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2005
1. INTRODUCTION
The advanced composite materials such as graphite, carbon, kevlar and glass with suitable resins are widely used because of their high specific strength (strength / density) and high specific modulus (modulus / density)[1]. Weeton et al. [2] described the application possibilities of composites in the field of automotive industry as elliptic springs, drive shafts, leaf springs etc., Beard more et.al [3, 4] highlighted the potential for composites in structural automotive applications from a structural point of view. Andrew Pollard [5] proposed the polymer matrix composites in driveline applications. Hurd [6] discussed in detail the torsional performance of drive shafts for vehicle driveline applications. A GA proposed by Goldberg [7] based on natural genetics has been used in this work. In the previous study by the authors [9], GAs applied for the design optimization of steel leaf springs. Although design optimization of steel springs and composite leaf springs has been the subject for quite few investigators [9, 10], no paper has been reported (to the best of the knowledge of the authors) on composite drive shafts using the GA approach. However there is some literature using GAs [11 14]. GA is fairly new and is described in greater detail in the literature [7, 8]. Almost all automobiles (at least those which correspond to design with rear wheel drive and front engine installation) have transmission shafts shown in Fig. 1 [15]. The weight reduction of the drive shaft can have a certain role in the general weight reduction of the vehicle and is a highly desirable goal, if it can be achieved without increase in cost and decrease in quality and reliability. It is possible to reduce the weight of the drive shaft considerably by optimizing the design parameters by satisfying the all constraints Conventional steel drive shafts [16] are usually manufactured in two pieces to increase the fundamental
bending natural frequency because the bending natural frequency of a shaft is inversely proportional to the square of beam length and proportional to the square root of specific modulus. Therefore the steel drive shaft is made in two sections connected by a support structure, bearings and U-joints and hence over all weight of assembly will be more. Also, they have less specific modulus, specific strength and its corrosion resistance is less as compared with composite materials.
Fig. 1. Conventional two-piece drive shaft arrangement for rear wheel vehicle driving system
Advantages of composite drive shafts [17] includes: significant weight reduction, reduced bearing & journal wear, symmetric composite assures dynamic balance & increased operating speeds, electrically conductive or nonconductive, custom end-fitting configurations, corrosion resistant, reduced noise, vibration & harshness (NVH), long fatigue life. In the present work an attempt is made to evaluate the suitability of composite material such as E-glass / epoxy and HM-carbon / epoxy for the purpose of automotive transmission applications. A one-piece composite drive shaft for rear wheel drive automobile was designed optimally by using GA for E-glass / epoxy and HMcarbon / epoxy composites with the objective of minimization of weight of the shaft which is subjected to the constraints such as torque transmission, torsional buckling strength capabilities and natural bending frequency.
Corresponding author. Tel.: + 91-422-2572177; fax.: +91-422-2573833. E-mail address: trangaswamy@yahoo.com (T. Rangaswamy)
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(4)
where fnt is the natural frequency and p is the first natural frequency. E and are the material properties of the steel shaft, and Ks is given by: 1 K 2s = 1+ p 2 2 r 2 f E 1+ s , 2 G 2L (5)
where G is the rigidity modulus of the steel shafts and fs = 2 for hollow circular cross-sections. Critical speed:
N crt = 60 f nt .
(6)
Sy Ss
T = Ss
4 do di4
16d o
),
(1)
where Ss is the shear strength, do and di represent outside and inside diameter of the steel shaft.
If
L2 t
cr =
E 3 2 (1 2 ) 3 / 4
(t / r ) 3 / 2
(2)
where E, and represent steel properties. L, t and r are the length, thickness and mean radius of the shaft respectively. The relation between the torsional buckling capacity Tcr and critical stress is given by:
Tcr = cr 2r 2 t
(3)
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Table 2. Mechanical properties of E-glass / epoxy and HM carbon / epoxy Property E11 (GPa) E22 (GPa) G12 (GPa) E-glass / epoxy 50.0 12.0 5.6 0.3 800.0 40.0 72.0 2000.0 0.6 HM carbon / epoxy 190.0 7.7 4.2 0.3 870.0 54.0 30.0 1600.0 0.6
x Q11 y = Q12 Q xy 16
(8)
where and represent normal stresses and strains in X, Y and XY dirctions respectively and bar over Qij matrix denotes transformed reduced stiff nesses. Its terms are individually given by:
12
T1 = C1 (MPa) T2 = C2 (MPa) 12 (MPa) (kg/m3) Vf
Q11 = Q11c 4 + Q22 s 4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 )s 2 c 2 ; Q12 = (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )s 2 c 2 + Q12 (c 4 + s 4 ) ; Q16 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 )c 3 s (Q22 Q12 2Q66 )cs 3 ; Q22 = Q11 S 4 + Q22 S 4 + 2(Q11 + 2Q66 )S 2 C 2 ; Q26 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 )CS 3 (Q22 Q12 2Q66 )C 3 S ; Q66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 )s 2 c 2 + Q66 ( s 4 + c 4 ) ;
with C = cos and S = sin.
