Part 2 Finite Element Formulation

Part II Element Formulations
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Table of Contents
Introduction
1.0

Overview .............................................................................................................. 1

2.1

Solid Element ....................................................................................................... 3

2.1.1

Overview ...................................................................................................... 3

2.1.2

Element Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of Freedom ....................................... 4

2.1.3

Element Parameters ..................................................................................... 5

2.1.4

Finite Element Formulation ........................................................................... 7

2.1.5

Internal Element Results ............................................................................. 12

Element Library
2.2

Plane Strain Element .......................................................................................... 16

2.2.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 16

2.2.2

Element Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of Freedom ..................................... 17

2.2.3

Element Parameters ................................................................................... 20

2.2.4

Finite Element Formulation ......................................................................... 21

2.2.5


2.3

2D Axisymmetric Element ................................................................................... 28

2.3.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 28

2.3.2


2.3.3


2.3.4


2.3.5


Table of Contents - Part 2 Element Formulations

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Structural Elements
3.1

Truss Element .................................................................................................... 39

3.1.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 39

3.1.2


3.1.3


3.1.4


3.1.5


3.2

Embedded Truss Element ................................................................................... 44

3.2.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 44

3.2.2


3.2.3


3.3

Beam Element .................................................................................................... 49

3.3.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 49

3.3.2


3.3.3


3.3.4


3.3.5


3.4

Plane Stress Element ......................................................................................... 60

3.4.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 60

3.4.2

Element Shape, Node Number, and DOF .................................................... 60

3.4.3


3.4.4


3.4.5


3.5

Plate Element ..................................................................................................... 67

3.5.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 67

3.5.2

Elements Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of FreedomError! Bookmark not defined.


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3.5.3

Elements Parameters ................................................................................. 69

3.5.4


3.5.5


Interface Elements
4.1

Interface Element ............................................................................................... 89

4.1.1

Overview .................................................................................................... 89

4.1.2


4.1.3


4.1.4


4.1.5

Internal Element Results ........................................................................... 101

4.2

Plate Interface Element: Segment Joint ............................................................. 102

4.2.1

Overview .................................................................................................. 102

4.2.2

Elements Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of Freedom.................................. 103

4.2.3

Element Parameters ................................................................................. 105

4.2.4

Finite Element Formulation ....................................................................... 105

4.2.5

Element Output Results ............................................................................ 107

4.3

Pile Element ..................................................................................................... 108

4.3.1

Overview .................................................................................................. 108

4.3.2

Element Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of Freedom ................................... 108

4.3.3

Element Parameters .................................................................................. 110

4.3.4

Finite Element Formulation ........................................................................ 110

4.3.5

Internal Element Results ............................................................................ 114

4.4

Pile Tip Bearing Element .................................................................................... 115

4.4.1

Overview ................................................................................................... 115

4.4.2

Elements Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of Freedom................................... 117

4.4.3

Element Parameters .................................................................................. 118


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4.4.4

Constitutive Equation ................................................................................. 118

4.4.5

Internal Element Results ........................................................................... 120

4.5

Geogrid Element ............................................................................................... 121

4.6

Elastic Link ....................................................................................................... 121

4.7

Rigid Link ......................................................................................................... 122

4.8

Point Spring/Damping ....................................................................................... 127

4.9

Matrix spring ..................................................................................................... 128

Reference: ................................................................................................................... 129

Introduction
Chapter 1
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1.0 Overview
midas GTS element library currently supports 1D, 2D, and 3D elements on a variety of
popular geometric and finite element types. These elements are classified as follows:

1. Soil elements
Solid element
Plane strain element
Axisymmetric element

2. Structural elements
Truss element
Embedded truss element
Beam element
Plate element
Plane stress element

3. Application elements
Interface element
Plate interface element
Pile element
Pile tip bearing element
Geogrid element
Elastic link
Rigid link
Spring
Matrix spring

Part 2 Element Library

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A finite element is defined by the element-type and the number of connecting nodes.
Based on the sequence of the node-numbers the ECS is defined. In addition, the
element-type, geometrical data, and material data must be specified. An overview
table is given below.

Table 1.0: Overview of Element types

Element-type Low
order
High
order
Geometrical data Material Data
Truss/Embedded
Elements
Cross sectional area Material model
Beam Elements Cross section
definition
Material model
Plane Stress Elements Thickness Material model
Plate Elements Thickness Material model and
MCS
Plane Strain Elements Thickness Material model
Axisymmetric Elements - Material model
Solid Elements - Material model and
MCS
MCS: Material Coordinate System

Element Library
Chapter 2
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2.1 Solid Element
2.1.1 Overview
Solid elements can have a linear or a quadratic shape function.

Linear elements:
- 8-node hexahedron
- 6-node pentahedron
- 4-node tetrahedron are

Quadratic elements:
- 20-node hexahedron
- 10-node tetrahedron

Linear hexahedron elements generally lead to more accurate stress and strain
results than linear tetrahedron and linear pentahedron. Therefore, it is advised to
dense mesh sets of linear hexahedron elements or quadratic elements for parts of
the model where detailed analysis results are required.

Three-dimensional solid elements are defined by 4, 5 or 6 planes. Generally, they
are used to model solid ground or thick plates; moreover, high order elements with
mid-nodes can be used.

