Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340 355 www.elsevier.

com/locate/geomorph

Morphodynamic river processes and techniques for assessment of channel evolution in Alpine gravel bed rivers
E. Formann , H.M. Habersack, St. Schober
Department of Water Atmosphere Environment, Institute of Water Management, Hydrology and Hydraulic Engineering, BOKU University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences Vienna, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria Received 30 November 2005; received in revised form 22 May 2006; accepted 18 October 2006 Available online 25 April 2007

Abstract Over the past 10 years many restoration projects have been undertaken in Austria, and river engineering measures such as spur dykes and longitudinal bank protection, which imposed fixed lateral boundaries on rivers, have been removed. The EU-Life Project Auenverbund Obere Drau has resulted in extensive restoration on the River Drau, aimed to improve the ecological integrity of the river ecosystem, to arrest riverbed degradation, and to ensure flood protection. An essential part of the restoration design involved the consideration of self-forming river processes, which led to new demands being imposed on river management. This paper illustrates how model complexity is adapted to the solution and evaluation of different aspects of river restoration problems in a specific case. Point-scale monitoring data were up-scaled to the whole investigation area by means of digital elevation models, and a scaling approach to the choice of model complexity was applied. Simple regime analysis methods and 1-D models are applicable to the evaluation of long-term and reach-scale restoration aims, and to the prediction of kilometre-scale processes (e.g. mean river bed aggradation or degradation, flood protection). 2-D models gave good results for the evaluation of hydraulic changes (e.g. transverse flow velocities, shear stresses, discharges at diffluences) for different morphological units at the local scale (100 m10 m), and imposed an intermediate demand on calibration data and topographic survey. The study shows that complex 3-D numerical models combined with high resolution digital elevation models are necessary for detailed analysis of processes (1 m0.01 m), but not for the evaluation of the restoration aims on the River Drau. In conclusion, model choice (complexity) will depend on both lower limits (determined by the complexity of processes to be analysed) and upper limits (field data quality and process understanding for numerical models). 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: River restoration morphodynamics; Assessment techniques; River widening; Monitoring; Numerical modelling

1. Introduction From 1999 to 2003 under the European Life Project Auenverbund Obere Drau (Restoration of the wetland and riparian area at the Upper Drau River), restoration
Corresponding author. E-mail address: erik.formann@boku.ac.at (E. Formann). 0169-555X/$ - see front matter 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2006.10.029

measures were implemented for a river length of 7.6 km. The aims of these restoration measures were to improve the ecological functioning, to stabilise the river bed of the Drau through promoting ecologically-sustainable types of river engineering (removing protection structures from the river banks in order to widen the river bed), and to ensure flood protection (Bundeswasserbauverwaltung, 2004).

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

341

In this context biotic (e.g. fish, birds, amphibians, vegetation) and abiotic (river bed morphology) monitoring programs were established to document the effects of the restoration project. The monitoring of abiotic processes was undertaken by the Institute of Water Management, Hydrology and Hydraulic Engineering at the University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences (BOKU), Vienna (Habersack et al., 2003). The objectives of this abiotic monitoring were to document and analyse the changes in river morphology, substrate, water levels and flow velocities due to the restoration measures. This was carried out during the years 1999 to 2003 (1 year before and 3 years after the restoration measures) in three restoration sections, which are called Spittal, Kleblach and Dellach. However, monitoring based on field measurements always gives limited spatial information, depending on time and scale. Thus, numerical models are applied, firstly to increase the spatial density, secondly to provide additional explanatory information (e.g. Bradbrook et al., 1998) and thirdly to simulate processes generated by different combinations of boundary conditions (Lane et al., 1999). Therefore physicalnumerical interpolation methods are used to upscale monitoring data to the whole investigation area. This allows a complex analysis of processes (abioticbiotic) and prognosis of morphological developments regarding different boundary conditions (e.g. hydrological, hydraulic and sediment parameters). Different numerical width adjustment models exist (e.g. Molinas and Yang, 1986; Chang, 1988a,b; Van De Wiel and Darby, 2004; Rinaldi and Darby, 2005), but there is no universal model applicable to all the circumstances under which adjustments (e.g. bank failure, fluvial erosion, vegetation effects) and dynamic changes may occur. Furthermore, the choice of a numerical model depends on the aims to be analysed and evaluated. Lane et al. (1999) suggest that model choice should consider dependencies amongst a) requirements of modelling, b) scale of model application, and c) processes included in the model. They note that the scale at which a particular field observation is made should match the scale to which model predictions relate. Table 1 (based on Malcherek, 2001) presents different simulation approaches depending on spatial dimensions and resolution, and the differential equations therefore required. Spatial resolutions of 100 m to 10 m require 1-D or 2-D models. If 2-D models are used at spatial resolutions of the order of 0.01 m then the numeric simulation may produce invalid results (turbulence which does not exist in nature). Of course, a 3-D model provides a more

reliable estimate of the hydraulics, representing the effects of flow structure (caused by secondary circulation) and the three-dimensional flow field for mixing processes (Lane et al., 1999). But 3-D simulation models impose high demands on field data (e.g. boundary conditions, high resolution topographic survey), increasing the need to understand fundamental assumptions of the model for its correct application. If the field data are not of adequate quality, and/or there is no need to consider 3-D flow fields, then it is appropriate to use models of lower complexity and dimensionality in river management decision-making. Furthermore, many processes (bank failure, vegetation cover, and sediment transport) are currently only described by 1-D approaches. Further investigation is necessary to implement complex phenomena such as the role of riparian vegetation (e.g. Abernethy and Rutherfurd, 1998; Simon and Collison, 2002; Van De Wiel and Darby, 2004), and bank hydrology (e.g. Rinaldi and Casagli, 1999; Rinaldi et al., 2004) in modelling software. Fully-coupled interactions amongst different processes are often not considered (Rinaldi and Darby, 2005), and most reviews tend to reduce their approach to focus on a single set of processes. This study illustrates some applications of approaches to channel evolution, and shows the need for models of reduced complexity to evaluate river restoration measures. First, assessment techniques and numerical models are tested against the monitoring data set and are verified using a river scaling concept (Habersack et al., 2000). Secondly, the achievements of the restoration aims are evaluated using calibrated models of reduced complexity, appropriate for the complexity of the restoration aims. The evaluation questions which have to be answered in this study are based on different levels of process representation, and these levels defined the lower limit of model application. The main objective of this paper is to discuss the various levels of complexity

Table 1 Simulation approaches depending on the dimensionality, required differential equations and spatial resolution Dimension DNS LES RANS 3D hydrostatic Depth averaged Cross section averaged 3 3 3 3 2 1 Differential equation 4 4 4 3 3 2 Resolution 1 mm 1 cm 1 dm 1m 10 m 100 m

DNS, Direct simulation, LES, Large eddy simulation, RANS, Reynolds averaged Navier Stokes equation (Malcherek, 2001).

