SMLAB

Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Calicut
Material Testing Lab Manual Page 1 of 71

4
1. TENSION TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To conduct tension test on a mild steel specimen to obtain its mechanical properties.
THEORY AND APPLICATION
Tension test is a basic test widely used for the study of the mechanical behaviour of
metals. In this test, a specimen of standard form and dimensions is subjected to a gradual axial
pull at a slow rate. As the specimen is loaded it gradually gets elongated. At the initial state
the elongation is proportional to the load. When the load is further increased, a point is
reached when the specimen yields, giving rise to large deformation with the load remaining
stationary. Then the specimen gets strain-hardened (work hardened) and the load starts
increasing. In this region, the load deformation curve is non-linear. When the ultimate load is
reached, the specimen undergoes excessive deformation due to the formation of a neck at the
weakest section of the specimen. Subsequently the total load taken by the specimen decreases
and at some load, less than the ultimate load, the specimen ruptures. The relevant mechanical
properties of mild steel are obtained from the load deformation curve obtained from the
tension test (Fig 1.1).

Load

Figure 1.1
Elongation
1. Proportional limit
2. Elastic limit or yield
point
3. Ultimate load
4. Breaking load or Rupture
1
2
3

Definitions
Stress
The stress at a point is defined as

A
P
Lt
A
=
0

where P is the resultant force acting on an infinitesimal area A. In the static tension test, the
stress is uniform and normal across a transverse cross sectional plane, and hence is given by
P
A
=
where P is the load and A is the area of cross section.
Strain
The normal strain is defined as
l
l
=
where l is the change in length over a length l due to applied load.( Here it is assumed that
the strain over the length l is uniform)
Limit of Proportionality: It represents the maximum stress value up to which the stress is
directly proportional to the corresponding strain viz. the material obeys the Hookes law.
It can bee seen that the load elongation relationship is linear up to point 1 in Fig.1.The
ordinate of point 1 at which the load elongation curve begins to deviate from the linear
relationship represents a force which is made use of in calculating the limit of proportionality.
Elastic Limit or Yield Point: The point 2 in Fig.1 represents the limit up to which the
elongation (and hence the strain) disappears on unloading and there exists no residual strain
when the load is completely relieved. The stress corresponding to this point is called the
elastic limit or yield point of the material. Any further increase in loading beyond the elastic
limit will induce strain which will not completely disappear when the specimen is unloaded.
This point lies in the immediate neighbourhood of the limit of proportionality and is almost
indistinguishable from it for a mild steel specimen.

Loading
Unloading
Loading
Unloading
Stress
Stress
Strain
Figure 1.2
During this test, the yield point is identified by a progressive increase in strain in the
test specimen with the load remaining stationary. Certain materials exhibit a small reduction
of load on reaching the yield point and hence they have a upper and a lower yield point.
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity (E): The ratio of the normal stress to the corresponding normal
strain with in the elastic limit is called the Youngs Modulus of elasticity. It is given by

0

Stress P l
E
Normal Strain A l
= =

This represents the slope of the line 0-1 in Fig.1.The unit of stress is N/mm
2
and the strain
being dimensionless, the unit of E is also N/mm
2
.It can be seen that the load deformation
follows the same line on unloading from stress level with in the elastic limit where as
unloading from a stress level greater than the yield stress causes a residual strain as shown in
Fig.1.2.

Residual strain on unloading from a stress level
beyond the yield stress

strain
stress
a
0.002
Proof stress
For many material such as high carbon steel and alloy steel , no well defined yield
point is obtained during a tension test. In such cases the stress corresponding to an arbitrary
residual strain, equal to 0.002 is commonly taken as its yield point and it is qualified as proof
stress. For determining the proof stress a length equal to 0.2 percentage of the gauge length is
marked on the x-axis of the load-elongation graph. A line is drawn through this point parallel
to the straight line portion of the load-deformation curve until it intersects the curve a as
shown in Fig.1.3

Figure 1.3
The stress corresponding to this point is called 0.2% proof stress.
The stress corresponding to the maximum load taken by the test specimen its rupture
represented by point 5 in fig 1 is defined as the nominal ultimate stress.

0
(nominal) =
ult
ult
P
A

The ultimate load can be obtained directly from the load shown by the final position of
the dummy pointer of its load indication dial of the UTM.
Nominal Breaking Stress
The nominal breaking stress is given by

0
(normal) =
rup
rup
P
A

where P
rup
is the breaking load indicated by in Fig.1.1
The breaking load (less than ultimate load) is obtained by observing the instantaneous
position of the load indicator at the time when the specimen breaks.
It may be observed that large plastic deformation occurs when loading exceeds the
yield point causing appreciable change in the original cross sectional area of the test
specimen. This change in cross-sectional area is not taken into account in calculating the
nominal ultimate and breaking stresses. The corresponding true stresses can be obtained by
making use of the actual cross sectional area. Hence
rup
(actual)= P
rup
/A
f
where A
f
is the actual
cross sectional area at the breaking point.
Percentage Elongation
The total elongation of the test specimen up to failure represents the recoverable elastic
deformation, the residual uniform elongation up to the neck formation and the concentrated
elongation from the instant of neck formation until its failure. The ratio of the total residual
elongation measured over a specified length (gauge length) to the f gauge length of the
specimen is given by
0
0
L
L L
f

100
Where, L
f
is the final elongated length and L
0
is the original gauge length.
The ratio expressed as a percentage is called the percentage elongation (relative elongation).
This gives an index of the ductility of the material.
Percentage reduction in area
The percentage reduction in area is given by the ratio of the reduction of the cross-sectional
area at the point of rupture to the original cross-sectional area.
=
0
0
f
A A
A
100

Where, A
f
is the final cross-sectional area of the neck and A
0
represents the original cross
sectional area.This value also gives a measure of ductility of the material.
Fracture Pattern: A study of the fracture surface will indicate whether the failure is brittle or
ductile. In the case of brittle failure, fracture occurs suddenly and practically without any
plastic deformation. The formation of neck before failure is not present in this type of
material. The facture surfaces have a fibrous appearance due to failure by separation. Such
type of failure is seen in the case of cast iron or high carbon steel.
In ductile fracture, fracture occurs after considerable plastic stretching material particle
sliding over each other giving the familiar cup and cone form. This is essentially a shear
failure and occurs approximately at 45 to the axis of the specimen. This type of failure
occurs is the case of mild steel, Aluminium and other ductile materials. The value of A P , at
which this occurs is designated as a tensile stress, although it does not represent a true tension
failure.
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Instrumentation
The tensile testing machine consists of mechanisms for applying known forces on the test
piece and for measuring the corresponding deformations. The most commonly used machine
is of hydraulic type. Here the specimen is gripped between two cross heads and the force is
applied on the specimen by moving one of the cross heads relative to the other by means of
hydraulic pressure. The applied force is measured through mechanisms based on the lever
pendulum principles and directly recorded on the dial of the testing machine. The test piece
used for tensile test are of standard dimensions have a gauge length of 100, 200mm and a
diameter of 20mm.
However when the non-standard samples are to be tested, in order to ensure that values are
comparable, the condition that L
0
/ A
0
equal to a constant must be satisfied. For long pieces,
the constant is 11.3 and for short specimens, it is 5.65. Test pieces of gauge length, L
0
=
11.3A
0
or L= 5.65A
0
are referred to as proportional test specimen ( IS code 3803).