Solid elements can also be used in combination with truss, beam, plate, plane
stress, interface, elastic boundary and elastic link elements; and take the form of
tetrahedron, wedge and hexahedron, and retain the translational degrees of
freedom, DOF, in 3 directions.

Hexahedral elements produce accurate results for both displacements and stresses.
On the other hand, wedge and tetrahedron elements may produce relatively reliable
results for displacements, but return poor stress results. It is thus recommended that

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wedges and tetrahedron elements be avoided if precise analysis results are
required. The wedge and tetrahedron elements, however, are useful to join
hexahedral elements where element sizes change.

Solid elements do not have stiffness or rotational DOF at adjoining nodes. When,
these DOF are defined in the solver, joining elements with no rotational stiffness will
result in singular errors at their nodes. In such a case, midas GTS automatically
restrains the rotational DOF to prevent singular errors at the corresponding nodes.
In nonlinear / construction stage analysis, these DOF are not defined.

When solid elements are connected to other elements retaining rotational stiffness,
such as beam and plate elements, introducing rigid links (master node and slave
node feature in midas GTS) or rigid beam elements can preserve the compatibility
between such elements.

An appropriate aspect ratio of an element may depend on several factors such as
the element type, geometric configuration, structural shape, etc. For accuracy, a
corner angle condition is much more important than the aspect ratio. For
hexahedrons with aspect ratio up to 100% give exact results when corner angles
are close to 90 degrees.
2.1.2 Element Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of Freedom
Solid elements have 3 translational degrees of freedom in each node of the element
and no rotational degrees of freedom. The node numbering for the different element-
types is explained in Figure 2.1.1

Chapter 2 Solid Elements

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(a) low order (b) high order

Figure 2.1.1: Coordinate system for solid elements.

2.1.3 Element Parameters
For solid elements, only a material assignment is required and no other properties.
For other element-types, such as beams of plates, material assignment and a
geometrical property such as a cross-section definition of the beam or the thickness
of the plate is required.


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Material parameters for soil and structural elements can be obtained from
experiments, measurements or available common data from practice. The accurate
definition of material model and parameters is an important criterion for getting
reliable results.

Ground elements modeled using solid elements require the following material linear
elastic material properties:

Modulus of Elasticity :
E

Poissons Ratio :
v

Weight Density :
t

Saturated Weight Density :
sat

Initial Stress Parameter :
0
K
Thermal Coefficient :
o

In addition, midas GTS supports all non-linear material parameters (refer to Part 3:
Constitutive Model). The general linear stress-strain relationship is shown below:

= D (2.1.1)

where
{ }
T
xx yy zz xy yz zx
o o o t t t = ,
{ }
T
xx yy zz xy yz zx
c c c =


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The matrix D, which represents the relationship between the stress and the strain
tensor, can be represented for an isotropic linear elastic material:

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
(1 )(1 2 )
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2
E
v v v
v v v
v v v
v
v v
v
v
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
+
(
(
(
(
(
(

D
(2.1.2)

As shown in Eq. (2.1.1) and (2.1.2), any additional geometrical property is not
required in solid element since all six stress and strain components are used in
defining the three-dimensional behavior.

YY
o
YZ
o
YX
o
ZY
o
ZZ
o
ZX
o
XY
o
XZ
o
XX
o

Figure 2.1.2: 6 stress components on unit element

2.1.4 Finite Element Formulation
The solid element is formulated as an isoparametric element, and the Incompatible
Modes theory is used for 8-node hexahedron and 6-node pentahedron. Solid
elements only have translational displacements u, v, and w in the ECS x, y, and z
directions per each node.


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{ }
T
i i i i
u v w = u (2.1.3)

For all solid elements the calculation of the stiffness is identical, except for elements
with incompatible modes. In this paragraph N is shape function which indicates the
number of nodes of the element.

In the element, the coordinates x, y, and z and displacements u, v, and w can be
expressed as follows:

1 1 1
1 1 1
, ,
, ,
n n n
i i i i i i
i i i
n n n
i i i i i i
i i i
x N x y N y z N z
u N u v N v w N w
= = =
= = =
= = =
= = =

(2.1.4)

The integration points are integrated using Gaussian integration method for the
stiffness matrix.

Table 2.1.1 Number of integration points of solid element
Element type No. Integration points
4node tetra 1
6node wedge 6
8node brick 8
10node tetra 4
15node wedge 9
20node brick 27

The element configuration can be found using the following shape function
formulation:

1
1 N q , =
,
2
N =
,
3
N q =
,
4
N , =
(2.1.5)


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( )
1
1
2
N

, = , ( )
2
1
2
N

, = , ( )
3
1
2
N
q
, = , ( )
4
1
2
N

, = +
( )
5
1
2
N

, = + , ( )
6
1
2
N
q
, = + (2.1.6)
1 q =
- 8-node hexahedron
( )( )( )
1
1
1 1 1
8
N q , =
,
( )( )( )
2
1
1 1 1
8
N q , = +