342

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

in monitoring and modelling required to analyse and evaluate river restoration projects. 2. The study reach 2.1. River engineering measures and changes in river morphology This paper analyses one of three restored reaches of the River Drau, that in KleblachLind in the south of Austria (Fig. 1). With a total length of approximately 2 km, this reach was historically (before the 20th century) a partially-braided, aggrading channel system with a large sediment supply from Alpine sources (Nachtnebel et al., 1993). However, high floods at the end of the 19th century and again in the 1960s required solutions for flood control and to minimise river bed aggradation. To achieve these objectives, a variety of bank protection measures was performed, and the river bed was channelized. This caused uniform river widths of c. 50 m and an average water depth of c. 4.5 m at the mean annual flood (300 m3 s 1). These measures, together with catchment-wide changes, caused economical and ecological problems (Habersack and Nachtnebel, 1994). In order to improve the ecological functioning of the Drau river and to minimise river bed degradation, river bed widening measures were implemented from 1999 to 2003 (Habersack et al., 2003). This included re-opening

a left-bank sidearm of the river over a length of 450 m, so that the flow diverges around an island (see Fig. 1). Hence, the morphology has changed significantly, to a river with high structural variability, with gravel bars, still water zones and islands. River widths now range from 80 to 120 m, and the average water depth is c.3.5 m at the mean annual flood (c. 300 m3 s 1). 2.2. Hydrology The seasonal distribution of discharge in the Drau is dominated by glacier melt, with minimum flow in winter and a maximum in June/July. At the gauging station of Sachsenburg the drainage basin is 2561.4 km2. The channel slope is about 0.0015 m/m, the mean flow is 76 m3 s 1, with the 30-year flood being 840 m3 s 1 and the 100-year flood being c. 1029 m3 s 1. Of its tributaries, the Isel River, draining a large area in the central Alpine region, has the greatest influence on the sediment regime. The hydrograph during the monitoring period for this study is shown in Fig. 2. 3. Monitoring and modelling methods 3.1. Field monitoring methods During the EU Life Project from 2001 to 2003 and for two years after it, annual field measurements were accomplished to document and analyse the river

Fig. 1. Location map and air photograph of the study reach on the Drau River at KleblachLind in the south of Austria.

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

343

Fig. 2. Hydrograph at Sachsenburg with dates of field measurements during the Life-Project related to the restoration measure at KleblachLind from June 2002 to June 2003.

geometry, morphological structures, substrate changes and hydraulic parameters in KleblachLind. The field measurement methodology is described in detail in Mayr (2003) and Schober (2004) and is therefore not described in detail here, although a summary is provided to assist in the understanding of monitoring and modelling decisions. Surveys of the submerged area, the water line and the area of shallows (b 0.5 m depth) were performed by tacheometric survey. A boat with a differential GPS (Leica System 500) and an echo sounder (Atlas Deso 14, 210 kHz, 3) allowed rapid cross section surveys with distances of c.15 m between each profile. This was validated by means of tacheometric surveys. Average accuracies were 0.02 m (depending on depth) for z-coordinates, and 0.01 m for the x- and y-coordinates. Flow velocities and directions were measured with a 2-D electro-magnetic velocity meter (P-EMS, Delft Hydraulics). Substrate data were acquired for the surface layer, using a boat with an underwater camera for deep areas, and volumetric samples for shallow water areas and for gravel bars. An underwater video camera with a recorder on board the boat ensured the exact selection and documentation of sample areas. The position of individual points was determined by simultaneous measurement using a differential GPS (Mayr, 2003; Schober, 2004). These field measurements provide a very good basis for this study of the application of modelling at different levels of complexity in river management. However,

the field flow velocity data are only 2-dimensional, and although the GPS and echo sounder data are high quality, the bed elevations between each cross section (separated by about 15 m) are not known. This means that the monitoring system and resultant data limit the application of complex models. A 3-D model requires 3-D flow velocities for each node at the inflow (boundary condition) and detailed topographic information to solve for the complex 3-D flow close to the bed. However, to evaluate this restoration reach over a kilometre scale such detail in the monitored data was unnecessary to assess river degradation and flood protection. Thus, the monitoring data define an upper limit for numerical modelling applications. 3.2. Generating digital elevation models with the field data set For the aims and objectives of this study (to evaluate restoration measures using models of appropriate complexity) data were aggregated from original point surveys by means of digital elevation models (DEM). The point data were converted to a continuous form using an interpolation method (Siska and Hung, 2000). There are different interpolation methods, which can generally be divided into deterministic and stochastic approaches (Keckler, 1995; Dollinger and Strobl, 1996). The advantages of using deterministic methods such as TIN (triangulated irregular network) and IDW (inverse distance weighting) are that one can exactly interpolate

344

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

Fig. 3. Results of monitoring. Digital elevation models showing the morphological changes from 2001 to 2005 in the side channel initiated on the left bank.