The designer must take into account the factor of safety when designing a structure. Since, composites are highly orthotropic and their fractures were not fully studied the factor of safety was taken as 2.
4.2. Torque Transmission of the Composite drive Shaft 4.2.1. Stress-Strain Relationship for Unidirectional Lamina
The lamina is thin and if no out-of-plane loads are applied, it is considered as the plane stress problem. Hence, it is possible to reduce the 3-D problem into 2-D problem. For unidirectional 2-D lamina, the stress-strain relationship in terms of principal material directions is given by:
Q 11 Q12 1 2 = Q12 Q22 0 0 12 1 2 Q66 12 0 0
Fig. 2. Shows relation between material coordinate system and X Y coordinate system
(7)
where , , and represent stresses and strains in material directions. The matrix Q is referred to as the reduced stiffness matrix for the layer and its terms are given by:
Q11 = Q22 = 1 12 21 1 12 21 E 22 E11
; ;
E Q12 = 12 22 ; 1 12 21
Q66 = G12 .
(9)
(10)
where Nx , Ny , Nxy and Mx , My , Mxy in (9), (10) referred as forces and moments per unit width.
Aij =
(Qij ) k (hk hk 1 ) ;
k =1
(11 a)
135
Bij = Dij =
1 2
(11 b)
1 n 3 3 (Qij ) k (hk hk 1 ) , 3 k =1
(11c)
where represent Aij , Bij and Dij are extensional, coupling and bending stiffnesses having i, j = 1, 2...6 respectively, hk is the distance between the neutral fiber to the top of the Kth layer. Strains in the reference surface is given by:
o x a11 o y = a12 o a xy 16
where Ex and Ey are the Youngs modulus of the composite shaft in axial and hoop direction, r and t are the mean radius and thickness of the composite shaft. This equation has been generated from the equation of isotropic cylindrical shell and has been used for the design of drive shafts. From the equation (14), the torsional buckling capability of composite shaft is strongly dependent on the thickness of composite shaft and the average modulus in the hoop direction.
a12 a 22 a 26
a16 N x a 26 N y , a 66 N xy
1
(12)
where
a11 a 12 a16 a12 a 22 a 26 a16 A11 a 26 = A12 a 66 A16 A12 A22 A26 A16 A26 . A66
1 K 2s
= 1+
p 2 2 r 2 f E 1 + s x , 2 Gxy 2L
where fnt and p are the natural and first natural frequency. Ks is the shear coefficient of the natural frequency (< 1), fs is a shape factor (equals to 2) for hollow circular crosssections. Critical speed:
N crt = 60 f nt .
(16)
where Ex and Ey are the Youngs modulus of the shaft in axial and hoop direction:
G xy = A66 ; t
5. DESIGN OPTIMIZATION
Most of the methods used for design optimization assume that the design variables are continuous. In structural optimization, almost all design variables are discrete. A simple GA is used to obtain the optimal number of layers, thickness of ply and fiber orientation of each layer. All the design variables are discrete in nature and easily handled by GA. With reference to the middle plane, symmetrical fiber orientations are adopted.
xy =
A12 , A11
where Gxy and xy are the rigidity modulus in xy plane and Poissons ratio of the composite shaft. When a shaft is subjected to torque T, the resultant forces Nx , Ny , Nxy in the laminate by considering the effect of centrifugal forces are:
N x = 0;
N y = 2 tr 2 2 ;
N xy =
T 2r 2
(13)
where is the density, t is the thickness, r mean radius and is the angular velocity of the composite shaft knowing the stresses in each ply, the failure of the laminate is determined using the first ply failure criteria. That is, the laminate is assumed to fail when the first ply fails. Here maximum stress theory is used to find the torque transmitting capacity
(14)
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Population denotes a number of coded design variables in a cell, where as Generation denotes the population of design vectors, which are obtained after one computation in other words the process of termination of the loop was carried out by fixing the maximum number generations. This maximum number generations is fixed after trail runs.
2 do
di2
)L .
(17)
Population size Maximum generations Cross-over probability Mutation probability String length for number of plies String length for fiber orientation String length for thickness of ply
Total string length is equal to the string length for number of plies plus 16 string length for fiber orientation and plus the string length for thickness of ply. In total it equals to 139.