( )( )( )
3
1
1 1 1
8
N q , = + +
,
( )( )( )
4
1
1 1 1
8
N q , = +

( )( )( )
5
1
1 1 1
8
N q , = +
,
( )( )( )
6
1
1 1 1
8
N q , = + +

( )( )( )
7
1
1 1 1
8
N q , = + + +
,
( )( )( )
8
1
1 1 1
8
N q , = + +
(2.1.7)

( )
1
1 2 N =
,
( )
2
1 2 N =
,
( )
3
1 2 N q q =
,
( )
4
1 2 N , , =

5
4 N =
,
6
4 N q =
,
7
4 N q =
,
8
4 N , =
,
9
4 N , =
,
10
4 N q, =

(2.1.8)
1 q , =

( ) ( )
1
1 2 1
2
N

, , =
,
( ) ( )
2
1 2 1
2
N

, , =
,
( ) ( )
3
1 2 1
2
N
q
q , , =

( ) ( )
4
1 2 1
2
N

, , = + , ( ) ( )
5
1 2 1
2
N

, , = +
( ) ( )
6
1 2 1
2
N
q
q , , = +
( )
7
2 1 N , , =
, ( )
8
2 1 N q, , =

( )
9
2 1 N q, , =
, ( )
10
2 1 N , , = +

( )
11
2 1 N q, , = +
, ( )
12
2 1 N q, , = +
, ( )( )
2
13
1 1 N q , =

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( )
2
14
1 N , = ,
( )
2
15
1 N q , = (2.1.9)
1 q =


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- 20-node hexahedron
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )( )
( )( )( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
9 10
1
1 1 1 2
8
1
1 1 1 2
8
1
1 1 1 2
8
1
1 1 1 2
8
1
1 1 1 2
8
1
1 1 1 2
8
1
1 1 1 2
8
1
1 1 1 2
8
1 1
1 1 1 ,
4 4
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N N
q , q ,
q , q ,
q , q ,
q , q ,
q , q ,
q , q ,
q , q ,
q , q ,
q ,
=
= + +
= + + + +
= + +
= + +
= + + + +
= + + + + + +
= + + + +
= = ( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
2
2 2
11 12
2 2
13 14
2 2
15 16
2 2
17 18
2 2
19 20
1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 , 1 1 1
4 4
1 1
1 1 1 , 1 1 1
4 4
1 1
1 1 1 , 1 1 1
4 4
1 1
1 1 1 , 1 1 1
4 4
1 1
1 1 1 , 1 1 1
4 4
N N
N N
N N
N N
N N
, q
q , , q
q , , q
q , , q
q , q ,
q , q ,
+
= + =
= + = + +
= + = +
= = +
= + + = +
(2.1.10)

The matrix
i
B
defines the relation between the nodal displacements u and the strain
tensor
:

1
N
i i
i =
=
B u (2.1.11)
The matrix
i
B
is defined by the differentials of the shape function:


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0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
i
i
i
i
i i
i i
i i
N
x
N
y
N
z
N N
y x
N N
z y
N N
z x
c (
(
c
(
c
(
(
c
(
c (
(
c
(
=
c c (
(
c c
(
( c c
(
c c
(
(
c c
(
( c c
B
(2.1.12)

Using the matrix
i
B
, the element stiffness matrix n can be defined:

e
T
ij i j
V
dV =
}
K B DB
(2.1.13)

where

e
V
: Element volume.

The matrix Drepresents the relationship between the stress and the strain tensor.
For isotropic materials the Dcan be expressed as Eq. (2.1.2).

Where E is the Youngs modulus and is the Poisson ratio. Orthotropic materials
can be defined in the Material Coordinate System MCS.
2.1.5 Internal Element Results
Solid elements output results of member internal force, stress, and strain. All
results for solid elements can be checked in the post-works window. Refer to Online
Help for a description of output labels listed in the post-processor, Command Result
> Analysis Results.


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2.1.5.1 Internal Element Member Force Results
The internal force output for a member can be obtained at each element node.
Figure 2.1.3 shows the sign convention for an 8 node 6 plane element. The
arrows represent the positive (+) direction.

8 Z
F
8 Y
F
8 X
F
GCS
Z
Y
X
7 Z
F
7 Y
F
7 X
F
3 Z
F
3 Y
F
3 X
F
2 Z
F
2 Y
F
2 X
F
4 Z
F
4 Y
F
4 X
F
1 Z
F
1 Y
F
1 X
F
5 Z
F
5 Y
F
5 X
F
6 Z
F
6 Y
F
6 X
F

where

Xi
F
: GCS internally transmitted force in x-direction
Yi
F
: GCS internally transmitted force in y-direction
Zi
F
: GCS internally transmitted force in z-direction


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2.1.5.2 Element Force and Strain Results
Stresses or strains at nodal points of an element are extrapolated from the
stresses or strains that are calculated at the integral points within the element.
The results for central point of the element are also outputted in the post-works,
and are expressed as the average of results of the integral points. This result item
will only be calculated when selected under the General Analysis Control option,
refer to Online Help.

For calculation of the strains and stresses at the nodes, the results calculated at
the integration points (Gauss Points) are extrapolated. The integration points for
a solid element are as follows:

- 4-node tetrahedron : 1-point Gauss integration
- 6-node pentahedron : 6-point Gauss integration
- 8-node hexahedron : 8-point Gauss integration
- 10-node tetrahedron : 4-point Gauss integration
- 15-node pentahedron : 9-point Gauss integration
- 20-node hexahedron : 27-point Gauss integration

The sign convention for stress and strain is given in Figure 2.1.4 based on the
global coordinate system.