the observed coordinates. However, single points do bear great weight and can give a false impression of detailed morphological structures. Chaplot et al. (2006) evaluated the performance of these techniques for point height data with density values from 4 to 109 points/km2 various for surface areas from micro-plots, hillslopes and catchments. Kriging yielded the best estimations at the lower sampling densities, and in landscapes with strong spatial structure, low variation of altitude and low anisotropy. The field data set of the topographic survey in this study has sampling densities from 104 to 105 points/km2, a high structural variability (poolriffle, embayment) and a low variation of altitude. Thus Kriging was used for generating several DEMs for the analysis of the morphological changes. General advantages of this method are given in Vann et al. (2003). 3.3. Model complexity in relation to restoration aims and data quality First, regime theory was used to analyse the overall self-adjustment of the river, particularly the minimum length of enlargement for self-dynamic development (Hunzinger, 1998) and the estimation of the maximum

river width (Schmautz, 2003) over the restored reach. The necessary sedimentological parameters, such as characteristic grain diameters and grain size distribution statistics, were determined by sieving. To simulate the more detailed effects of morphological change, models of appropriate levels of complexity were used, dependent on the quality of the field data, and in an efficient hierarchical approach. The 1-D model HEC-RAS (Brunner, 2002) was used to simulate hydraulics and sediment transport, combined with its extension HEC-GeoRAS (Ackerman, 2002) for the preparation of geospatial data at the reach scale (2 km). This permitted analysis of changes in water depth, longitudinal flow velocities, shear stresses and sediment transport capacity. On the other hand, the 2-D model CCHE2D (National Center for Computational Hydroscience and Engineering) was used to analyse particular morphological units, such as gravel bars, islands, embayments, and the restored sidearm Formann et al., 2004. This is a 2-D depth-averaged, unsteady, flow and sediment transport model. Turbulent shear stresses are approximated using Boussinesq's approximation and the turbulent eddy viscosity is evaluated using three different closure schemes. The numerical method involves an implicit solution, and

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

345

Fig. 4. The mass balance with average sedimentation of 0.10 m for the side-channel and 0.006 m for the main-channel for the total restored section on the Drau at KleblachLind from 2003 to 2004.

uses the control volume approach and the efficient CCHE2D finite element method (Wang Sam and Hu, 1992; Jia and Wang, 2001). This numerical model was chosen to simulate variability in water levels or discharge, transverse flow velocities, and shear stresses in areas with morphological variety, and also to verify sediment transport in widened sections. This used field data from 1 year before and 3 years after the restoration. The 2-D model necessitated attention to numerical stability, computation of dry cells, and the possibility of modelling sediment transport. It enabled detailed and accurate simulation of water levels and longitudinal and transverse flow velocities, and of the processes arising from the morphological changes in the River Drau. This summary indicates that a hierarchical approach to model complexity was adopted, appropriate to the varied complexity of the restoration aims and the quality of the field data. 4. Results of monitoring and modelling the River Drau restoration 4.1. Morphological changes based on the monitored data The monitoring results document high variability in morphodynamic processes, especially where the river has widened in the initiated left-bank sidearm, in which width increased rapidly due to bank erosion (Fig. 3) after the first month. This resulted from an event which peaked at a discharge of c.300 m3 s 1, which occurs about once a year on average, and was attained three times in the period 20022003. A maximum discharge of 400 m3 s 1 occurred in December 2002, which is not

a typical timing (see Section 2). This discharge has a return period of about 2 years. The entrance of the initiated sidearm was widened from 22 m to 65 m 8 months after its first opening. Then, growing gravel bars deflected the flow and initiated further bank failure. At the entrance to the sidearm the mid-channel bar consists of coarse gravel, in contrast to the sandy pointbar on the right-bank at the downstream end of the sidearm. Much woody debris was deposited in the middle of the new channel, causing very high variability in morphological structure (gravel bars, woody debris, and rifflepool sequences), which created new and different habitats (Unfer et al., 2004). In the hydraulic modelling, the presence of large woody debris has been accommodated by adjustments of the roughness coefficient, not by treating it as an element of the bed topography. The mass balance (Fig. 4) illustrates an average sedimentation of 0.10 m between June 2003 and June 2004 in the sidearm, corresponding to a mass balance of about +3000 m3 over a length of 500 m. The average bed elevation change in the main channel over the same period was 0.06 m, implying accumulation of c.10,000 m3 over 2000 m. These mass balance data show that river degradation had ceased after restoration, but the annual analyses suggest that river widening has not yet reached a dynamic equilibrium (Fig. 5). Data from other locations, for comparison, include maximum fine sediment deposition rates of 0.0030.071 m/yr (Lewis and Lewin, 1983), and average sedimentation rates of 0.100.14 m/yr (Erskine et al., 1992). However, field measurements by Hooke (1999) show that the rate of fill in channel sidearms is markedly non-linear, and

346

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

Fig. 5. Morphological changes (erosiondeposition) in cross Section 4 from 2002 to 2005 (note the accumulation of the mid-channel gravel bar).

later phases of deposition are much slower. Thus accretion of gravel bars in the Drau is still continuing, but the deposition rate is likely to reduce in the coming years. Rapid changes in bank erosion also stopped after 1 year, which is similar to the results of river channel adjustment following meander cutoff reported by Hooke (1999). She documented rapid changes in the first 2 3 years with adjustments of width, bar and riffle morphology, followed by stabilisation after 48 years. It is expected that the Drau mid-channel bar will enlarge and attach to the left bank, that vertical accretion may increase, and that growth of vegetation will occur on the gravel bars. The last process has already been observed as willow seedlings have become established on the medial bars in the restored left-bank sidearm of the Drau (Fig. 3). Analysis of the DEMs shows that the dominant process following the Drau restoration has been channel widening due to massive bank erosion in the initiated branch. This process involves both fluvial erosion (e.g. Rodi, 1980; Van Rijn, 1984; Hey, 1997) and bank mass failure (e.g. Thorne, 1982; Pizzuto, 1990). This fourfold widening in some cross sections was unexpected, and the sedimentation of bed material due to sideerosion and bed load input may prove to be a problem for flood protection (see below, Section 4.3.1 on 1-D hydrodynamic modelling). 4.2. Applications of regime theory to the River Drau In this and the following section data are used to test and demonstrate applications of some of the modelling approaches identified in Table 2 (based on Thorne, 1998a; Darby and Van De Wiel, 2003). The results provide information on the achievement of the restoration aims, and should also offer a basis for guidance for river engineers in future restoration initiatives.