Universal Testing Machine Extensometer
The gauge length is marked in the central region of the test piece b chisel marks and
divided into suitable divisions of say 10mm each. This is mainly to study the relative
elongation of the specimen after the failure. The failure will occur at the weakest section of
the specimen which may be outside the central region. Hence, in practice the chisel marks are
made over a large length than the actual gauge length. After the failure of the specimen,
observing the chisel marks on either side of the fracture section, the final relative elongation
over the gauge length (which includes the failure section) can be determined. The ends which
go into the grips hold ideally be made of a larger section so that the test specimen does not fail
in this region by the high concentration of local stresses.
The elongation of the test specimen in the initial stages of elastic deformation corresponding
to different values of loads is measured using suitable extensometers. A load deformation
graph is drawn with this data, which will help to establish the Hookes law of linear
relationship between stresses and strain within the elastic limit. The graph also helps to
compute the modulus of elasticity (Youngs Modulus) of the material.
Certain machines incorporate the capability recording the load-deformation curve from the
point of loading up to failure. The mechanical properties such as the limit of proportionality,
the yield stress, ultimate stress and breaking stress etc. can be calculated directly from the

curve. Alternatively these mechanical properties can be determined from the observation of
the test specimen during loading as explained earlier.
TESTING PROCEDURE
1. Study the gripping device and operation of U.T.M. Prepare a schematic sketch of the test
set up.
2. Measure the mean diameter and compute the area of cross-section of test specimen.
Make chisel marks on it an interval of 10m for a length of 200mm.
3. Assuming the ultimate tensile stress (4000kg/cm
2
or 400 N/mm
2)
compute the ultimate
load to be applied and fix the range of the loading in the U.T.M.
4. Assuming an upper limit for the elastic range (2800kg/cm
2
or 280 N/mm
2
for Mild
Steel) Compute the load corresponding to elastic deformations. The observations in the
elastic range are to be limited to a load well below the value of this commuted load so
that the extensometer readings do not exceed its range. Prepare a tabular form showing
suitable increments of loads in this region corresponding to which elastic deformations
are to be measured.
5. Fix the test piece in the grips of the machine firmly such that the test piece bears evenly
in the wedge grips. Displace the grips slightly by mechanical means to ensure that the
test piece is firmly clamped.
6. Study the working principle of the extensometer. Note the gauge length and prepare a
sketch. Fix the extensometer to the specimen properly.
7. Switch on the machine, gradually applying the load without jerk and maintaining the
standard rate of load application (strain rate = 0.01 per minute). Note the extensometer
reading, corresponding to increments of loads noted in the tabular column. The load
readings should be maintained for at least 30 seconds and it should be ensured that such
readings are reproducible. After the end of sufficient observations, remove the
extensometer.
8. Continue the application of the load, noting (a) the yield point (b) the ultimate load and
(c) the breaking load.

9. After the specimen is broken, remove it and note the fracture pattern. Keep the two parts
of the fractured specimen together and measure the deformed length corresponding to
the gauge length. Also measure the diameter of the neck where the fracture has occurred.
10. Draw a P Vs graph with load on the y-axis and elongation on the x-axis. Determine
the slope of the straight line (within limit of proportionality).
OBSERVATIONS
Mean diameter of the specimen, d =
Original cross-sectional area A
0
=
Gauge length L
0
=
0
5.65 A =
Approximate ultimate load =
Approximate load at yield point =
Range of the machine =
Least count of the extensometer =
Extensometer Reading
Sl.No,

Load P (kg)
Left Right Mean

Elongation l in cm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10


Load at yield point, P
y
=
Ultimate load, P
u
=
Breaking load, P
f
=
Increased length corresponding to the gauge length, L
p
=
Reduced area at the neck, A
f
=
Calculation
Yield stress,
y
= P
y
/ A
0
=
Ultimate stress,
ult
= P
u
/ A
0
=
Nominal breaking stress,
rup
(nominal) = P
f
/ A
0
=
Actual breaking stress =
Percentage reduction in area, =
0
0
A
A A
f
100 =
Slope of P/ from the graph =
Modulus of elasticity E=
Strain
Stress
(within elastic limit) =
% Elongation =
0
0
L
L L
f

100 =
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW
1. What is the effect of increasing the carbon content on (a) ultimate strength and (b)
ductility of steel?
2. Sketch the nominal stress-strain curve and compare it with the actual stress-strain
curve?

3. What is meant by strain hardening? What are its implications in the manufacture of
metal products?
4. Discuss the types of fracture in tension with suitable examples?
5. Why does sliding of ductile material during a tension test generally occur at an
inclination of 45 to the axis of the bar?
6. Determine the values of the principal stresses and the maximum shear stress at any
point in the test specimen, subjected to an axial tension of 500 kg.
7. Draw the schematic diagram of the experimental set-up.

REFERENCES
1. Egor P. Popov. Engineering Mechanics of Solids. Prentice Hall: Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey, 1990
2. IS 1608-1995
3. IS 3803-1974


2. DOUBLE SHEAR TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To determine the shear resistance of the material of the given specimen under double
shear.
Structures are designed to withstand deformation under various loading conditions.
The material of the body offers resistance to the deformation by developing internal stress.
The stress at a point on a given plane through the point can be resolved into two orthogonal
components- one perpendicular to the plane (normal stress either compressive or tensile) and
the other tangential to the plane (shear stress).When there exists only uniform shear on the
plane(shear stress and complementary shear stress on the four faces of an element), it is called
pure shear state.
The behaviour of the material under normal stress is studied using the tension test
where as the material behaviours under shear stress is obtained by conducting a direct shear
test. Direct shear occurs when parallel forces are applied in opposite directions. The
maximum resistance offered by the material force failure under the action of shear force is
called the ultimate shear stress of the material. The mechanism of failure in shear is due to
relative sliding of molecules.
Shear strength is determined by inserting a cylindrical specimen through round holes
in three hardened steel blocks(shear shackle), the centre of which is pulled ( or pushed )
between the other two so as to shear the specimen on two planes. A cylindrical specimen of is
subjected to double shear loading using a suitable test rig in a testing machine under a
compressive load or tensile pull. As the load is gradually increased, the shear stress also
increases till the rod gets sheared across section. The maximum load at fracture, P
u
(in kg) is
recorded. The ultimate shear stress,
ult
is calculated by dividing the maximum load by the
combined cross-sectional area of the two planes given as below:


o
u
ult
A
P
2
=
where A
0
is the cross sectional area of the specimen in cm
2
. It is clear that 2 A
0
, is used in the
above relation to account for the double shear.
The assumption that the shear sress is uniform across the cross section is not strictly
true. There is a small bending effect over the short length of the specimen which is neglected.
Further, the value of
ult
obtained represents only an average value, based on the assumption
that the shear stress is uniformly distributed across the cross-section.
Testing in double shear can be done using U.T.M. with the help of shear shackle. The
shear shackle consists of three circular hardened collars (for inserting the specimen) and a
steel yoke. The assembly is held together by bolts. The shackle is placed in the U.T.M. and a
compressive force is applied. This produces the double shear across the two cross sections.
The load is gradually increased till the specimen fails by shear.
TESTING PROCEDURE

1. Measure the diameter of the rod accurately at three places using a screw gauge and
find the diameter. Determine the area of cross-section A
0

2. Set the loading range for the U.T.M. This is done by assuming the value of the
ult
for
the given specimen and multiplying the same in the U.T.M. to apply the compressive
load.
3. Fix the rod in the shear shackle and place the same in the U.T.M. to apply the
compressive load.
4. Operate the U.T.M. and gradually apply the load. Increase the load gradually till the
specimen fails. Note down the ultimate load P
u
indicated by the dummy pointer.
5. Calculate the value of
ult

o
u
ult
A
P
2
=
6. Repeat the test and determine the average of the three test results.


Shear Shackle
OBSERVATIONS
Diameter of the rod
Trial i
(mm)
ii
(mm)
iii
(mm)
Average
Value of
d (in cm)
A
o
(in cm
2
)
P
u
(in kg

)
ult
= P
u
/2 A
o
(in kg/cm
2
)

RESULT
The ultimate shear stress of the material of the test specimen,
ut
=

1. State the limitation of the test.
2. Give sketches showing single shear and double shear.
3. How will you use the
ult
value for getting the load required to punch a hole in the
sheet metal?
4. It is seen that, unlike the tensile test, the double shear test does not generate heat in
the specimen at failure. Give suitable explanation.
REFERENCES
1. IS: 5242-1979 Method of test for determining shear strength of metals (first revision).

3. IMPACT TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To carry out the impact test on a standard specimen to determine the toughness of the
material of the specimen.
The strength, ductility and toughness of the materials are modified when impact loads
are used instead of static loads. The mechanical property of toughness is a measure of the
energy that the material absorbs during plastic deformation before its failure under impact
loading. The mechanical properties influencing toughness are the strength of the material and
its ductility viz. the capability of the material to undergo large plastic deformation before
failure. Ductile material, therefore, have large toughness values whereas brittle materials have
low toughness. The impact test is carried out to obtain a measure of the toughness of the
material in terms of energy required to fracture the specimen under dynamic loading.
Toughness of the material as determined by the impact test is dependent on the
temperature, the velocity of the impact, the size of the specimen and the method of fixing. At
lower temperature, the ductility of the material decreased and hence the toughness value
decreases. The temperature of the test is hence specified while giving the toughness value.
The higher the speed of loading, the lower will be the toughness, since brittle failure
takes place at high speed impact. The velocity of impact is to be specified in the standard
procedure for impact testing. This velocity ranges from 4 to 7 m/s.
With an increase in the dimensions of the specimen, there is a decrease in toughness
value, since the probability of having imperfections increase with volume. Dimensions of the
test specimen are hence standardized. A notch of standard dimensions is provided on the
specimen so that the specimen fails across this predetermined weakest section through the
notice.