GCS
YY
o
YZ
o
YX
o
Z
Y
X
ZY
o
ZZ
o
ZX
o
XY
o
XZ
o
XX
o
YY
c
YZ
c
YX
c
ZY
c
ZZ
c
ZX
c
XY
c
XZ
c
XX
c
stress components strain components


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Figure 2.1.4: Sign convention for stress and strain in GCS

Theoretical output results are as follows:

XX
o'
: Effective normal stress in the GCS X direction
YY
o'
: Effective normal stress in the GCS Y direction
ZZ
o'
: Effective normal stress in the GCS Z direction

XX
o
: Total normal stress in the GCS X direction
YY
o
: Total normal stress in the GCS Y direction
ZZ
o
: Total normal stress in the GCS Z direction
XY YX
t t =
: Shear stress in the GCS X-Y direction
YZ ZY
t t =
: Shear stress in the GCS Y-Z direction
ZX XZ
t t =
: Shear stress in the GCS Z-X direction
1 2 3
, , o o o
: Effective principal stresses in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2, and 3
max
t
: Tresca (maximum shear stress) =
3 2 2 1 3 1
max , ,
2 2 2
o o o o o o (
(

vm
o
: von Mises stress =
2 2 2
1
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
(

mean
o'
: Mean effective stress =
XX YY ZZ
3
o o o ' ' ' + +

mean
o
: Mean total stress =
XX YY ZZ
3
o o o + +

Output strain results of solid element are as follows:

XX
c
: Normal strain in the GCS X direction
YY
c
: Normal strain in the GCS Y direction
ZZ
c
: Normal strain in the GCS Z direction
XY YX
=
: Shear strain in the GCS X-Y direction
YZ ZY
=
: Shear strain in the GCS Y-Z direction
ZX XZ
=
: Shear strain in the GCS Z-X direction

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1 2 3
, , c c c
: Principal strains in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2, and 3
max

3 2 2 1 3 1
max , ,
2 2 2
c c c c c c (
(

dev
c
: Deviatoric strain = ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
2 2 2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2
9
c c c c c c + +
vol
c
: Volumetric strain =
XX YY ZZ
c c c + +

p
XX
c : Plastic normal strain in the GCS X direction
p
YY
c : Plastic normal strain in the GCS Y direction
p
ZZ
c : Plastic normal strain in the GCS Z direction
p p
XY YX
= : Plastic shear strain in the GCS X-Y direction
p p
YZ ZY
= : Plastic shear strain in the GCS Y-Z direction
p p
ZX XZ
= : Plastic shear strain in the GCS Z-X direction
p p p
1 2 3
, , c c c : Principal plastic strains in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2, and 3
p
c : Equivalent plastic strain =
( )
p2 p2 p2
1 2 3
2
3
c c c + +

2.2 Plane Strain Element
2.2.1 Overview
midas GTS can consider plane-strain triangular and quadrilateral elements with
three, four, six or eight nodes for only 2D model types. Plane strain elements can
be utilized to simplify long structures having a uniform cross section throughout its
entire length, such as dams and tunnels. This can be done by assuming a unit
thickness. The stress components, in the direction of thickness i.e. Y dimension,
can be obtained through the Poissons relation as illustrated in Figure 2.2.1.


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Figure 2.2.1: Cross section 2D plane strain element thickness

Plane strain elements are capable of accounting for in-plane stresses only and can
be used for both static (linear & nonlinear) and dynamic analyses.
The analysis results for plane strain elements include stresses and strains in the
nodes of an element with reference to the GCS. Note that using high or low order
elements will not show any significant difference in the results since the
characteristics of the ground elements are referenced with respect to the GCS.

The directions of ECS axes for quadrilateral and triangular elements are defined in
Figure. 2.2.2. For a triangular element, the ECS x-axis is parallel to the direction
from Node 1 to Node 2. In the case of a quadrilateral element, the line which
bisects segment Node 1-4 and Node 2-3 is the direction of ECS x-axis.
1.0(unit thickness)
plane strain elements

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(a) Quadrilateral Elements


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(b) Triangular elements

Figure 2.2.2: Plane strain configuration, element coordinate system, and nodal internal force

Plane strain elements are evaluated using Linear Interpolation or Quadratic
Interpolation. Three-node triangular and four-node quadrilateral elements are
Linear Elements. Six-node triangular and eight-node quadrilateral elements are
Quadratic Elements. Four-node quadrilateral elements generally lead to accurate
displacement and stress results, whereas three-node triangular elements tend to
produce poor accuracy of stresses while the displacement results are good.
Therefore, experience has shown that the use of three-node triangular elements in
the regions where detailed analysis results are required should not be used. This
phenomenon is also referred to as Constant Strain Triangle. The plane strain
element does not have strain in the out-of-plane direction but contains the stress
component
zz
o
.


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Note, the node number assignment follows a sequence in a counter-clockwise
direction for low and high order elements. For high order elements, the sequence
continues at the node that is between the first two generated nodes of low order.

