens de algemene projectindeling en de methodiek van Van den Kroonenberg (Siers, 2004); Het eindrapport wordt aan de directie van ALA gepresenteerd in de vorm van een verslag, dat voldoet aan het dictaat Wentzel (2006);
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Het verslag wordt in het Engels geschreven, is ingevoerd in de computer en heeft, exclusief Bijlagen, een omvang van 30-40 paginas. Het projectverslag Met dit project krijgen jullie een tamelijk complexe opdracht, die je binnen zeer korte tijd moet hebben uitgevoerd. In het propedeusejaar hebben jullie geleerd om projecten te plannen, aan te pakken en (synchroon aan het project) de bevindingen van jullie onderzoek gestructureerd op te schrijven in het projectverslag. Met de leerervaringen uit dat eerste jaar moeten jullie nu je voordeel doen. Probeer te voorkomen dat er opnieuw stress ontstaat in de laatste week voor inlevering van het verslag, of dat theorietentamens (week 44) onvoldoende worden voorbereid. Hoewel het verslag geschreven moet worden in de Engelse taal, wordt op de mondelinge toets aan het eind van de periode gewoon in het Nederlands gepresenteerd. Zelfsturende opdracht In de Bijlage is een nieuwe zelfsturende opdracht Mechanica opgenomen. Hierbij zullen jullie voor drie verschillende uitgangssituaties een aantal berekeningen moeten uitvoeren ter bepaling van krachten of momenten. De uitwerkingen van de berekeningen worden uiterlijk op 27 september 2007 om 16:30 ingeleverd bij de projectdocent. Het cijfer voor deze opdracht telt, net zoals in jaar 1, voor 25% mee in het uiteindelijke verslagcijfer.
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Appendix II Pyramid Model
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Appendix III Task and Planning Schedule
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Appendix IV
Working schedule group 2A2L

Taak van: Arman Arman Raouf Bart Bart Bart Arman Arman and Anne Anne Raouf Arman Anne Anne Anne Anne Bart Bart Bart Bart Bart Bart Kamal, Philip, Erwin Kamal Kamal Erwin Philip Philip Philip Kamal and Philip Philip Kamal Kamal Erwin and Diederick Diederick Diederick Diederick Diederick Erwin Erwin Erwin Erwin Diederick Anne Bart Arman Arman, Kamal, Anne Anne Arman
Verslagonderdeel Titelpagina Inhoudsopgave Inleiding verslag Summary 1 Aspects of landing gear 1.1 Types of landing gear 1.2 Physics 1.2.1 Mechanics 1.2.2 Aerodynamics 1.3 Shock absorbers 1.4 Retraction 1.5 Wheels and brakes 1.5.1 Wheels 1.5.2 Tires 1.5.3 Brakes 1.6 Laws and regulations 1.6.1 General 1.6.2 Retraction 1.6.3 Wheels and tires 1.6.4 Breaking system 1.6.5 Nose Wheel 2 Airbus A320 landing gear 2.1 General 2.1.1 Systems 2.1.2 Cockpit 2.2 Landing gear and doors 2.2.1 Main landing gear 2.2.2 Nose landing gear doors 2.3 Components of a brake and wheels 2.3.1 Wheels 2.3.2 Normal brakes 2.3.3 Auto brake and anti-skid system 3 Troubleshooting 3.1 Failures 3.1.1 Flat tire 3.1.2 Gear down failure 3.1.3 Failure of brakes 3.2 Maintenance 3.2.1 Tire replacement 3.2.2 Brake replacement 3.2.3 Costs 3.3 Conclusion Bibliography Abbreviation list Appendices list Special assignment Process Report Correcting the report
The working schedule shows all the tasks done by the group members. It can deviate with the original schedule, because some students could not finish their task and others had to take it over.
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Appendix V Mechanics
In the project report the different equations for the derivation of the centre of gravity were described. Now these will be used for the calculation of the load distribution on the nose and main wheel with different center of gravity of the A320. The centre of gravity changes with weight and loading of the airplane. Forces on an Airbus A320 Following the knowledge can be used to calculate the center of gravity and the moments for the A 320, which data can be found in table 1. weight/ CG 42500kg 27% dry op. weight 60280kg 73280kg 32.7% 30.5% zero fuel take off weight weight
A= B= S= Y=
10.5m 2.5m 24.58degrees (34m-7m)/2=14m
Table1
sin 24.58 0.416m (1)