Depending upon the type of impact, impact testing may be classified as tensible
impact test, and impact being test. The most widely used test in lab is impact bending test
which is further classified into Izod and Charpy impact tests.
In Charpy test, the standard specimen is supported as simply supported beam and the
impact load is applied at the centre, while in the Izod test, the specimen is held firmly in a
vice as a cantilever and the load is applied at the free end(see Fig.3.1 and 3.3). In either case
the energy expended when the specimen fracture is taken as the measure of the impact value.
Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2
A tri-axial state of stress is produced at the base of the notch during the impact test.
The brittleness of a material under this state of stress is greater than for a simple uni-axial
stress. And hence the notch-bar test provides a most sensitive means of evaluating triaxial
stress brittleness, or notch sensitivity.
The impact value viz. the energy E
a
absorbed in the fracture of the specimen can be
determined as follows:

If the initial height to which the pendulum is raised is h
1
(corresponding to angle
1
in
fig.3) and the highest position the pendulum reaches after breaking the specimen is h
2

(corresponding to angle
1
and fig.3).

Figure 3.3
E
a
= w (h
1
- h
2
) or
E
a
= w l (cos
1
- cos
1
)
The units of the weight w and the height h
1
and h
2
are expressed in kg and meters
respectively, and hence the unit of the impact value is obtained in kgm.
The calibration of the machine can be checked from the relation between the energy E
and the angular position a, given by E = wl (1- cos
1
)
The value of wl is obtained from the known value of the energy E
1
recorded in the
hammer corresponding to the maximum position of hammer 1.
Test Set Up:
The impact testing machine consists of a heavy pendulum which can be initially set at
a specified height. The specimen is placed properly at the base of the machine to suit either

the Charpy or Izod test. On releasing the pendulum swings giving a hammer blow to the
specimen, thereby breaking it. In the process the specimen absorbs some part of the energy of
the pendulum and the pendulum further swings to the opposite sides. From the initial energy
stores in the pendulum and the final energy after breaking the specimen, the energy absorbed
by the specimen can be obtained. This value is directly given in the calibrated dial.
Generally the range of the machine is fixed at 15 kgm and 30 kgm. This is achieved by
changing the weight of the hammer by adding or removing necessary counterweights.

Charpy Impact Testing apparatus Izod Impact Testing apparatus
TESTING PROCEDURE
Izod Impact test
1. Check the position of ratches fitted to the hammer lock at Izod position.
2. Fit the striker with the horizontal tip in the striking position.
3. Fix the specimen in the appropriate grip. To insert the wedge grip in position, the right
hand lever is moved to the right to raise the rack operated locking wedge. The grips are
then inserted through the front of the jaws. The test specimen is fixed in the position such

that the notch is on the striking side for Izod test and set for correct height with the gauge
provided.
4. Raise the striking hammer to the respective position and lock it with safety lever in Izod
position.
5. The dummy pointer on the dial is to be brought to the moving pointer.
6. Release the hammer by lifting the lever on the platform and then forcing to the left.
7. The hammer will strike on the specimen and break the specimen. With the remaining
energy it will swing to the other side of the dial. Note down the postion of the dummy
pointer .
8. The hammer is brought to rest by appling the brake system.
9. The broken test piece is released by moving the grip locking lever to the right.
10. Note the impact value of the specimen directly from the dial and check the same by
computing the energy absorbed by the specimen using the relevant angles.
Charpy test:
1. Check the position of ratches in the Charpy position.
2. Fit the striker with the pointed edge in the striking position.
3. Fix the specimen on the Charpy support such that notch is on the opposite side on the
striking face.
4. Raise the sriking hammer to the Charpy position.
5. Dummy pointer is brought to the moving pointer.
6. Release the hammer as before and the charpy impact value is obtained.
OBSERVATIONS
Length of the specimen =
Cross sectional area =
Depth of the notch =
Initial energy of the pendulum E
1
=
Initial angle,
1
=

The product of w and l
=
(This product can be obtained either from the given values of w and l or from calculation
using the relation E
1
= wl (1-cos
1
)
Izod test:

SI.No.
IMPACT VALUE
E
a
= wl(cos
1
-cos
1
)
IMPACT VALUE
E
a
from dial in kgm
1.

2.

3.

Charpy test:
SI.No. IMPACT VALUE
E
a
= wl(cos
1
-cos
1
)
IMPACT VALUE
E
a
from dial in kgm
1.

2.

3.

RESULT
Izod Impact value of the specimen =
Charpy Impact value of the specimen =

1) Discuss the effect of the following factors on the impact value.
a. Size of specimen.
b. Material properties.
c. Temperature at the time of testing.
d. Velocity of impact.
e. Deformations of the supports and the striking mass friction and vibration of the
machine.
2) What is the engineering significance of the impact test?
3) Note the mode of failure of the test specimen and comment on its mechanical properties.
4) Compare the position of the notch in relation to striking mass for Charpy and Izod tests
and give your reasons for placing the specimen with notch on the opposite side of the
impact load for Charpy test whereas notch on the striking mass are on the same face of the
specimen for Izod test.
5) Discuss the significance of the critical temperature at which the transition occurs from
brittle from plastic fracture.
References:
1) IS 1757- 1973
2) IS 1499- 1959

HARDNESS TESTS
GENERAL PRINCIPLE
Hardness is one of the important mechanical properties of material. Several arbitrary
definitions have been given to this property. It may be expressed in terms of the resistance to
permanent indentation, rebound under impact loads, resistance to scratching, abrasion, cutting
or drilling.
In material testing, the resistance of the material to permanent indentation by another
hard metal is commonly taken as the definition of hardness. The material tested so that the
indenture is not subjected to permanent plastic deformation under contact application of load.
There are three standard tests used in laboratories to determine the hardness of
materials, based on the above principle. They are:
1. Rockwell Hardness Test
2. Brinnel Hardness Test
3. Vickers Hardness Test
In all these tests there is an indenter which penetrates into the surface of the specimen
for a specified duration of time under a specified load. In Brinnel and Vickers tests, the
hardness is related to the quotient of the load to the surface area of indentation whereas the
Rockwell test is based on the depth of indentation.
It has been experimentally shown that there exists a relationship between the
indentation hardness number and the tensile strength of materials. Hardness tests are also used
for specification purposes, to check heat treating procedure, to check the effectiveness of
surface-hardening methods. For this reason indentation hardness tests are generally used as a
control test for materials used by the engineer.
Cutting and abrasion hardness are associated with machinability and wear phenomena
of materials.

Mohs scale is an arbitrary scale of material hardness, based on the resistance to
scratching. A hard material can make a scratch on a softer material.
MOHS SCALE

Material

Hardness
Talc 1
Gypsum 2
Calcite 3
Flourspar 4
Apatite 5
Felspar 6
Quartz 7
Topaz 8
Corundum 9
Diamond 10


4. ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To find the Rockwell Hardness Number of the material of test specimen.
Rockwell testing is the most widely used method of determining hardness owing to the
following reasons:
1. It is faster than other tests.
2. It has got a wide range of adaptability and can be used for the hardness testing of
finished parts.
3. It gives direct reading of hardness.
Rockwell hardness values are expressed as a combination of a hardness number and a
scale symbol representing the indenter and the minor and major loads. The hardness number
is expressed by the symbol HR and the scale designation.
There are two types of indenters used in this test. A hardened steel ball of 1.6mm
diameter for Rockwell B test and small diamond cone having an apex angle of 120
0
for
Rockwell C test. The diamond cone is used for testing hard materials whereas the steel ball is
used for testing softer materials.
There are two types of Rockwell tests:
1. Rockwell: The minor load is 10 kg, the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kg.
2. Superficial Rockwell: The minor load is 3 kg and major loads are 15, 30, or 45 kg.
In both tests, the indenter may be either a diamond cone or steel ball, depending upon the
characteristics of the material being tested.