Plane strain elements can only be used in a 2D environment, where the default
working plane is X-Y.
Under a linear elastic model, ground elements modeled using plane strain elements
require the following material parameters

E

Poissons Ratio :
v

Weight Density :
t

sat

0
K
o

In addition, midas GTS supports all non-linear material models for 2D ground
elements using plane strain elements. Please refer to Part 3-Constitutive Model for
details about parameters definition.

Three-dimensional behavior can be simplified by using plane strain elements. In
cases where the structures z-dimension is long, normal strain, shear strain and
shear stress in the direction of thickness are assumed to be zero. In this case, the
constitutive equation becomes identical to Eq. (2.1.1). For isotropic linear elastic
material, the matrix form is expressed in Eq. (2.2.1):


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1 0
1 0
1 0
0 (1 )(1 2 )
1 2
0 0 0
2
xx xx
yy yy
zz zz
xy xy
E
v v v
o c
v v v
o c
v v v
o c v v
v
t
(

(

(

= (
` `
= +
(

(

) )
(

(2.2.1)

Note that 2D structural elements modeled on the X-Y plane assume unit thickness.
Plane strain elements are formulated according to the Isoparametric Formulation,
and the Incompatible Mode theory is used for the four node quadrilateral element.
The standard isoparametric plane strain formulation procedure is identical to the
formulation for solid stress elements.

The numerical equation implemented for plane strain elements is shown below:

T T T
n
A A L
t dA bt dA pt dL = + +
} } }
B DB u N N p
(2.2.2)

where
L : Length of Element boundary
t : 1.0 (unit thickness)
B : Strain-displacement matrix
p
: Element nodal force

stiffness matrix.

Table 2.2.1 Number of integration points of plane strain element
3node triangle 1
4node quadrilateral 4
6node triangle 3

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22
From Eq. (2.2.2), the shape function, N, is only applicable for only 1 & 2-dimensional
triangular and quadrilateral elements as shown in Figure 2.2.2.

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23
Definitions of Shape function according to the element configuration:

3-node element
1
2
3
1 N
N
N
q
q
=
=
=
(2.2.3)

4-node element
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
1 2
3 4
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
4 4
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
4 4
N N
N N
q q
q q
= = +
= + + = +
(2.2.4)

6-node element
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 1 2 2 , 2 1
2 1 , 4 1
4 , 4 1
N N
N N
N N
q q
q q q
q q q
= =
= =
= =
(2.2.5)

8-node element
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
1 5 8
2 5 6
3 6 7
4 7 8
2 2
5 6
2 2
7 8
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
2 2
N N N
N N N
N N N
N N N
N N
N N
q
q
q
q
q q
q q
=
= +
= + +
= +
= = +
= + =
(2.2.6)


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The engineering strain is expressed as follows:

0
x
y
z
xy
u x
v y
u y v x
c
c
c
c c

c c

= =
` `

c c + c c
) )
(2.2.7)

where the strain-displacement-matrix is defined as:

1
1
1 1
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0
np
np
np np
N
N
x x
N
N
y y
N N
N N
y x y x
c ( c
(
c c
(
c ( c
(
c c =
(
(
(
c c
c c
(
(
c c c c

B (2.2.8)

The Jacobian matrix is expressed in Eq (2.2.9):

1 1
1 2
2 2
1 2
np
np
np np
x y N
N N
x y x y
x y N
N N
x y

q q
q q q
c ( ( c c
( (
c c c c c c c (
( (
= =
(
( (
c c c c c
c c

( (
c c c (

J (2.2.9)

The numerical formulation for the plane strain elements is shown below:

1 2
1
n
T T
j j j j j j
A
j
t dA t W W
=

}
B DB B D B J
(2.2.10)

where

1 2
,
j j
W W
: Weight factors for the directions of , q


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Plane strain elements output results of member internal force, stress, and strain.
Stress and strain results in the nodes are extrapolated from the calculated results at
integration points (Gauss Points). The integration points for a plane stress element
are as follows:

- 3 node triangular element : 1-point Gauss integration
- 4 node quadrilateral element : 4-point Gauss integration
-
All results of a plane strain element are outputted in the post-works window, refer to
Online Help for a description of output labels listed in the post-processor, Command
Result > Analysis Results.
2.2.5.1 Element Internal Forces Results
Element internal forces are outputted at each nodal point. The sign convention for
internal forces is shown in Figure 2.2.3, where the arrows represent the positive (+)
directions.

Y
X
1 X
F
1 Y
F
4 Y
F
2 Y
F
3 Y
F
2 X
F
3 X
F
4 X
F
Y
X
1 X
F
1 Y
F
2 Y
F
3 Y
F
2 X
F
3 X
F

Figure 2.2.3 Sign convention for nodal coordinate system of plane strain elements


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2.2.5.2 Element Stress and Strain Results
The results at the center point of an element are also outputted, and expressed
as an average of the values at integral points.

The sign convention for element stress and strain is shown in Figure 2.2.4 for 4-
noded rectangular element, where the direction of the arrow represents the
positive (+) directions.