The first approach is to apply regime theory to the assessment of the post-restoration equilibrium channel geometry. For example, Hunzinger (1998) describes a quantitative criterion for braided river adjustment (Eq. (1)) in which the length of the widened reach must

Table 2 Overview of prediction methods and processes depending on the state of the river (Thorne, 1998a,b, modified) Equilibrium streams (steady-state) Regime theory and power law approach Extremal hypothesis References Bray (1982), Hey and Thorne (1986), Julien and Wargadalam (1995), Schmautz (2003) Bettess and White (1987), Chang (1988a), Yang (1992), Millar and Quick (1997) Glover and Florey (1951), Lane (1955), Parker (1979), Ikeda and Izumni (1991), Diplas and Vigilar (1992)

Tractive force methods

Nonequilibrium streams Fluvial complexity channel boundary, longitudinal changes, channel boundaries in near bank zone Bank mechanics bank erosion, weakening, mass failure Einstein and Li (1958), Van Rijn (1984), Yen (1993), Darby and Thorne (1996), Thorne (1998a), Millar (2000), Schmautz (2003) Grissinger (1982), Lawler (1993), Darby and Thorne (1996), Hey (1997), Rinaldi et al. (2001), Lawler (2005), Rinaldi and Darby (2005) Carson and Kirkby (1972), Thorne (1982, 1998a) Kirkby and Morgan (1980), Hey and Thorne (1986), Coppin and Richards (1990), Thorne et al. (1993), Darby and Thorne (1996), Van De Wiel and Darby (2004)

Basal endpoint Vegetation effects

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

347

Fig. 6. Comparison between measured and estimated maximum cross section width (after Schmautz, 2003) for a range of assumed bed material grain sizes.

exceed 2 LW,Dim to achieve a dynamic evolution of the river channel. LW;Dim BA BK 1 2:81ln1 F 2 1

are also necessary (Schober and Habersack, 2004). Nevertheless, these two examples of regime modelling demonstrate that such approaches can be used by river engineers for initial estimates of self-formed adjustment to equilibrium in contexts with limited data availability at the reach scale. 4.3. Modelling river restoration with varying degrees of complexity 4.3.1. 1-D hydrodynamic modelling The cross sectional scale is the most frequently used spatial unit in river engineering projects over river length scales of 1100 km (Habersack, 1997). Here, 1-D hydraulic simulation software such as HEC-RAS (US Army Corps of Engineers) can be used, and is applied to the River Drau over a length scale of approximately 2 km. An overview of the realized restoration measures at this scale is shown in Fig. 7B. This shows that the upstream reach was markedly widened, with embayments developed along the right bank. The next reach was only minimally widened, and the riprap was removed. Below this, a small branch at the right river bank was dug, creating two islands. Furthermore a second, 450 m long sidearm on the left river bank was initiated. This resulted in a doubling of the cross sectional width and created basic conditions for a development of a dynamic river morphology. Hydraulic processes are simplified in 1-D models, and the detailed effects of local morphological structures are not considered. However, for evaluation of the water depth, velocity changes, shear stresses and sediment transport capacity, the calibration and validation of this reduced complexity model gives acceptable results, and requires simplified field data (cross section profiles,

where BA = river width in the enlargement section, BK= river width in the original channel, F represents the ratio of kinetic and potential energy in the narrow and the wide channel (for discharges larger than double the critical discharge for bed load initial motion, this depends only on the ratio BA/BK), LW,Dim = the distance from the enlargement section to the point where the expanding flow meets the rigid boundary of the widening for the first time. The calculation of this criterion for the Kleblach Lind reach resulted in 2 LW,Dim = 320 m, in comparison to the restored reach length of 450 m. Schmautz (2003) uses a procedure for estimating river widening in a river section with dynamic side erosion. Characteristic river parameters are determined in addition to the regime width and the regime length, based on the grain diameter, widthdepth ratio, slope and scale. The estimation of the river width is here based on data from physical laboratory model tests. Fig. 6 compares width changes in the reach where the sidearm was initiated with an estimate after Schmautz (2003). This shows differences of from 8% to 27% between the measured river width in 2005 and the estimated value, depending on the grain diameter used in the prediction. Given that the sidearm width increased by about 340% from 2002 to 2005, this prediction error is reasonable. This method was undertaken without assuming vegetation, for cohesion-less banks, and in straight river reaches. Additional investigations that consider bends, cohesive material, and the effects of vegetation

348

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

Fig. 7. Overview of the A) regulated river section in 2001 and B) restored channel with altered widths in 2003 in the KleblachLind reach (1D-model, HEC-RAS Schober, 2004; modified).

inflow characteristics) compared to higher dimensionality models. 4.3.1.1. Changes of hydraulic parameters. The changed cross sections due to river widening have a critical influence on hydraulic parameters. Flow velocities and shear stresses decreased significantly in the widened sections in comparison to the channelized sec-

tions. Differences in mean flow velocity of c. 0.25 ms 1 and a decrease of average bed shear stresses of about 27 Nm 2 were simulated. These imply sedimentation on the river bed and further reduction of depth. In the widened sections a water depth of 3.8 m at the mean annual flood (300 m3 s 1) was simulated, compared to 4.5 m in the regulated channel before restoration (Fig. 8). These results, compared with field data in this reach,

Fig. 8. 1-D modelling results of the water level changes at 300 m3 s 1 (the mean annual flood) and given the restoration measures in the Kleblach Lind reach.

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

349

Fig. 9. 1-D modelling results of the sediment transport capacity at 300 m3 s 1 (the mean annual flood) before and after the restoration measures in the KleblachLind reach Schober, 2004; modified.

support the view that the effects of restoration could be modelled satisfactorily. 4.3.1.2. Sediment transport capacity. The particular objective of reducing river bed degradation after channel widening were analysed by simulating sediment transport capacity. The software HEC-RAS allows calculation of sediment transport capacity on the basis of different sediment transport formulae. Schober (2004) selected formulae for the simulations (Habersack and Laronne, 2000) appropriate for gravel bed rivers (Gomez and Church, 1989). The aim of the simulation was to analyse changes in sediment transport capacity due to river widening, and to judge correlations with the measured river bed geometry. For this an average bedload grain diameter was used, based on monitoring by Hudetz (1999) and Schober (1999). Comparison of modelled sediment transport capacity with measured river bed changes was based on using the Meyer-Peter and Mller (1948) equation. In this case, the empirical process understanding (1-D) is adequate for the applied model. Hunzinger (2003) illustrated that sediment transport decreases in relation to increases in the river bed width. For a given sediment input, the equilibrium slope is steeper in a wider section than in a narrow section. This higher slope in a widened reach affects the river bed upstream. Schober (2004) showed that the difference in sediment transport capacity before and after restoration measures provides useful information about longitudinal bed level changes related to