In the test, the indenter is made to penetrate into the test specimen under the action of
two consecutive applied loads a preliminary load of 10 Kg and a total (preliminary and main
loads together ) of 100 or 150 Kg. The preliminary load is applied to make sure that there is a
uniform and perfect contact between the indenter and the test specimen. This eliminates the
errors that might arise as a result of differences in the surface finish of various test specimens.
The type of indenter and the final load to be applied are chosen from from the following
table.
Appropriate
Brinnel
Hardness
Rockwell
Hardness
scale

Indenter

Load in Kg

Symbol
Permissible
scale range

60-230
(soft materials)

B

Steel Ball

100

HR
B

25-100

230-700
(hard steel)

C

Diamond
cone

150

HR
C

20-67

The criterion of material hardness is the difference in the penetration depths ( = h ) of
the imprint made under the initial and final loads. The Rockwell Hardness Number is defined
by the ratio
HR = K-h/0.002 where
K = 100 for C scale (Cone penetrator)
= 130 for B scale (Ball penetrator)
Generally the machine is so calibrated as to give the Rockwell Hardness number
directly, using C scale for cone indenter and B scale for ball indenter. One scale division of
the indicator dial corresponds to an indentation depth of 0.002 mm.

The thickness of the specimen to be tested should not be less than ten times the
penetration depth = 0.002 (130-HR
B
) or 0.002 (100-HR
C
) as the case may be. The distance
between the imprint centres and from centre to edge of the test specimen should be not less
than 2.5 mm for C scale and 4 mm for tests according to scale B.
The Rockwell Hardness machine consists of a table to support the test piece. This table
can be raised or lowered by means of a hand wheel. The indenter is fixed to a spring support
to which the load can be applied through a hand lever. The initial load of 10kg is reached
when the indicator light will be put off. The final load is transmitted through a system of
weights and levers. The duration of the application of the final load is 5 to 10 seconds, after
which the hand lever is released. The Hardness number is then directly read on the indicator
dial.
Procedure
1. Study the operation of the machine.
2. The surface of the specimen should be flat and finished smooth and clean, removing all
oxide scales and other impurities.
3. Choose the proper indenter. Use diamond cone for testing hard steel specimens and steel
ball for softer material.
4. Switch on the machine when the lamps for the dial and the signal lamp flash up.
5. Press the button corresponding to the load to be applied, located on the side of the machine.
6. Turn the hand wheel until the specimen comes in contact with the clamping sleeve for the
indenter. Continue to turn the wheel until the signal lamp is extinguished. This corresponds to
the application of the initial load.
7. Apply the main load by pulling out the button and wait until the pointer of the dial stands
still. The hand lever on the right side of the machine moves up and comes to a stop after a
short while.

8. Wait for 10 seconds and remove the main load by pushing the hand lever down smoothly
without jerking.
9. Take the reading from the dial indicator using C scale for cone indenter and B scale for ball
indenter.
OBSERVATIONS

Sl. No.

Material

Initial
load

Final
load

Indenter

HR
B

HR
C

Average

1

2

3

1

2

3

RESULTS
Rockwell Hardness numbers of the given materials are:
Rockwell Hardness number of steel =
Rockwell Hardness number of brass =

1. Discuss the merits and demerits of the Rockwell Hardness Test.
2. Determine the average depths of indentation corresponding to the average values of HR
C

obtained for (a) steel and (b) brass.
3. Suggest a method of correlating the Rockwell Hardness number with Brinnel Hardness
number.
4. Discuss the typical applications of Rockwell Hardness scale.
5. Discuss the importance of hardness test.
REFERENCES
1. Mechanical metallurgy George E Dieter
2. Engineering materials science C W Richard
3. IS 1586 : 2000 Method for Rockwell Hardness Test for Metallic Material (Scales A-B-
C-D-E-F-G-H-K 15N, 30N, 45N, 15T, 30T and 45T)
4. IS 3754 : 1988 Method for calibration of standardized blocks to be used for Rockwell
hardness testing machines(Scales A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-K)
5. IS 3804 : 1988 Method for calibration of Rockwell hardness testing machines (Scales
A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-K)
6. IS 5652 : Part 1 : 1993 /ISO 3738-1 : 1982 Hard metals - Rockwell Hardness Test
(Scale A) - Part 1 : Test Method


5. BRINNEL HARDNESS TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To find out the hardness of the material of the test specimen using Brinnel testing Machine
As mentioned earlier a completed satisfactory general definition of hardness is not
available. The principle used in finding the Brinnel hardness number is based on the
resistance of the material to permanent indentation. A hardened steel ball with diameter
D(mm) is forced in to the surface under a specified load P for a duration of time ranging from
10 to 15 seconds. The hardness index is determined by the ratio of the load P(kg) to the
curved surface area (A) of the ball imprint ie BHS=P/A. If d is the diameter of the
impression in millimetre at the surface.
BHN or (HB) =
2 2
2
P
D
D D d
(

The unit of measurement viz. kg/mm
2
is dropped and the brinnel hardness, designated by HB
or BHN ,is given as a number only. The diameter of ball imprint produced during test should
lie between 0.2D and 0.6D i.e . 0.2D,it is necessary to use a higher load P and conversely a
smaller load is to be used if d is too large. While changing the load P and diameter of the
indenter D, it should be ensured that geometrical similarity in indentation is preserved. In
order to achieve this objective P/D
2
should be maintained a constant for testing a particular
material.
If the impressions are similar for P
1
,D
1
, P
2
,D
2
the total angle subtended at the centre of the
balls must be equal(refer Fig 1). This implies that

It can be shown that the diameter, d of the indentation is related to the load, P by the
proportionality relationship . Since , geometrical similarity of indentation can
be maintained by keeping P/D
2
a constant. This relation allows changes to be made in the ball
diameters so that smaller load could be used for thin sections while still making it possible to
compare hardness numbers so obtained for different values of load.
The following table gives the load, the diameter of the indenter and the duration of the
application of the load to be used for different materials and their thickness. Generally P =
30D
2
for ferrous metals and P = 10D
2
for non-ferrous metal.
The symbol HB denotes that the Brinnel hardness was determined under standard test
conditions, i.e. D = 10mm, P = 30kgf and time is 10 to 15 seconds. For special test conditions
the symbol HB is supplemented by an index, for example BH 5/750/20 indicates that D =
5mm, P = 750kgf and time of load application is 20 seconds.
Materials
Interval
of BHN
Thickness of
specimen in
mm
Diameter
of Ball in
mm
Load in
kg
Test
duration
in
seconds
P/D
2

Ferrous metals
(cast iron and steel)
Below
140-450
6
3-6
3
10
5
2.5
3000
750
187.5

10

30
Ferrous metals

Below
140
6
6-3
3
10
5
2.5
3000
750
187.5

10

30
Non Ferrous metals
(copper, Brass,
Bronze, Magnesium)

32-130
6-3
4-2
Below 2
10
5
205
1000
250
62.5

30

10
Aluminium
Bearings alloy
8-35 6
6-3
3
19
5
2.5
250
62.5
15.6

60

2.5


It is already mentioned that in Brine test the hardness of metal is obtained from the
dimensions of the impression made by a steel ball after the ball has been pressed into the
metal under a known load. The determination of the hardness by ball indention can be carried
out using any type of press that is capable of loading the specimen accurately for the required
duration of time.
The standard testing machine consists of an anvil for supporting the specimen, an
elevating screw and a hand wheel for raising the specimen to the required height. The mandrel
with the ball is secured with the aid of a screw in the spindle sleeve. The upper end of the
spindle presses against the knife edge of a small lever. The operation of this lever is linked to
a loaded lever mechanism which is operated by an electric motor. The loading of the lever
mechanism and the duration of load application can be adjusted suitably by setting the
movable disc located on the right side of the machine.
The proper marking (a notch) on this disc (cup) corresponding to the diameter of ball
used and the duration of the load application is set against the approximate Brinnel hardness
number marked on the fixed outer disc. It should be remember that when testing ferrous
metal, the notch located on the housing should be used. When testing non ferrous metals and
alloys with a hardness of 35 to 130 units, the notches located on the right hand upper part of
the scale (of a red colour) on the housing and the red notch on the cup marked 30sec. should
be used. When the hardness of the material is being tested from 8 to 35 units, the notches
located on the lower right hand part of the scale on the housing and the notch marked 60 sec,
on the cup should be used.
When the machine switched on, the motor operates and gradually transfer the lever
load to spindle. The load remains for the present time and then gets automatically released
without any jerk. After the motor has stopped the table with the specimen ,is lowered by
rotating the hand wheel. The diameter of the impression is measured using a microscope for
determining the hardness number.