,
XY XY
t
,
XX XX
o c
,
XY XY
t
,
YY YY
o c
Y
X

Figure 2.2.4 Stress and strain sign convention for plane strain element


XX
o'
YY
o'
ZZ
o'
XX
o
: Total normal stress in the GCS X direction
YY
o
ZZ
o
: Total normal stress in the GCS Z direction
XY YX
t t =
: Shear stress in the GCS X-Y direction
1 2 3
, , o o o


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max
t
:Tresca (maximum shear stress) =
3 2 2 1 3 1
max , ,
2 2 2
o o o o o o (
(

vm
o
2 2 2
1
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
(

mean
o'
XX YY ZZ
3
o o o ' ' ' + +

mean
o
XX YY ZZ
3
o o o + +

Strain output results from the plane strain elements are as follows:

XX
c
YY
c
ZZ
c
XY YX
=
1 2 3
, , c c c
max

3 2 2 1 3 1
max , ,
2 2 2
c c c c c c (
(

dev
c
: Deviatoric strain = ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
2 2 2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2
9
c c c c c c + +
vol
c
XX YY ZZ
c c c + +

p
XX
p
YY
p
ZZ
p p
XY YX
p p p
1 2 3
p
( )
p2 p2 p2
1 2 3
2
3
c c c + +

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2.3 2D Axisymmetric Element
2.3.1 Overview
Two-Dimensional Axisymmetric Elements are suitable for modeling structures with
rotational symmetry relative to geometry, material properties and loading conditions.
Application examples include deep well, circular foundation and circular tunnel. The
elements are developed on the basis of the isoparametric formulation theory.

Axisymmetric elements cannot be combined with other types of elements. It is only
applicable to linear static and nonlinear static analyses, due to the characteristics of
the element.

2D axisymmetric elements are derived from 3D axisymmetric elements by taking the
rotational symmetry into account. The GCS Y-axis is the axis of rotation if e plane is
selected. The elements must be located in the global X-Y plane to the right of the
global Y-axis. In this case, the radial direction coincides with the GCS X-axis. The
elements are modeled such that all the nodes retain positive X-coordinates (X0).

By default, to the width of the element is automatically assigned a unit angle (1.0
radian) as illustrated in Figure 2.3.1. Because the formulation of the element is
based on the axisymmetric properties, it is assumed that circumferential
displacements, shear strains ( )
XZ RZ YZ
,
and shear stresses ( )
XZ RZ YZ
, t t t
do not
exist.

In modeling axisymmetric elements, similar to the plane stress elements,
quadrilateral elements are recommended over the triangular elements, and aspect
ratios close to unity are recommended.


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Y (axis of rotation)
1.0 radian (unit width)
an axisymmetric
X (radial direction)
Z
element

Figure 2.3.1: Unit width of an axisymmetric element

GCS in the Cartesian coordinate system prevails for axisymmetric element. The
arrangement of elements and the node numbering follow the same rule as for plane
strain element as per Figure 2.3.2. The element DOF exists only in the selected
plane with displacements in 2 directions.


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30

(a) Quadrilateral Element

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31

(b) Triangular Element

Figure 2.3.2: Shape, nodal I D, and element coordinate system of axisymmetric elements


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32
The axisymmetric ground elements require defining the linear elastic material
properties. These parameters are listed as follows:

E

Poissons Ratio :
v

Weight Density :
t

sat

0
K
o

The axisymmetric element is a two-dimensional element for ground soil, and can
employ all nonlinear constitutive models for soil available in midas GTS. Refer to
Part 3 - Constitutive Model for additional property of this element.

The element is used to represent the axisymmetric shape of a ring-shaped body.
The normal strain to the direction of rotation, shear strain, and shear stress are all
assumed as zero based on two-dimensional behavior of the element. The
constitutive equation of the element is given in Eq. (2.3.1), and the matrix form for
the isotropic linear elastic material is given as follows.

RR RR
YY YY
RY RY
1 0
1 0
1 0
0 (1 )(1 2 )
1 2
0 0 0
2
E
uu uu
v v v
o c
v v v
o c
v v v
o c v v
v
t
(

(

(

= (
` `
= +
(

(

) )
(

(2.3.1)

Axisymmetric element modeled in the X-Y plane assumes a rotational unit of 1.0
radian as illustrated in Figure 2.3.1.


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Axisymmetric elements are developed on the basis of the Isoparametric Formulation
which is the same formulation procedure used in the plane strain element. In an
axisymmetric element, the effective element thickness is the circumferential length
around the axis. In midas GTS, the full circumferential length of the element is
formulated for 1 radian similar to that shown in Figure 2.3.1. Therefore,
mathematical expression of the element is expressed below:

T T T
n
A A L
RdA b RdA p RdL = + +
} } }
B DB u N N p
(2.3.2)

where R represents the radius.

stiffness matrix.

Table 2.3.1 Number of integration points of axisymmetric element
3node triangle 1
6node triangle 3

The shape function in Eq. (2.3.2) is identical to those in Eq. (2.2.3) (2.2.6) for plain
strain elements. In midas GTS, the shape function for axisymmetric elements is
either linear or quadratic. 3-node triangular and 4-node quadrilaterial elements are
linear, while 6-node triangular and 8-node quadrilaterial elements are quadratic.