2(10 .5 2.5) (0.5 10 .5 2.5) 3(10 .5 2.5) 0.416 (10 .5 2 2.5) 0.615 m (3) 3(10 .5 2.4) 10 .5 7.32 m (2)
MAC c
After the calculation of the needed data, the centre of gravity on 27% (1), 30.5% (2) and 32.7% (3) can be calculated.
CG1 27 / 100 7.32 0.615 2.14m (4) CG2 30.5 / 100 7.32 0.615 2.34m CG 32.7 / 100 7.32 0.615 2.55m
After knowing he position of the centre of gravity, the moments can be derived, to know if the landing gear can stand the forces acting on it during ground situation or not. For all three center of gravity the forces into x and y direction are the same: Fy = FN CG + 2FM=0 Centre of gravity 1 Distance of centre of gravity from nose:= 13.073+2.14=15.213m Difference between main landing gear and CG= 17.71-15.213=2.497m Distance from nose gear to CG= 15.213-5.07=10.143m
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Now the moment can be calculated around the main landing gear to derive the unit of the nose landing gear (the moment is assumed to be positive anticlockwise) FCG= 42500kgx 9.81ms-2=416925N Mm= - FN12.64 + 416925x2.497 = 0 FN= 82362.48N Fy = 82362.48 416925+ 2FM=0 FM=167281.26N Load on nose gear= 19.755 % Load on main gear= 80.245% Centre of gravity 2: Distance of centre of gravity from nose:= 13.073+2.34=15.413m Difference between main landing gear and CG= 17.71-15.413=2.297m Distance from nose gear to CG= 15.413-5.07=10.343m Now the moment can be calculated around the main landing gear to derive the unit of the nose landing gear (the moment is assumed to be positive anticlockwise) Fcg= 73280x 9.81=718876.8N Mm= - FN12.64 + 718876.8x2.297 = 0 FN= 130637.66 N Fy = 130637.66 718876.8+ 2FM=0 FM=294119.57 N Load on nose gear= 18.17 % Load on main gear= 81.83 % Centre of gravity 3: Distance of centre of gravity from nose:= 13.073+2.55=15.623m Difference between main landing gear and CG= 17.71-15.623=2.087m Distance from nose gear to CG= 15.623-5.07=10.343m Now the moment can be calculated around the main landing gear to derive the unit of the nose landing gear (the moment is assumed to be positive anticlockwise) Fcg= 60280x 9.81=591346.8N Mm= - FN12.64 + 591346.8x2.087 = 0 FN= 97637.72 N Fy = 97637.72 591346.8+ 2FM=0 FM=246854.54 N Load on nose gear= 16.51 % Load on main gear= 83.49 %
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Appendix VI
Landing Gear Types
Engineers thought about different options to store the landing gear in the body or the wings of the aircraft. One option is a fixed landing gear (picture 1)
(picture 1) The possibilities are to store it in the fuselage (picture 2),
(picture 2) in between fuselage and wing (picture 3)
(picture 3) or in the wing (picture 4),
(picture 4) or in the engine (picture 5).
(picture 5) In this manner it is integrated into the shape of the aircraft. The disadvantage of these possibilities is that space for luggage or kerosene is taken away. There were engineers who thought of another idea to make an extra space beneath the fuselage (looks like a small room beneath the fuselage) or create space under the wing. Again there are advantages and disadvantages. There is more room to take with extra luggage or kerosene, but again this would disturb the aerodynamic shape of the aircraft. Again it would be less damaging than leaving the whole landing gear out during flight.
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Appendix VII
Hydraulic Fluid specification
All kinds of airplanes use a different hydraulic oil for their shock absorbers. In the case of the A320 skydrol is used. The different properties are described in the table.
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Appendix VIII
Landing gear retraction
This figure describes the different manners (a,b,c) a landing gear can be retracted.
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Appendix IX
Landing Gear Operation
Three green lights in the cockpit showing that the landing gears are locked in position. Also called the three greens. The landing gear control allows the pilot to manually operate the landing gear positions.
The three greens
Landing Gear Control
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Appendix X
Landing Gear Doors
Landing Gear Doors
The main landing gear doors of an Antanov-225.
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Appendix XI
Types of Wheels
Fuse plug Wheel balance weight Axle Inner bearing Outer bearing
Wheel bolt
Inflation valve
The whole divisible wheel can be separated vertically in the middle, so the tire has not to be taken off so that the wheel can be maintained. This is used most in aviation. The most important parts are the wheel bolt which holds the two parts together and the fuse plug, where air is removed when the air in the tire gets too warm.
Fuse plug
Axis
The full divisible wheel has the advantage that maintenance is made easier.
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Appendix XII Hand wheel Steering Unit