Brinnel hardness testing machine
TESTING PROCEDURE
2. Choose the diameter of the ball indenter depending on the thickness of the
specimen.(10mm diameter ball can be used for all thick(6mm)specimens.
3. Obtain the load to be applied using the relation P = 30D
2
for ferrous materials and P =
10D
2
for non ferrous materials. Find out the proper time interval from the table
4. Place the proper load on the rod suspended from the end of the lever. Set the proper
timing in the machine.
5. Keep the specimen with a smooth ,clean and flat surface on the table and bring it in
contact with the indenter for testing.

6. Switch on the machine for loading . the load will remain for the specified duration and
afterwards will get disengaged automatically.
7. Repeat the test on the specimen three times displacing the point of indentation to
different places.
The distances from the imprint centre to the specimen edge should not be less than the
ball diameter and that to the centre of the neighbouring imprint should be equal to at
least two ball diameters. It should also be ensured that the specimen thickness should
be at least eight times the depth of the print.
8. Remove the specimen and measure the diameter of the indentation, taking at least two
reading of opposite diameter for each indentation.
OBSERVATIONS
RESULT
Brinnel Hardness Number of the materials are
Brass:
Steel:
Dia. of
impression:
Sl
No:
Material
of
specimen
Dia. of
indenter
Load in
Kg.
Duration
in sec.
d1 d2
Mean dia.
in mm.
BHN

1) Give reasons for the following:
a) Brinnel test is not suitable for testing extremely hard materials and also for testing
thin specimens like razor blades
b) It is not suitable for testing case-hardened surfaces.
c) Finished surfaces get spoiled by Brine hardness test.
2) Why is the ratio P/D
2
kept higher for ferrous metals compared to non ferrous metals?
3) What is the minimum thickness of specimen in hardness test?
REFERENCES
1) IS 4132 : 2005 (Method for Calibration of Standardized Blocks to be Used for Brinell
Hardness Testing Machines (Second Revision)
2) IS 1500 : 2005(Method for Brinell Hardness Test for Metallic Materials (Third
Revision))
3) IS 2281 : 2005(Method for Verification of Brinell Hardness Testing Machines (Third
Revision))

6. COMPRESSION TEST ON CONCRETE SPECIMEN
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To determine the modulus of elasticity of concrete in where the maximum nominal size
of aggregate does not exceed 38 mm.
Concrete is not really an elastic material, ie it does not fully recover its original
dimensions upon unloading. It is not only inelastic but is also nonlinear. Hence, the
conventional elastic constants (modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio) are not strictly
applicable to a material like concrete. Nevertheless, these find place in design practice,
because, despite their obvious limitations when related to concrete, they are material
properties which have to be necessarily considered in the conventional linear elastic analysis
of reinforced concrete structures.
The Youngs modulus of elasticity is a constant, defined as the ratio, within the linear
elastic range, of axial stress to axial strain, under uni-axial loading. In the case of concrete
under uni-axial compression, it has some validity in the very initial portion of the stress strain
curve, which is practically linear; that is, when the loading is of low intensity, and of very
short duration.
The code ( IS 456, 2000) gives the following empirical expression for the static
modulus E
c
( in MPa units) in terms of the characteristic cube strength f
ck
( in MPa units):
5000
c ck
E f =
The modulus of elasticity is experimentally determined by subjecting a cube and
cylinder specimen to uni-axial compression (as per IS 516 -1959) and measuring the
deformations by means of dial gauges fixed between certain gauge length. Dial gauge reading
divided by gauge length will give the strain and load applied divided by area of cross section
will give the stress. A series of readings are taken and the stress - strain relationship is
established.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION (AS PER IS 516 1959)
Size of Specimens
The test specimens shall consist of concrete cylinders 15.0 cm in diameter and 30.0 cm
long. Alternately, other sizes of cylinders or square prisms may be used provided that the
height/diameter or height/width ratio is at least 2.
Preparation of Test specimens
The test specimens shall be prepared in and shall be stored in water at a temperature of
24 to 30C for at least 48 hours before testing. At least three specimens shall be made and
tested.
Age at Test
Normally test shall be made when the specimens reach the age of 28 days.
TESTING PROCEDURE
In order to determine the compressive strength of the concrete, three test specimens for
compressive strength shall be made together with each set of cylinders or prisms in
accordance with the size specified. The test specimens for compressive strength shall be made
from the same sample of concrete as the cylinders or prisms and shall be cured and stored
under identical conditions.
Apparatus
Testing Machine: The testing machine may be of any reliable type, of sufficient capacity for
the tests and capable of applying the load at the rate of approximately 140 kg/sq cm/min until
the resistance of the specimen to the increasing load breaks down and no greater load can be
sustained. The permissible error shall be not greater than 2 percent of the maximum load. In
addition shall be capable of maintaining the load at any desired value.

Extensometers: Two extensometers are required each having a gauge length of not less than
10.2 cm and not more than half the length of the specimen. They shall be capable of
measuring strains to an accuracy of 2 10
6
. Mirror extensometers of the roller or rocker type
are suitable.

TESTING PROCEDURE
1. The three test specimens for compressive strength shall first be tested in accordance with
the procedure for determining the compressive strength of concrete specimens and the
average compressive strength shall be recorded.
2. Immediately on removing the cylinder or prism from the water and while it is still in a
wet condition, the extensometers shall be attached at the ends, or on opposite sides of the
specimen and parallel to its axis, in such a way that the gauge points are symmetrical
about the centre of the specimen and in no case are nearer to either end of the specimen
than a distance equal to half the diameter or half the width of the specimen.
3. The extensometers shall be fixed with the recording points at the same end. The specimen
shall be immediately placed in the testing machine and accurately centred.
4. The load shall be applied continuously and without shock at a rate of 140 kg/sq cm/min
until an average stress of ( C + 5 ) kg/sq cm is reached, where C is one-third of the
average compressive strength of the cubes calculated to the nearest 5 kg/sq cm.
5. The load shall be maintained at this stress for at least one minute and shall then be
reduced gradually to an average stress of 1.5 kg/sq cm when extensometer readings shall
be taken.
6. The load shall be applied a second time at the same rate until an average stress of
( C + 1.5 ) kg/sq cm is reached. The load shall be maintained at this figure while
extensometer readings are taken. The load shall again be reduced gradually and readings
again taken at 1.5 kg/sq cm.
7. The load shall then be applied a third time and extensometer readings taken at ten
approximately equal increments of stress up to an average stress of (C + 1.5) kg/sq cm.
8. Readings shall be taken at each stage of loading with as little delay as possible.
9. If the overall strains observed on the second and third readings differ by more than 5
percent, the loading cycle shall be repeated until the difference in strain between
consecutive readings at ( C + 1.5 ) kg/sq cm does not exceed 5 percent.
OBSERVATIONS
Average compressive strength of three cubes =
Value of C =

Diameter of cylinder =
Length of cylinder =
Area of cross section of cylinder =
Date of casting =
Date of testing =
Age of specimen in days =
Mix ratio =
Gauge length of the compressometer =
Dial gauge reading
Sl No.
Load in
kg
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
Stress Strain values for
the last two cycles
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

CALCULATION
The strains at the various loads in the last two cycles shall be calculated separately for
each extensometer and the results shall be plotted graphically against the stress. Straight lines
shall be drawn through the points for each extensometer; the slopes of these two lines shall be
determined and from them the average value shall be found. If the difference between the
individual values is less than 15 percent of the average value, this average value, expressed in
kg/sq cm to the nearest 1000 kg/sq cm shall be recorded as the modulus of elasticity of the
concrete. If the difference is greater than 15 percent, the specimen shall be re-centered in the
testing machine and the test repeated. If the difference after re-centering and testing is still
greater than 15 percent of the average value, the results of the test shall be discarded.

RESULT
The modulus of elasticity of the given concrete specimen =

REFERENCES
1. IS 516 1959 Methods of tests for strength of concrete
2. S Unnikrishna Pillai and Devdas Menon, Reinforced Concrete Design , Tata McGraw
Hill.