The axisymmetric element is expressed in Eq. (2.3.3)


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34
RR
YY
RY
u x
v y
u R
u y v x
uu
c
c
c
c
c c

c c

= =
` `

c c + c c
) )
(2.3.3)

Accordingly, the strain-displacement matrix is defined as follows:

1
1
1
1 1
0 0
0 0
0 0
np
np
np
np np
N
N
x x
N
N
y y
N
N
r r
N N
N N
y x y x
c ( c
(
c c
(
c ( c
(
c c
(
=
(
(
(
(
c c
c c
(
c c c c (

B (2.3.4)

2D Axisymmetric element output results of member internal force, stress, and strain.
All results of a 2D axisymmetric element are outputted in the post-works window,
refer to Online Help for a description of output labels listed in the post-processor,
Command Result > Analysis Results.
2.3.5.1 Element Internal Forces Results
Figure 2.3.3 shows the sign convention for element internal forces. The arrows
represent the positive (+) direction.

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35
y
x
1 x
F
1 y
F
4 y
F
2 y
F
3 y
F
2 x
F
3 x
F
4 x
F
y
x
1 x
F
1 y
F
2 y
F
3 y
F
2 x
F
3 x
F

Figure 2.3.3: Nodel member force of Axisymmetric element


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36
At nodal points, the element forces are generated by multiplying each nodal
displacement component with the corresponding stiffness component of the
element.

Stress and strain results at the nodes are extrapolated from the calculated results
at integration points (Gauss Points). The integration points for 2D axisymmetric
element are as follows:


Figure 2.3.4 shows the sign convention for element stresses. The arrows
represent the positive (+) direction.

,
xy xy
t
,
xx xx
o c
,
xy xy
t
,
yy yy
o c
y
x

Figure 2.3.4 Axisymmetric element: Stress and strain sign convention


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37

( )
XX RR
o o ' '

YY
o'
( )
ZZ uu
o o ' '
( )
XX XX
o o : Total normal stress in the GCS X direction

YY
o
( )
ZZ uu
o o : Total normal stress in the GCS Z direction
( ) ( )
XY RY YX YR
t t t t = : Shear stress in the GCS X-Y direction
1 2 3
, , o o o
max
t
3 2 2 1 3 1
max , ,
2 2 2
o o o o o o (
(

vm
o
2 2 2
1
( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 2 2 3 3 1
(

mean
o'
XX YY ZZ
3
o o o ' ' ' + +

mean
o
XX YY ZZ
3
o o o + +

Output of Strain results from plane strain elements are as follows:

( )
XX RR
c c
YY
c
( )
ZZ uu
c c
( ) ( )
XY RY YX YR
=
1 2 3
, , c c c
max

3 2 2 1 3 1
max , ,
2 2 2
c c c c c c (
(

dev
c
: Deviatoric strain =
( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
2 2 2
1 2 2 3 3 1
2
9
c c c c c c + +
vol
c
XX YY ZZ
c c c + +


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p
XX
p
YY
p
ZZ
p p
XY YX
p p p
1 2 3
p
c
: Equivalent plastic strain =
( )
p2 p2 p2
1 2 3
2
3
c c c + +

Structural Element
Chapter 3
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39

3.1 Truss Element
3.1.1 Overview
A truss element is a uniaxial tension-compression 3D line element defined by two
nodes. Truss elements are generally used for modeling space trusses and/or
diagonal braces and can be used for both static (linear & nonlinear) and dynamic
analyses. A truss element transmits only axial forces and may be combined with
tension-only/compression-only functions. The stress and strain tensors of a truss
element are expressed as follows:

{ }
xx
o =
, { }
xx
c =
(Stress & strain in axial direction)

Since a truss element only has degrees of freedom in the axial direction as shown in
Figure 3.1.1, only the ECS x-axis is meaningful. The direction of the ECS axis is
defined from Node 1 to Node 2.

1
2
ECS x-axis
,
xx xx
o c
,
xx xx
o c
1
2
ECS x-axis
,
xx xx
o c
,
xx xx
o c
3

Figure 3.1.1: Element Coordinate System and Stress/Strain Convention of Truss Element


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40
Truss elements have only translational degrees of freedom and no rotational
degrees of freedom, not rotational stiffness.
The element shape and element coordinate system are given in Figure 3.1.1. The
truss element is a structural element, and the element coordinate system for axial
direction is only considered to examine the analysis result. The direction of local
x

axis is assumed as the line along from node 1 to 2.

There is only one translational DOF for the direction of local
x
axis in the element.
For the inclined node of truss element sloping in three-dimensional space, the
boundary condition should be imposed based on the element local axis to obtain
accurate result. The nodal local coordinate system can be used to impose the
boundary condition for the direction of element local axis. The nodal local coordinate
system is defined to have the same element local axis as that of element coordinate
system.
Structural elements represented as truss elements require the following linear
elastic material parameters:

E

Poissons Ratio :
v

Weight Density :
t


Truss members transfer forces only along the axial direction. Moreover, the truss
properties can be assigned tension only/hook, compression only/gap, and non-linear
elastic characteristics.