erosion and sedimentation. Furthermore, a decrease in sediment transport capacity and resultant river bed aggradation after restoration could be analysed (Fig. 9) satisfactorily, and a reduction of river degradation could be predicted with this simple 1-D model. 4.3.2. 2-D hydrodynamic modelling Homogeneous structures, long-term and reach-scale changes can be modelled well by means of 1-D numerical models. However, at the local scale (e.g. inundation areas, river channels with islands, detailed structures associated with woody debris, successive changes in width involving narrowing and widening, transverse currents in embayments) the application of 1-D models is impossible. To simulate and understand processes in non-homogenous river channels, 2-D numerical models must therefore be used (Gilvear, 1999; Schober, 2004). The 2-D model CCHE2D (National Center for Computational Hydroscience and Engineering) was therefore applied to illustrate the specific discharge, shear stresses and the discharge division in particular morphological units (e.g. embayments, sidearms, gravel bars). This was carried out to analyse the objectives of the restoration as a result of the morphological development after the realized restoration measures, on the basis of the monitoring data sets from 2002 to 2005. 4.3.2.1. Specific discharge (m2/s1). The specific discharge (m2 s 1) permits visualisation of characteristic flow paths (Fig. 10), and enables an overview of

350

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

Fig. 10. a) 2-D modelling results (CCHE2D) of the specific discharge (m2 s 1) at 420 m3 s 1 (bankfull discharge) and b) air photograph with highlighted gravel bars.

morphological impacts on flow patterns. A mix of dry, shallow and deep water areas, and pool and riffle sequences, is apparent in the initiated sidearm in comparison to the original channel with its homogeneous bends. Furthermore, changes in wetted areas can be determined, to indicate variability in river morphology, and to infer expected ecological boundary conditions and resultant habitats (Jungwirth et al., 2003). Visualising flow in deep pools also allows early analysis of potentially sensitive areas where river engineering measures may be necessary in the future. For example, the specific discharge shows that the right-bank embankment in the main channel is in danger of undercutting. This situation

has not changed after restoration and demands continuing river management activity. 4.3.2.2. Shear stresses (N/m2). This visualisation (Fig. 11) shows the variability of shear stress in different morphological areas. Low stresses in the lee of the two islands at the upstream of the section are clearly visible, and are likely to lead to future sedimentation. Sedimentation can also be expected in the widened sections where shear stresses are reduced in comparison to the regulated sections. High shear stresses occur at the top of the upstream island in Fig. 11 and on the right bank at the beginning of the right-bank lateral channel, causing

Fig. 11. 2-D modelling results (CCHE2D) of the shear stresses (Nm 2) at 420 m3 s 1 and sensitive areas with high shear stresses highlighted (top of the island at the right bank, gravel bars).

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

351

Fig. 12. 2-D modelling results (CCHE2D) for the divided flow in the side channel as a percentage of total discharge.

lateral erosion at this island. These calculations have been carried out for different discharges. Sensitive locations can be identified from the patterns in the hydraulic parameters, and future morphological changes can be inferred by relating the shear stress distributions to flow competence and the availability of mobile sediment. 4.3.2.3. Discharge division. Fig. 12 shows the results of 2-D hydrodynamic simulations for different discharges (40 m3 s 1, 115 m3 s 1, 420 m3 s 1). At 420 m3 s 1 the sidearm discharge increased significantly (within one year by 19% as a percentage of total discharge). However, the flow changes stagnated in the sidearm between 2003 and 2004 as the gravel bar grew and the structural variety increased as a result of woody debris. Between 2004 and 2005 the discharge decreased rapidly because of sedimentation (Fig. 3). The wide range in the percentage of total flow through the sidearm at different discharges (4%24%) indicates the high structural variability, especially important at lower discharges and suggesting that there is an improved diversity of habitat which improves the ecological condition. These results show that the hydraulic changes can be simulated using a 2-D model, providing information about ecological boundary conditions influenced by the restoration measures. 4.3.2.4. Modelling of sediment transport. Sediment transport modelling was based on equilibrium bed load transport of a uniform grain size, and allows for the effect of secondary flow on the sediment motion in curved channels. Depth-integrated velocities from the hydrodynamic simulation for each node of the finite element mesh were used to determine sediment transport. For sediment input, the measured grain size distribution (Hudetz, 1999; Schober, 1999) was used. The results of modelling provide qualitative evidence

about transport capacity, but are inconclusive because they ignore the effect of lateral sediment supply from bank erosion, a process that has not been given much attention in the research to date but is clearly very important for the sediment flux and for sedimentation. Complex processes in the initiated sidearm at Kleblach Lind include bank failure (e.g. Thorne, 1982; Van De Wiel and Darby, 2004), dependent on fluvial erosion (Schmautz, 2003; Rinaldi and Darby, 2005) and basal endpoint control, and these cannot be ignored. Channel dynamics also depend on bank material and vegetation (Darby and Thorne, 1996; Rinaldi et al., 2001), and detailed models of the effect of river widening need to represent these fully. Thus, process understanding presents a second upper limit to modelling (the first upper limit being detailed topographic information; see above). This often limits model ability when applied to natural river channels (Lane et al., 1999). 5. Discussion and conclusions The extensive restoration measures implemented within the EU-Life Project Auenverbund Obere Drau demonstrated that the combined aims of stopping riverbed degradation, ensuring flood protection, and improving the ecological integrity of the river-ecosystem (see Jungwirth et al., 2003) are possible (Habersack et al., 2003). To achieve this, it was necessary to modify the boundary conditions that were preventing selfforming development; for example, removing riprap to initiate bank erosion. This causes a challenge for river engineers to determine the required spatial extent for morphological development, and to predict dynamic channel evolution. Detailed morphological changes at the local scale are difficult to predict and complex numerical modelling and extensive and time consuming field monitoring would be necessary.

352

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

Fig. 13. State of the art a) monitoring and b) modelling, concerning different complexity for hydrodynamic, bedload and morphodynamic parameters. Definition of minimum reduced complexity for this case study.