7. VICKER'S HARDNESS TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To find out the hardness of the material of the test specimen by conducting Vickers
Hardness Test.
The resistance of the material to permanent indentation under static loading is taken as
the basis for finding the Vickerss hardness number. A four sided diamond pyramid indenter
having a apex angle of 136
0
is pressed in to the surface of the metal to be tested under a
specified load and for a specified time interval. This leaves an imprint
of the pyramid on the specimen surface. If d is the mean diagonal of the imprint on the
surface, the surface area of the impression A is equal to d
2
/2* 2 / sin where = 136
0
. The
hardness number, expressed as a number, leaving out the dimensional unit of Kg/mm
2
is
given by

2
2
/ 854 . 1
2 / sin 2
d P
d
P
A
P
HV = = =

where P is the applied load in kg, d is the average length of the two diagonals of the
impression in the plane of a surface, and is the angle between the opposite faces of the
pyramid (=136
0
).
Since all the imprints of the diamond pyramid are geometrically similar. The hardness
values as obtained by this method are practically independent of the actual load used in the
tests. The load applied ranges from 5 to 120 kg. The actual load chosen for any particular test
depends on the specimen thickness, that should be at least 1.5 times the imprint diagonal and
that no signs of the indentation should be visible on the reverse side of the test specimen.
Experimental accuracy improves with increasing load values. A load of 30 kg is
generally used in the laboratory tests. Duration of the load application is 15 seconds. If the
load applied and the time interval are different from 30 kg and 15 seconds respectively, the

symbol HV is supplemented by an index giving at the first place the load applied and at the
second place the duration of the load application. Hence, HV 30/5 indicates that the load of 30
kg is applied for duration of 5 seconds.
It may be observed that the principle involved in the Brinnel and Vickers hardness
tests are the same. Hence the Vicker's testing machine can be used for conducting the Brinnel
test by suitably changing the intender and using the load values which keep P/D
2
ratio a
constant.
This test has particular application for hard or thin materials or where a spot hardness
is desired. Owing to the extreme hardness of the diamond, it can be used over the whole range
of material hardnesses, and there is a linear relationship between the depth of impression and
the hardness number.
EXPERIMENTATION
The test set up consists of a mechanism for applying a specified load which presses
the diamond intender on the specimen surface. The specimen is placed on a supporting table
which can be raised or lowered by means of a hand wheel. The machine has in-built
arrangement for applying any desired load. The loading is applied through lever system,
operated by electric motor. The selection of loading is through a push button arrangement.
After the application of load for the required time interval, the load is moved off the specimen
by pressing down a hand-lever which is located at the right side of the machine.
The upper part of the machine has the arrangements for focusing the image of the
imprint on a screen. A graduated vernier scale and a micrometer are incorporated on the
screen to measure the diagonal of the imprint accurately. Since the size of the impression is
very small, devices are provided to project the impression on the screen with a magnification
of 70 or 140. The measuring screen with the scale can be turned through 90
0
to facilitate
measurement of both the diagonals of impression.


Measurement of the Diagonal
The focusing screen is provided with faint long and short division marks and a vernier
scale. The clean screen is provided with a dark long and short division marks and the left
extreme mark is numbered as zero. This zero mark should always range with in the vernier
scale, which has 10 divisions. For 70 fold magnification the main scale divisions are spaced at
0.1 mm. The scale can be moved in the horizontal plane and one corner of the image of the
impression is brought in line with one of the main scale divisions. Operate the vernier and the
micrometer screw to bring the opposite corner along the diagonal in line with the nearest main
scale division .All the long and short divisions within the impressions , except the fraction of
a divisional by the right extreme faint line and zero marked dark line, are counted and
multiplied by 0.1 mm . The reading of the vernier scale which coincides with the zero marked
dark line of the scale is multiplied by 0.01 mm and the reading on the micrometer is
multiplied by 0.001 mm. The measurement is repeated by turning the equipment through 90
0
to opposite diagonal.

IMAGE OF IMPRESSION ON THE SCREEN (70X MAGNIFICATION)
VERNIER SCALE, LEAST COUNT=.01mm
MICRO METER
SCREW
2
2 1
d d
d
+
=

TESTING PROCEDURE
2. Prepare the surface of the specimen by machining to make it smooth and bright.
3. Support the specimen on the table and rotate the hand wheel until the specimen is sharply
imaged on the screen.
4. Engage the proper load stage corresponding to the material and thickness of the specimen
by pressing the corresponding push button.
5. Operate the push button switch where upon the intender is automatically aligned over the
specimen and the same is loaded.
6. The hand lever which starts moving upwards is allowed to come to its top position and the
load is maintained for 15 seconds.
7. Release the load acting on the specimen by pressing the hand lever down. This swing back
the indenter to its original position away from the imprint. Now the impression will be
focused on the screen.
8. Centralize the image by turning the knob under the screen and bring one corner of the
impression in the line with main scale division.
9. Find the lengths of the two diagonals by operating the knob and the micrometer as
explained earlier and get the clear value.
10. Compute the Vicker's Hardness number.

OBSERVATIONS
Length of diagonals Sl.No Specimen Load(P)
Kg
d
1
d
2

Mean
2
2 1
d d
d
+
=
HV
=1.854
2
d
P

RESULT
The Vicker's Hardness Number of the Given Specimen =
1. What are the advantages of Viker's Hardness test over Brinnel Hardness test and Rockwell
Hardness test?
2. How is the Vikers Hardness number affected by changing (i) the load (ii) the duration of
loading?
3. From the hardness vales obtained, what inference can you make about the comparative
tensile strength of steel and brass?
4. What are the merits and demerits of Vickers Hardness Test?

REFERENCES
1. Mechanical metallurgy George E Dieter
2. Engineering materials science C W Richard
3. ISO 6507- 1:2005, Metallic materials- Vickers hardness test-Part 1: Test method.
4. ISO 6507- 2:2005, Metallic materials- Vickers hardness test- Part 2: Verification and
calibration of testing machines.
5. ISO 6507- 3:2005, Metallic materials- Vickers hardness test- Part 3: Calibration of
reference blocks.
6. ISO 6507- 4:2005, Metallic materials- Vickers hardness test- Part 4: Tables of
hardness values.

P/2
P/2
P/2
P/2
8. BENDING TEST ON BEAMS
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To find out the Youngs modulus of steel by conducting a bending test on steel I joist.
For any material, load, within elastic limits, the ratio of normal stress to normal strain
is defined as its modulus of elasticity. A direct method of finding out E is by conducting a uni
- axial bending test. An alternate procedure is to carry out a bending test on a joist.
In a bending test, the test specimen is subjected to transverse loading so as to produce
pure bending of the beam. In pure bending, the fiber stress is related to the bending moment
and moment of inertia of the cross section of the beam by the bending formula
M f E
I y R
= =
.The strain is related to the radius of curvature (R) of deflected beam and indirectly to the
deflection. Hence for a given beam, deflection can be expressed as a function of loading, the
material property E and geometrical property I (Moment of inertia of the cross section with
respect to the centroidal axis). If the deflection can be measured for the given loading, the
material property can be computed.
The test is conducted in UTM. The steel joist is supported at a convenient span and
loading is applied centrally. A dial gauge is arranged to measure the deflection at the center of
the beam.
In this test set up, i.e. a simple supported beam of the span l and 1/3 load P the
deflection at the center due to bending is given by
3
23
1296
Pl
EI
= . E is computed from the
known values of , P and I.