6. COMPUTER PROGRAM
An attempt has been made to develop a powerful and efficient computer program using C language to perform the optimization process, and to obtain the best possible design. The flow-chart describing the step-by-step procedure of optimizing the composite drive shaft using GA is shown in Fig. 4.
N crt C3 = 1 N max
C = C1 + C 2 + C 3 .
Weight in kg
= 0 Otherwise
Using the method of Rajeev and Krishnamoorthy [13], the constrained optimization can be converted to unconstrained optimization by modifying the objective function as:
Generations
= m(1 + k1C )
(18)
Fig. 3. Variation of weight of E-glass / epoxy drive shaft with number of generations
137
Start
23 22
No. of Layers
Input: Population size, No of Generations (N g), M utation Probablity, Cross over probability, M aterial Properties, Tmax , N max Generation = 1
21 20 19 18 17
Fig. 5. Variation of number of layers of E-glass / epoxy drive shaft with number of generations
Create Population for next generation by applying cross over and mutation operator
Fig. 6. Variation of the weight of HM carbon / epoxy drive shaft with number of generations
Generation = Generation + 1
HM carbon/epoxy: number.of layers vs generations
No. of Layers
If Generation ? Ng
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 21 41 61 81
Generations
Stop
101
121
141
Fig. 7. Variation of number of layers of HM carbon / epoxy drive shaft with number of generation
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8. SUMMARY OF GA RESULTS
Table 4. Optimal design values of steel and composite drive shaft (tube only) do (mm) Steel E-glass/ /epoxy HM carbon/ /epoxy 90 90 L (mm) 1250 1250 tK (mm) 3.32 0.4 N optimal layers 1 17 t (mm) 3.32 6.8 Optimum Stacking sequence -----[46/64/15/13/39/ /84/28/20/ 27 ]s [65/25/68/63/36/ /40/39/74/ 39 ]s 7. T (Nm) 3501.9 3525.4 Tcr (Nm) 43857.9 29856.5 Ncrt (rpm) 9323.7 6514.6 Wt (kg) 8/60 4.44 Wt. saving (%) ---48.36
90
1250
0.12
17
2.04
3656.7
3765.8
9270.3
1.13
86.90
9. CONCLUSIONS
1. A procedure to design a composite drive shaft is suggested. 2. Drive shaft made up of E-glass / epoxy and high modulus carbon / epoxy multilayered composites have been designed. 3. The designed drive shafts are optimized using GA for better stacking sequence, better torque transmission capacity and bending vibration characteristics. 4. The usage of composite materials and optimization techniques has resulted in considerable amount of weight saving in the range of 48 to 86 % when compared to conventional steel shaft. 5. These results are encouraging and suggest that GA can be used effectively and efficiently in other complex and realistic designs often encountered in engineering applications.
REFERENCES
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4. 5. 6.
Goldberg, D. E. Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine Learning, Reading MA, Addison-Wesley, 1989. Deb, K. Optimization for Engineering Design: Algorithms and Examples, New Delhi: Prentice-Hill, 1996. Vijayarangan, S., et. al. Design Optimization of Leaf Springs Using Genetic Algorithms Inst. Engrs. India Mech. Engng. Div. 79 1999: pp. 135 139. Vijayarangan, S., Rajendran, I. Optimal Design of a Composite Leaf Spring Using Genetic Algorithm Computers and Structures 79 2001: pp. 1121 1129. Duda, J. W., Jakiea, M. J. Generation and Classification of Structural Topologies with Genetic Algorithm Specification ASME J. Mech. Design 119 1997: pp. 127 131. Sandgre, E, et al. Automotive Structural Design Employing a Genetic Optimization Algorithm SAE 92077 1992: pp. 1003 1014. Rajeev., S., Krishnamoorthy, C. S. Discrete Optimization of Structure Using Genetic Algorithms J. Structural Engg. ASCE 118 1992: pp. 1233 1250. Riche, L. R, Hafta, R. T. Improved Genetic Algorithm for Minimum Thickness Composite Laminate Design Compos. Engg. 5 (2) 1995: pp. 143 161. Reimpell, J., Stroll, H. The Automotive Chassis: Engineering Principles. NY: SAE, 1996. Mallick, P. K. Fiber Reinforced Composites. 2 e. Marcel Decker, 1988: pp. 417 427. www.gdatp.com Mallick, P., Newman, K. Composite Materials Tech. Hanser Publishers Inc., 1990: pp. 206 210. PSGCT, Design Data. India.1995. Timoshenko, S. P., Gere, J. M. Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw-Hill, NY, 1963:pp. 500 509. Rao, S. S. Mechanical Vibrations. Addision-Wesely Publishing Company, NY: pp. 537 541.
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