In this connection, Fig. 13 summarizes the state of the art of monitoring and modelling systems. Not all of them are efficient for the evaluation of the restoration aims. Therefore, models with a reduced level of complexity are necessary. This paper has shown that simple analysis (such as regime theory) is applicable for larger scales including the overall river morphology (e.g. river width, length of minimum river widening). Hydraulic effects due to morphological changes were sufficiently determined by means of 1-D (reach scale) and 2-D (local scale) models. Short-term development and significant morphological changes were derivable from the 2-D model results. The choice of models must always consider the data quality combined with the scale of interest, and applications of numerical models depend on lower and upper limits in relation to complexity. The lower limits for different modelling applications are defined by critical factors to be analysed. The first upper limit is defined by the field data quality, e.g. the quality of topographic information and boundary conditions (water level, flow velocity, and inflow characteristics). The second upper limit is defined by the understanding and implementation of complex processes in numerical models. Fig. 13 shows an overview of the monitoring and modelling systems (1-D and 2-D) used in this case study. The minimum complexity of 1-D and 2-D models for hydrodynamic, bedload transport and morphological change is not fully achieved, especially since 2-D simulation of morphodynamic changes has not been possible. However, monitoring complex hydrodynamic processes is possible (e.g. 3-D flow velocities), implying that the complexity of modelling and monitoring do not match. 3-D hydrodynamic modelling can be state-of-

the-science, but concerning complex bed load transport and morphological modelling, deficiencies still exist. 2D modelling of river morphology is possible only to a limited degree, although 2-D monitoring of channel morphodynamics is feasible (Mosselman, 1995). 2-D modelling of bed load transport has recently improved significantly, although bedload transport equations are still restricted to 1-D approaches. These examples demonstrate the need to choose models of an appropriate level of complexity for the purpose, scale, data acquisition methods and process representation. In summary the following conclusions for the River Drau can be derived. 1. River widening measures satisfy restoration aims (flood protection, ecological improvement, and stopping river degradation). 2. Rapid changes decreased after 12 years (bank erosion), but a dynamic equilibrium is not reached in the restored sections after 45 years, thus morphodynamic changes are expected (accretion of gravel bars and vegetation cover). 3. Achievement of the aims can be analysed and evaluated with models of appropriate and reduced complexity applicable at different scales. 4. The choice of a numerical model depends on a lower limit (complexity of the processes to be analysed) and an upper limit (field data quality and computational and process understanding limitations). 5. Channel equilibrium approaches are sufficient for the first general estimation at the reach scale (e.g. river widths, necessary widening length for self-forming evolution) and dominant processes should be defined before numerical models are used to simulate details.

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355

353

6. Morphological effects at the reach scale (1 km) can be determined by 1-D models (e.g. water levels, flow velocity distribution, shear stress, average sedimentation), where there are fewer demands for detailed field data. 7. For local analysis (500 m10 m) and for predictions of sensitive hydraulic and morphodynamic processes, 2-D models with medium requirements for field data are necessary. 8. For complex morphological changes and detailed process understanding, 3-D approaches have to be used, but highly detailed field data are necessary and complex process understanding must be implemented in the models. 9. Further research is necessary both into measuring techniques (for example, of pore water pressure, bank failure, and the influence of vegetation on bank erosion), and into modelling methods that incorporate data from such methods. This study has thus emphasized the necessity for, and efficiency of, a hierarchical analysis for river management by means of which appropriate assessment techniques can be integrated with models of appropriate levels of complexity and dimensionality. Acknowledgements We acknowledge financial support from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management and the Carinthia Water Authority. We thank Peter Mayr, Michael Beheshti, Hugo Seitz and Marcel Liedermann for their help during field work. References
Abernethy, B., Rutherfurd, I.D., 1998. Where along a river's length will vegetation most effectively stabilize stream banks? Geomorphology 23, 5575. Ackerman, C.T., 2002. HEC-GeoRAS. An Extension for Support of HEC-RAS Using ArcView GIS. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Hydrologic Engineering Center, HEC. CA 95616-4687. Bettess, R., White, W.R., 1987. Extremal hypotheses applied to river regime. In: Thorne, C.R., Bathurst, J.C., Hey, R.D. (Eds.), Sediment Transport in Gravel-Bed Rivers. Wiley, Chichester, pp. 767791. Bradbrook, K.F., Biron, P., Lane, S.N., Richards, K.S., Roy, A.G., 1998. Investigation of controls on secondary circulation and mixing processes in a simple confluence geometry using a threedimensional numerical model. Hydrological Processes 12, 13711396. Bray, D.I., 1982. Regime equations for gravel-bed rivers. In: Hey, R.D., Bathurst, J.C., Thorne, C.R. (Eds.), Gravel Bed Rivers: Fluvial Processes, Engineering and Management. Wiley, Chichester, pp. 517552.