Figure 8.1

It may be noted that the beam is not under a state of pure bending for a central loading.
The shear at section vise also contributes to the total deflection at the center. The contribution
of shear in the case of deep beams will be significant whereas for beams where span to depth
ratio is large, the effect due to shear is negligible.
TESTING PROCEDURE
1. Note down the dimensions of the cross section of the region I-joist and compute moment of
inertia I.
t
w
= average thickness of web
t
f
= average thickness of flange
Moment of inertia,
3 3
12 12
bH bh
I =
2. Mark the midpoint of the joist and a convenient span 90cm tapping 15 cm on both sides
(either side of the midpoint)
3. Place the beam supported on two rollers on the bench of the UTM and bring down the load
to the midpoint.
4. Study the operation of the dial gauge and note down its least count.
5. Arrange the dial gauge on the bench of the UTM so as to measure the deflection of the
point at the midpoint span of the beam.
6. Apply the load gradually at the center, rate of 500 kg/sec by operating the UTM and note
down the dial gauge reading corresponding to the loading interval.
7. On reaching 3000 kg the release load gradually and once again note down the dial gauge
reading for the decreasing load.
8. Plot the graph with load on the Y-axis and deflection on X-axis and ascertain the condition
of loading within the elastic limit.
t
w
t
f
H

h

b

9. Note down the loading and deflection corresponding to any point on the load defection
graph and compute the modulus of elasticity E from the following formula
3
23
1296
Pl
EI
=
where is the deflection for applied load P
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Height, H =
Flange thickness, t
f
=
Web thickness, t
w
=

Height of the web, h =
Width of the flange, b =
( )
3 3
1
12
g w
I bH b t h ( =

=
Deflection Reading (cm)
Sl No
Load in kg
Increasing Decreasing Average
Mean deflection
reading 0.01 mm


W
from the graph =

3
23
1296
W l
E
I
= =
RESULT
Youngs modulus =
Maximum bending stress =

1) What is the significance of giving a two point loading instead of a central loading in this
experiment?
2) How can you apply a uniformly distributed load using UTM?
3) Derive the expression
3
23
1296
Pl
EI
= for the loading diagram given in connection with this
experiment.
REFERENCES

9. TORSION TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To conduct the torsion test on a given cylindrical specimen and to find out the
modulus of rigidity G of the material.
Consider a prismatic bar of arbitrary cross-section subjected to twisting moment.
Shear stresses will be set up in the plane of any transverse cross-section of the bar such that an
equal and opposite torque is developed to maintain equilibrium. The cross-sections of the bar
will generally undergo warping and the solution to the problem for stress and deformation can
be obtained only by solving the governing differential equations of theory of elasticity (saint
Venant).
However, in the case of torsion of a circular shaft, since the section is symmetric about
a centroidal axis, warping of the cross-sections does not occur and this simplifies the solution.
A strength of material solution which is also an exact solution in the case of circular shaft is
obtained using the following assumptions (Refer to Fig. 9.1)
a) The cross-sections of the shaft do not undergo warping and hence a plane
section will remain plane before and after the application of the twisting
moment.
b) The shearing stress at any point of the cross-section is perpendicular to the
radius r and proportional to the length l and
c) The shear stress is proportional to the angle of twist per unit length of the
shaft.
Based on the above assumptions the following relation can be established in the case of
cylindrical shaft subjected to equal and opposite twisting moments at the ends.

r
G T
r L J

= =

32
4
D
J

=

Where,
r
= Shear stress at distance r from the centre of the shaft
r = distance to the point from the centre
G = modulus of rigidity of the material
= angle of twist per unit length
T = torque
J = polar moment of inertia of the cross-section
D = diameter of bar

Figure 9.1
Compare the above torsion formula with the bending formula
M f E
I y R
= =

It is clear from the above relation that the shear stress is maximum at the outer
periphery of the shaft, and varies linearly in the radial direction, having a zero value and the
centre of any transverse cross-section.
It should be understood that the shaft transmitting power rotates at uniform speed.
Whether it rotates at uniform speed or is at rest, the shear stresses and the resulting strain will
remain the same. Hence, the analysis of the problem of a rotating shaft solved by treating it to
be at rest, with one end fixed and a torque applied at the other end.

Torsion tests allow direct measurement of the shear modulus (G) of a material. This
ability makes torsion testing, although not as common, a useful partner for tensile testing in
determining the mechanical properties of a material.
There are two kinds of torsion experiments: torque control and angular speed control.
Torque control experiments apply a uniformly increasing torque to the specimen and the
amount of strain is measured as an angle through which the specimen has turned. Angular
speed control turns the specimen at a specific angular speed while the torque is measured.
The test specimen is cylindrical is shape with usually 10mm diameter with a gauge
length of 10 to 20 times the diameter. The specimen is prepared by turning a larger diameter
rod leaving enlarged ends suitably shaped to fit into the grips of the testing machine.
A torque can be applied to the specimen through one of the grips of the testing
machine manually or mechanically. The other grip is linked to a pendulum weight. The
applied torque T is measured through a suitable mechanism operated by the deflection of the
pendulum weight. The relative rotation between the two cross-section separated by the gauge
length can be measured by means of a angle measuring device. The applied torque and the
resulting angle of twist form the basic data of the test.

Torsion testing machine

TESTING PROCEDURE
1) Measure the diameter of the test specimen accurately at three different places using
vernier calipers.
2) Mount the specimen properly in the grips of the testing machine.
3) Clamp the angle measuring instrument on the specimen. Note down the gauge length.
4) Make zero correction, if any for the torque indicator dial.
5) Apply the torque gradually at the loading end of the specimen.
6) Note down the angle of twist corresponding to the applied torque.
7) Increase the torque at a rate of say 100 kg cm and note down the corresponding angles
off twist.
8) After taking sufficient number of measurements (6 to 7 readings) decrease the applied
torque gradually. Note down the angles of twist on decreasing the load as a check for
the already obtained data.
9) On completion, remove the specimen from the machine.
Observation and Calculation:
Least count of screw gauge=
Diameter of rod (cm)
Gauge length

L (cm)
D1 D2 D3
Average
D
Polar moment of inertia
32
4
D
J

=
4
cm

Least count of the vernier =
Readings from the scale Angle of twist in degree
Sl.
No
Torque
in
kg cm
Load
increasing
Load
decreasing
Load
increasing
Load
decreasing
Average
angle of
twist
(degree)
Average
angle of
twist
(radians)

Draw a graph relating torque T on the y axis and the angle of twist on the x axis. Within the
elastic limit, the graph will be a straight line.
T
from graph=
Modulus of rigidity, G =
T L
J
=
Maximum shear stress,
=
=
J
R T
max
max

RESULT
Modulus of rigidity of the material of the specimen, G =

QUENSTIONS FOR REVIEW
1. Compare the shear stress distribution for the following cases
a) Across the cross-section of the wire of a spring subjected to axial load.
b) Across the cross-section of a rectangular beam subjected to UDL
c) Across the cross-section of the specimen of the double shear test.
d) Across the cross-section of a circular shaft subjected to twisting.
2. Why is that the simple torsion formula is not applicable to bars which have non
circular cross-sections?
3. Establish a relationship between the shearing strain, r , and the angle of twist per unit
length, /L.
4. Draw a sketch showing the distribution of complementary shear stress in an axial
plane on a suitably cut segment of shaft.
5. If a cylinder piece of chalk is twisted to failure, a crack along a helix generally occurs
at an angle of 45 to the axis of the shaft. Explain this phenomenon with the help of a
suitable sketch.
6. What is meant by shear centre? Explain in terms of a channel and I cross section.
7. If Poisson's ratio for material A is larger than for material B, what is the qualitative
difference between the two materials?

References
1. Egor P. Popov. Engineering Mechanics of Solids. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 1990.

2. Method of simple torsion testing of copper and copper alloy wire -6253-1971.
3. Simple torsion test of aluminium alloy aluminium alloy wire, method for 4176-
1967
4. Simple torsion testing of steel wire method for (first version): 1717-1971

10. SPRING TEST
Exp.No Date:..
AIM
To determine the modulus of rigidity of the material and the stiffness of the given
spring.
A helical spring is formed when a wire of solid circular cross section is wound on a circular
core in a spiral form. The spring can undergo considerable deformation without getting
permanently distorted. Hence, it is a device for storing up strain energy.
Stresses induced in the body of the spring under axial load are predominantly due to
torsion. Since the line of action of the external load is eccentric with respect to the reaction at
any section of the spring (by the distance equal to the mean radius of the coir), a couple is set
up, causing twisting action, In addition to this torque, small of bending moment, axial force
and shear force are also present due to the helical profile of the spring.
Under the axial load, the spring is subjected to both twist and bending. At any point in the
coir, the tangent to the helical centerline is not perpendicular to the axial force. If W is the
axial force, the component parallel to the tangent at any point viz. W (sin ) produces the
bending moment M and the component W (cos ), torque T, where is the angle of helix.
Angle of helix is the angle between the plane of coil and the plane perpendicular to the
axis of the helix.
For a spring with n turns and mean radius of the coir R (which is half the centre to centre
distance of the coils perpendicular to the axis of the helix).
M = WR sin
T = WR cos (refer to the figure 10.1 and10.2)
Angle of helix is obtained from tan =
2
p
R
(1)

Where p is the pitch of the coil

Figure 10.1 Figure 10.2
I = Principal moment of inertia of the cross section of the wires = d
4
/64
J = Polar moment of

inertia of the cross section of the wire = d
4
/32
If is the total deflection
Under the action of load w, the work done by the axial load is w /2
This can be equated to the total strain energy stored in bending and torsion i.e.