1 2
1. Pilots steering handwheel 2. Co-pilots steering handwheel 3. Rudder pedal disconnect button
With the steering unit the nose wheel can be steerd in a certain direction up to 78.
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Appendix XIII Retraction main landing gear A320
The landing gear is retracted inboard.
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Appendix XIV
Angles
The Airbus A-320 can steer with an angle of 6 when using his rudder pedals or with an angle of 74 when using the electric steering system . When the airplane is pushed back the nose wheel can deflect about 95
Maximum steering angle Maximum rudder steering Maximum towing angle
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Appendix XV Steering system
The electric schema shows, how an input is transformed into an output which is the moving of the airplane in a certain direction.
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Appendix XVI
Brake system A320
Technical diagram of the Airbus A320 braking system
Basic diagram of the Airbus A320 normal braking system
The technical and electrical diagram show what happens with the input the pilot gives and how it is transformed into an output which is that the airplane brakes.
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Appendix XVII
Process Report
In the beginning of the project the group met for the first time and spoke about all the positive and negative experiences in the previous year. The main problems that most students faced during the last project were that pieces of the project were not finished in time, that students did not show up at meetings, that the work load was too high at the end of the project, that the students did not follow the lay-out agreements, and that some students had to work more than others. At the end of this project we can again say that there were some negative and some positive sides to this group. The first problem we faced was that some students always showed up late during or simply did not show up during any or most meetings. Sometimes this was not such a problem, but on the other hand it created a lot of delay in the progress of the project because those students were not aware of the status of the project or what their task(s) were for the new week. Another negative side of this problem was that they either did not know what had to be corrected in their previously made parts. Many times these students would not even call off and just did not show up. The second major problem was that some group members would not hand in their work on time, and even at the end they would not show their text. This all eventually resulted in a higher work load for some of the other students in the group, who at the same time had to transform the bits and pieces into one report with proper lay-out and had to correct the mistakes in the pieces. More than half of the written pieces were handed in late or were not handed in at all and texts that corrected by the project mentor, were not fixed by these students. The third major problem was that most of the students did not follow any of the lay-out agreements and that the level of English of some students is below an acceptable level. The special assignment cost a lot of time to make because many of the students suddenly did not agree with the task and planning schedule. According to the task and planning schedule the special assignment had to be made by one particular student. In the week it had to be made, a majority of the students did not agree with this and wanted it to be made by all students at the same time. This sudden change in planning caused a major mess. The planned project pieces were not finished on time and the level of mechanics of most students was too low for them to be able to make any of the three assignments. A positive thing about this project was the planning, which had an evenly spread work load over the whole period and made it possible for the group to hand in the report on time.
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Airbus A320 Landing Gear

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Aspects of a Landing Gear

1.1 Different Types of Landing Gear

Fig. 1.1: Conventional configuration.

Tandem Landing Gear

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Main back wheel Nose wheel Wing wheel

Fig. 1.2: Tandem configuration.

Floater Landing Gear

Fig. 1.3: Floater configuration

Ski Landing Gear

Main skis Nose ski

Fig. 1.4: Ski configuration.

Tricycle landing gear

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Nose landing gear Main landing gear

Fig. 1.5: Tricycle configuration.

Fig. 1.6: Determining the MAC and CG.

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Forces on the Airbus A320

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Entering these values in the equation produces 1,320 MJ of kinetic energy.

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

1.3 Shock Absorbers

Oleo Pneumatic Struts

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Compressed air or nitrogen Oil Orifice

Fig. 1.7: Oleo Pneumatic Strut.

The gas The oil Separator Valve plate

Fig. 1.8: Oleo Strut with separator.

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

1.5 Wheels and Brakes

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Fig. 1.10: Landing gear tires.

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

braking shoes spring hydraulic fluid cylinder

Fig. 1.11: Drum brakes.

Fig. 1.12: Disc brakes.

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

1 Brake wear pin.

Fig. 1.13: Brake wear pin.

Airbus A320 Landing Gear Project Group: 2A2L

Hogeschool van Amsterdam Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor Techniek

where V=angle speed of a non braked wheel

A= Angle speed of the brakes wheel