Brunner, G.W., 2002. HEC-RAS. River Analysis System User's Manual. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Hydrologic Engineering Center, HEC. CA 95616-4687. Bundeswasserbauverwaltung, 2004. Endbericht. Life-Projekt-Auenverbund Obere Drau. Amt der Krntner Landesregierung. LIFE99 NAT/A/006055. Carson, M.A., Kirkby, M.J., 1972. Hillslope Form and Process. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 475 pp. Chang, H.H., 1988a. Fluvial Processes in River Engineering. WileyInterscience, New York. Chang, H.H., 1988b. Introduction to FLUVIAL-12 Mathematical Model for Erodible Channels Twelve Selected Computer Stream Sedimentation Model Developed in the United States. Fed. Energy Regulatory Commission, Washington, D.C. Chaplot, V., Darboux, F., Bourennane, H., Lequedois, S., Silvera, N., Phachomphon, K., 2006. Accuracy of interpolation techniques for the derivation of digital elevation models in relation to landform types and data density. Geomorphology. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph. 2005.12.010. Coppin, N.J., Richards, I.G., 1990. Use of Vegetation in Civil Engineering. Butterworths, London. Darby, S.E., Thorne, C.R., 1996. Development and testing of a riverbank-stability analysis. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 122, 443454. Darby, S.E., Van De Wiel, M.J., 2003. Models in fluvial geomorphology. In: Kondolf, G.M., Pigay, H. (Eds.), Tools in Fluvial Geomorphology. Wiley, Chichester, pp. 503537. Diplas, P., Vigilar, G.G., 1992. Hydraulic geometry of threshold channels. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 118, 597614. Dollinger, F., Strobl, J., 1996. Angewandte Geographische Informationsverarbeitung VIII. Salzburger Geographische Materialien, Heft 24. Selbstverlag des Instituts fr Geographie der Universitt Salzburg. Einstein, H.A., Li, H., 1958. Secondary currents in straight channels. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 39, 10851088. Erskine, W., McFadden, C., Bishop, P., 1992. Alluvial cutoffs as indicators of former channel conditions. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 17, 2337. Formann, E., Schober, St., Habersack, H.M., 2004. Monitoring and modelling of river widening processes in an alpine river. In: Hu, Chunhong, Tan, Ying, Shao, Xuejun (Eds.), Ninth International Symposium on River Sedimentation. October 1821, 2004, Yichang, China; Proceedings Available on CD. ISBN: 7-89494565-X, pp. 16271634. Gilvear, D.J., 1999. Fluvial geomorphology and river engineering: future roles utilizing a fluvial hydrosystems framework. Geomorphology 31, 229245. Glover, R.E., Florey, Q.L., 1951. Stable Channel Profiles. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, vol. 235. (Denver, Colorado). Gomez, B., Church, M., 1989. Assessment of bed load sediment transport formulae for gravel bed rivers. Water Resources Research 6, 11611186. Grissinger, E.H., 1982. Bank erosion of cohesive materials. In: Hey, R.D., Bathurst, J.C., Thorne, C.R. (Eds.), Gravel-Bed Rivers. Wiley, Chichester, pp. 273287. Habersack, H.M., 1997. Catchment-wide, sectional and local aspects in sediment transport modelling and monitoring. International Journal of Sediment Research 12, 120130. Habersack, H.M., Laronne, J.B., 2000. Evaluation and improvement of bedload discharge formulas based on HelleySmith sampling in an Alpine gravel bed river. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 128, 484499.

354

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355 Ancient Fluvial Systems. Int. Assoc. Sediment. Sp. Publ., vol. 6, pp. 145154. Malcherek, A., 2001. Hydromechanik der Fliegewsser. - Hannover, 2001. - XI, 382 S. (Bericht // Institut fr Strmungsmechanik und Elektronisches Rechnen im Bauwesen der Universitt Hannover; 61) Zugl.: Hannover, Univ., Habil.-Schr., 2001 Berichterstatter: Zielke/Zimmermann/Seus. Mayr, P. 2003. Weiterentwicklung von Messtechnik und Methodiken im Wasserbau, Dissertation, Universitt fr Bodenkultur in Wien, IWHW. Meyer-Peter, E., Mller, R., 1948. Formulas for bed-load transport. International Association of Hydraulic Research, 2nd Meeting, Stockholm, Sweden. Millar, R.G., 2000. Influence of bank vegetation on alluvial channel patterns. Water Resources Research 36, 11091118. Millar, R.G., Quick, M.C., 1997. Discussion of development and testing of a riverbank-stability analysis, by S. E. Darby, and C. T. Thorne. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 123, 1051. Molinas, A., Yang, C.T., 1986. Computer program users manual for GSTARS. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Engrg. and Res. Ctr., Colorado State Univ., Ft Collins, Colorado. Mosselman, E., 1995. A review of mathematical models of river planform changes. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 20, 661670. Nachtnebel, H.P, Graf, M., Habersack, H.M., 1993. Gewsserbetreuungskonzept Obere Drau, Arbeitspaket Flussmorphologie. Studie, im Auftrag des BMLF und der Krntner Landes-regierung. Parker, G., 1979. Hydraulic geometry of active gravel rivers. Journal of Hydraulic Division ASCE 105, 11851201. Pizzuto, J.E., 1990. Numerical simulation of gravel bed widening. Water Resources Research 26, 19711980. Rinaldi, M., Casagli, N., 1999. Stability of streambanks formed in partially saturated soils and effects of negative pore water pressures: the Sieve River (Italy). Geomorphology 26, 253277. Rinaldi, M., Darby, S.E., 2005. Advances in modelling river bank erosion processes. Oral Presentation. 6th Gravel Bed River Workshop (Austria). Rinaldi, M., Dapporto, S., Casagli, N., 2001. Monitoring and modelling of unsaturated flow and mechanisms of riverbank failure in gravel bed rivers. In: Nolan, T., Thorne, C.R. (Eds.), Gravel Bed Rivers 2000 CD-ROM. Special Publication of the New Zealand Hydrological Society. Rinaldi, M., Casagli, N., Dapporto, S., Gargini, A., 2004. Monitoring and modelling of pore water pressure changes and riverbank stability during flow events. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 29, 237254. Rodi, W., 1980. Turbulence models and their application in hydraulics. Int. Assn. for Hydr. Res. IAHR, Delft, The Netherlands, pp. 1104. Schmautz, M., 2003. Eigendynamische Aufweitung in einer geraden Gewssertrecke. Bericht des Lehrstuhls fr Wasserbau und Wasserwirtschaft im Institut fr Wasserwesen an der Technischen Universitt Mnchen. Schober, St. 1999. Messung des Feststofftransportes an der Oberen Drau und der Unteren Isel. Memethodik, Instrumentierung und Mglichkeiten des Einsatzes moderner Metechnik zur Kontrolle von Geschiebemessungen. Diplomarbeit am Institut fr Wasserwirtschaft, Hydrologie und konstruktiven Wasserbau, Universitt fr Bodenkultur. Schober, St. 2004. Raum-zeitliche Analyse flussmorphologischer Fragestellungen in alpinen Einzugsgebieten, Dissertation, BOKUWien.