1 1 2 2
0
0 0
1
1 1
2 2 2
M
w d d
EI EI
= +

Where
E = Modulus of elasticity
G = Modulus of rigidity
Substituting the expressions for M and T derived earlier, and expressing d
1
= Rd, the
integration may be performed between the limits 2 and 0, to obtain
3 2 2
4
64 sec cos 2sin wR n
G E d

| |
= +
|
\
(2)

Wsin
W
Wcos

d being the diameter of the material of the coil. The relation between E and G is given by E =
2G(1+) where is the Poissons ratio ( = 0.3 for mild steel).
When the coils are wound very closely, the angle of the helix becomes very small.
Hence, the effect of component of axial load parallel to the tangent of the point, viz, (W sin)
can be neglected or in other words, the work done by the axial load may be equated to
torsional strain energy stored in a spring which gives.

3
4
64wR n
Gd
=
(3)

Springs, for which the effect of angle of helix cannot be neglected, are called open coil
helical spring. For the open coil spring under the action of axial load, both torsional and
bending moments are to be considered.
Springs, for which the effect of angle of helix is neglected, are called closed coil
helical springs, Here, the effect of torque only need be considered.
Usually when the angle of helix is less than 5 degrees the spring is considered as a
closed coiled one, otherwise as an open coiled one. Generally on an open coiled helical spring
compression test is carried out, and on a closed coiled spring, the tension test is to be
conducted.
Shear stress induced at any cross-section of a helical spring subjected to axial load is
obtained from the torsion formulas.
T G
J r L

= =
Where
= shear stress
r = distance of any point from the centre of cross section of the wire
/L= angle of twist per unit length

max 3
16 cos wR
d
=
Since T = wR cos for a closed coil spring direct shear stress equal to w cos/A and it is
assumed to be uniform across the cross section.
Stiffness of the spring is the load required to produce unit axial deformation, that is
stiffness (k = /l ) where is the total elongation or shortening of the spring under the action
of load. It is directly obtained from the slope of the load deformation graph.
Strain energy stored when the spring is subjected to the axial load w is given by
1
2
U w =
To calculate the modulus of rigidity G, equation (2) (3) may be used. From a graph
connecting load w and deflection, the mean value can be obtained and G can be calculated.
Instrumentation
The test setup consists of a loading device in which the load can be applied manually
by turning a hand lever. The applied load is directly read from the deliberated dial of the
loading device and the corresponding deflection can be obtained using a deflection dial guage.
The spring is placed between two plates of the loading device in the case of compression test,
or suspended on two studs in case of tension test. After placing the coil on the loading device,
zero error if any on the lead dial may be corrected by means of lever attached to it. The
deflection of the spring is obtained on the dial guage attached to the loading device.
TESTING PROCEDURE
1. Measure the diameter of the wire of the spring d, pitch of the coil p and the mean
radius of coil R.
2. Note down the number of turns of the spring, n.

3. Calculate the angle of helix using Equation (1).
4. Set up loading arrangement for compression and tension test, as desired.
5. Remove the zero error of the load dial using the lever and bring the deflection dial
pointer to read zero.
6. Apply the load at an increment of 5kgs. By operating the hand lever and note down the
corresponding dial guage readings.
7. Multiply the dial guage reading by the least count and obtain the deflection.
8. Calculate the shear stress, stiffness and strain energy for each set up of observation
and draw
a) Load vs deflection
b) Load vs maximum shear stress
c) Load vs strain energy
Load is generally taken along the y axis of the graph.
9. Get the slope of the load deflection graph and calculate the value of modulus of rigidity
G using Equ. (2) and (3) depending on whether the spring is closed or open coiled. The slope
of the load deflection graph gives the stiffness of the spring may be assumed as 0.3 for M.S
OBSERVATIONS
For open coiled spring
1. Diameter of the wire d = d
1
+d
2
+d
3
=
2. Mean radius of the coil, R = D/2 =
3. Pitch of the coil p =
4. Number of turns of the spring n =

5. Angle of helix
1
tan
2 r
=

=

6. Stiffness of spring from graph K =
7. Modulus of rigidity, G =
Deflection dial guage
reading
Sl.no
Axial load
W in Kg
Loading unloading
Deflection
in cm
Shear stress
kg/cm
2

Strain
energy

For Close Coiled Spring
1. Diameter of the wire, d =
2. Mean radius of coil, R =

3. Pitch of the coil p =
4. No of turns of the spring n =
5. Angle of helix
1
tan
2 r
=

=
6. Stiffness of spring from graph K =
7. Modulus of rigidity, G =
Deflection dial guage
reading
Deflection in
cm
Sl.no
Axial load
W in kg
loading unloading mean
Shear
stress
kg/cm
2

Strain
energy

1) Draw the cross section of the wire of the spring and indicate the shear stress distribution on
the cross section due to an axial loading of the spring. Show the stress due to
a) Torsional effect b) Bending effect c) Direct stress
2) Explain why you can use compressive loading for an spring test in the case of a closed coir
spring
3) For a slender open coiled spring will you use the spring for test as compression spring or
tension spring, why?
4) Obtain an expression for the equivalent stiffness, a system of two springs of stiffness, K
1

and K
2
if the springs are connected?
a) in series b) in parallel.
5) Experience with heavy helical spring (as used in railway carriages) indicates that usually
start on the inner side of the coil. Why does this occur?

REFERENCE
Egor P. Popov. Engineering Mechanics of Solids. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 1990.

11. TOPICS FOR SELF STUDY AND DEMONSTRATION
The topics for self study intended here are the following.
1. Extensometers and strain gauges.
2. Fatigue Test
Exercise:
Students shall collect materials on the above mentioned topics and shall submit a write
up on the same. A demonstration of the measuring instruments available in the lab will also
be done.

APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX APPENDIX
PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME
COMMON MATERIALS
D
e
n
s
i
t
y
(
g
/
c
c
)

2
.
7

2
.
7

2
.
2

-

4

7
.
8

U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

t
e
n
s
i
l
e

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

(
M
P
a
)

5
0

-

1
1
4

5
0

-

1
1
4

3

9
0

1
0
0

-

2
3
0

4
0
0

-

1
5
0
0

E
l
o
n
g
a
t
i
o
n

(
%
)

6
0

1

-

4
5

1
0

-

5
0

0

-

1

3
5

3

-

4
0

U
l
t
i
m
a
t
e

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)

7
0

1
0
0

-

5
5
0

7
-
7
0

1
0

-

7
0

2
3
0

-

3
8
0

3
0

-

1
0
0
0

6
9

-

4
8
0

3
4
0

3
4
0

-

1
9
0
0

5
0

1
0
0

Y
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
s
s

(
M
P
a
)

2
0

3
5

-

5
0
0

5
5

3
3
0

1
2
0

-

2
9
0

2
1
0

2
8
0

-

1
6
0
0

3
0

-

7
0

P
o
i
s
s
o
n
s

r
a
t
i
o

0
.
3
3

0
.
3
3

0
.
1

-

0
.
2

0
.
3
3

-

0
.
3
6

0
.
2

-

0
.
2
7

0
.
2

-

0
.
3

0
.
3

0
.
2
7

-

0
.
3

S
h
e
a
r

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
P
a
)

2
6

2
6

-

3
0

4
0

-

4
7

1
9

-

3
4

3
2

-

6
9

7
5

7
5

-

8
0

E
l
a
s
t
i
c

m
o
d
u
l
u
s

(
G
P
a
)

7
0

7
0

-

7
9

1
0

-

2
4

1
8

-

3
0

1
1
0

-

1
2
0

4
8

-

8
3

8
3

-

1
7
0

1
9
0

1
9
0

-

2
1
0

1
0

-

1
4

3
0

-

1
0
0

M
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
s

A
l
l
u
m
i
n
i
u
m

A
l
l
u
m
i
n
i
u
m

A
l
l
o
y

B
r
i
c
k

(
c
o
m
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
)

C
o
n
c
r
e
t
e

C
o
p
p
e
r

G
l
a
s
s

C
a
s
t

i
r
o
n

W
r
o
u
g
h
t

i
r
o
n

S
t
e
e
l

W
o
o
d
(
b
e
n
d
i
n
g
)

H
i
g
h

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

c
o
n
c
r
e
t
e


SMLAB

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

SMLAB

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Calicut

Material Testing Lab Manual Page 1 of 71

from the graph =

You might also like