Habersack, H.M., Nachtnebel, H.P., 1994. Analysis of sediment transport developments in relation to human impacts. International Symposium on Variability in Stream Erosion and Sediment Transport. IAHS Publ., vol. 224 (Canberra, Australia). Habersack, H.M., Koch, M., Nachtnebel, H.P., 2000. Flussaufweitungen in sterreich: Entwicklung, Stand und Ausblick. sterreichische Wasser- und Abfallwirtschaft, Heft 7/8, Jg. 52. Habersack, H.M., Schober, St., Formann, E., Beheshti, K., Daniczek, M., 2003. Flussmorphologisches Monitoring im Rahmen des LIFEProjektes Obere Drau. (Hrsg.): BMLFUW: 20. Flussbautagung LIFE-SYMPOSIUM: Gewsserbetreuung und die EU-Wasserrahmenrichtlinie-Umsetzung am Beispiel von LIFE Projekten, Sept. 2003, Spittal/Drau, Wien (ISBN 3-85 174-47-5). Hey, R.D., 1997. Channel response and channel forming discharge. Final Report, U.S. Army Res. Office (London). Univ. of East Anglia, Norwich, U.K. Hey, R.D., Thorne, C.R., 1986. Stable channels with mobile gravel beds. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 112, 671689. Hooke, J.M., 1999. River channel adjustment to meander cutoffs on the River Bollin and River Dane, northwest England. Geomorphology 14, 235253. Hudetz, J., 1999. Messung des Feststofftransportes an der Oberen Drau und der Unteren Isel. Datenauswertung und Analyse, Vergleiche und Zusammenhnge ausgewhlter Messtellen; Diplomarbeit am Institut fr Wasserwirtschaft, Hydrologie und konstruktiven Wasserbau, Universitt fr Bodenkultur. Hunzinger, L.M., 1998. Flussaufweitungen Morphologie, Geschiebehaushalt und Grundstze zur Bemessung, VAW Mitteilung 159 der ETH Zrich. Hunzinger, L.M., 2003. Gerinneaufweitungen aus hydraulisch-wasserbaulicher Sicht. Workshop im Rahmen des Forschungsprojekts Rhone-Thur, Kastanienbaum. Ikeda, S., Izumni, N., 1991. Stable channel cross section of straight sand rivers. Water Resources Research 27, 24292438. Jia, Y., Wang, S., 2001. CCHE2D Two Dimensional Hydrodynamic and Sediment Transport Model for Unsteady Open Channel Flows Over Loose Bed. Technical Report No. NCCHETR2001-1. School of Engineering, University of Mississippi, National Center for Computational Hydroscience and Engineering. Julien, P.Y., Wargadalam, J., 1995. Alluvial channel geometry: theory and applications. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 121, 312325. Jungwirth, M., Haidvogl, G., Moog, O., Muhar, S., Schmutz, S., 2003. Angewandte Fischkologie an Fliegewssern. WUV Facultas Wien. Keckler, D., 1995. SURFER for Windows User's Guide. Golden Software, Inc., Golden, Colorado. Kirkby, M.J., Morgan, R.P.C., 1980. Soil Erosion. Wiley-Interscience, New York. 312 pp. Lane, E.W., 1955. Design of stable channels. Transactions of ASCE 120, 12341260. Lane, S.N., Bradbrook, K.F., Richards, K.S., Biron, P.A., Roy, A.G., 1999. The application of computational fluid dynamics to natural river channels: three-dimensional versus two-dimensional approaches. Geomorphology 29, 120. Lawler, D.M., 1993. The measurement of river bank erosion and lateral channel change. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 18, 777821. Lawler, D.M., 2005. Defining the moment of erosion: the principle of Thermal Consonance Timing. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 30, 15971615. Lewis, G.W., Lewin, J., 1983. Alluvial cutoffs in Wales and the Borderlands. In: Collinson, J.D., Lewin, J. (Eds.), Modem and

E. Formann et al. / Geomorphology 90 (2007) 340355 Schober, St., Habersack, H.M., 2004. Auswirkung wasserbaulicher Manahmen auf die Flussmorphologie und kologie am Beispiel der Oberen Drau. Symposium: Lebensraum Fluss-Hochwasserschutz, Wasserkraft, kologie. Wallgau, Oberbayern. Simon, A., Collison, A., 2002. Quantifying the mechanical and hydrologic effects of riparian vegetation on streambank stability. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 27, 527546. Siska, P.P., Hung, I.K., 2000. Data quality in applied spatial analysis. In: Schoolmaster, F.A. (Ed.), Papers and Proceedings of the Applied Geography Conferences, vol. 23, pp. 199205. Thorne, C.R., 1982. Processes and mechanisms of river bank erosion. In: Hey, R.D., Bathurst, J.C., Thorne, C.R. (Eds.), Gravel-Bed Rivers. Wiley, Chichester, pp. 227271. Thorne, C.R., 1998a. River width adjustment. I: processes and mechanics. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 124, 881902. Thorne, C.R., 1998b. River width adjustment. II: modelling. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 124, 903917. Thorne, C.R., Russell, A.P.G., Alam, M.K., 1993. Planform pattern and channel evolution of the Brahmaputra River, Bangladesh. In: Best, J.L., Bristow, C.S. (Eds.), Braided Rivers. Geological Soc. of London Spec. Publ., vol. 75, pp. 257276. Unfer, G., Schmutz, S., Wiesner, Ch., Habersack, H.H., Formann, E., Komposch, Ch., Paill, W., 2004. The effects of hydropeaking on the success of river-restoration measures within the LIFE-project Auenverbund Obere Drau. In: Garcia de Jalon, D., Vizcaino

355

Martinez, P. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ecohydraulics - Aquatic Habitats: Analysis and Restoration, vol. 1, pp. 741746. Van De Wiel, M.J., Darby, S.E., 2004. Numerical modeling of bed topography and bank erosion along tree-lined meandering rivers. In: Bennett, S.J., Simon, A. (Eds.), Riparian Vegetation and Fluvial Geomorphology. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 267282. Van Rijn, L.C., 1984. Sediment transport. Part III: bed forms and alluvial roughness. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE 110, 17331754. Vann, J., Jackson, S., Bertoli, O., 2003. Quantitative kriging neighbourhood analysis for the Mining Geologist a description of the method with worked case examples. 5th International Mining Geology Conference. Bendigo, Australia, 1719 November. Wang Sam, S.Y., Hu, K.K., 1992. Improved methodology for formulating finite element hydrodynamic models. In: Chung, T.J. (Ed.), Finite Elements in Fluids, vol. 8. Hemisphere Publishing, Bristol, pp. 457478. Yang, C.T., 1992. Force, energy, entropy and energy dissipation rate. In: Singh, V.P., Fiorention, M.J. (Eds.), Entropy and Energy Dissipation in Water Resources. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Amsterdam, pp. 6389. Yen, B.C., 1993. Channel Flow Resistance: Centennial of Manning's Formula. Water Resources Publications, Littleton, Colorado.