The constitutive equation for a truss element is identical to Eq. (2.1.1), and the
matrix form for isotropic linear elastic material is expressed as:

Chapter 3 Structural Element

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41
xx xx
E o c =
(3.1.1)

Geometrical properties for truss elements are made available in midas GTS
Section Library. The library contains a list of sectional shapes that automatically
calculates the cross sectional area, based on representative input dimensions
provided by the user. The cross sectional area is assumed constant along the length.
The sectional shapes available in midas GTS are as follows:

Angle :
Channel :
H-Section :
T-Section :
Box :
Pipe :
Double Angle :
Double Channel :
Solid Rectangle :
Solid Round :

The spacing feature enables to consider the three-dimensional spatial reinforcement
effect using the two-dimensional reinforcement. For example, when two truss
elements are arranged per meter in the direction of thickness in two-dimensional
space, the spacing would be 0.5, and the stiffness of truss reinforcement for unit
thickness would be doubled. In analysis, the stiffness is that for unit thickness.
Accordingly, analysis output is the stiffness for unit thickness.
Element coordinate systems for truss elements have a translation parameter u
along the x-direction.

{ }
i i
u = u
(3.1.2)

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42

The arbitrary coordinate x and translational displacement u are expressed in Eq.
(3.1.3) and (3.1.4), using the shape functions.

2
1
i i
i
x N x
=
=
,
2
1
i i
i
u N u
=
=
(3.1.3)
( )
1 2
1 1
, 1 1
2 2
N N

+
= = s s (3.1.4)

The nodal displacement can be related to strain by
i
B
, as shown in Eq. (3.1.5).

2
1
i i
i =
=
B u (3.1.5)

The
i
B
matrix can be expressed in Eq. (3.1.6) using the differential equations of
shape functions.

i
i
N
x
c
=
`
c
)
B (3.1.6)

The element stiffness matrix can be expressed as follows using the
i
B
matrix

e
T
ij i j
L
dL =
}
K B DB
, { } A E = D
(3.1.7)
where
A : Area
e
L
: Element length

It follows from Eq. (3.1.7) that the stiffness matrix of truss element can be calculated:

1 1
1 1
e
EA
L
(
=
(

K (3.1.8)


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43
stiffness matrix.

Table 2.2.1 Number of integration points of truss element
2node 1
3node 2

The analysis results of the truss elements are element internal forces, stresses and
strains at nodes 1 and 2 in the element coordinate system. The element force,
stress, and strain results are calculated with respect to the element coordinate
system: All results of the truss element are outputted in the post-works window,
refer to Online Help for a description of output labels listed in the post-processor,

i - end
j - end
,
x xx
N o
,
x xx
N o
i - end
j - end
,
x xx
N o
,
x xx
N o
mid - node

Figure 3.1.2 Output location for Truss element results

3.1.5.1 Element Member Force Results
Element force output is the axial force
( )
x xx
N Ao =
, and for sign convention the
tensile stress is positive (+). The element internal forces at both ends are equal in
general, but they may be different when self weight is assigned.

Fx ( )
x
N
: ECS axial force along x-axis

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44
The element stress and strain are constant along the length since the truss
element has two nodes and the shape functions are linear. Therefore, the stress
and strain at an arbitrary location can represent the stress and strain values of the
whole element. The axial stress
xx
o
, axial strain
xx
c
, and plastic axial strain
p
xx
c
are output data available.

Sx ( )
xx
o
: Axial stress in the ECS
x
-direction
Ex ( )
xx
c
: Axial total strain in the ECS
x
-direction
PE( )
p
xx
c
: Axial total plastic strain in the ECS
x
-direction

3.2 Embedded Truss Element
3.2.1 Overview
Embedded truss elements are used where the bending behavior is neglected, such
as anchor, nail, and rockbolt. The input data (element shape, element coordinate
system, material property, etc.) are identical to those for the truss element.
Moreover, linear elastic, tension only/hook, compression only/gap, and non-linear
elastic characteristics are available for the embedded truss properties.

The truss elements always require nodal connectivity with neighboring elements.
The embedded truss elements, however, do not require nodal connectivity, resulting
in easier 2D and 3D modeling.
Embedded truss elements are available for the following types of mother elements:

Plane strain element
3-node/6-node triangular element
4-node/8-node quadrilateral element


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45
Solid element
8-node/20-node 6-sided brick element
6-node/15-node 5-sided wedge element
4-node/10-node 4-sided tetra element

X
Y
Z

Figure 3.2.1. Embedded truss element situated in a mother element

Embedded truss elements are always placed within the mother element as shown in
Figure 3.2.1. The equations for the embedded truss element are indicated by
subscript tru, and the mother elements are indicated by subscript mot. For
convenience of formulation, the mother element is assumed as the three-
dimensional element.

In the element coordinate system of the mother element,
u
,
v
,
w
are the
translational displacements for the local
x
,
y
, z directions, respectively.

{ }
, ,
i i i i
mot mot mot mot
u v w = u
(3.2.1)

The transformation matrix between the mother and truss elements is obtained from
the direction vector d

1 2 3
1 2 3
0 0 0
0 0 0
d d d
d d d
(
=
(

T (3.2.2)

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46

where the transformation matrix can be formed using the direction vector for the
element local x-axis only since the truss element is one-dimensional

{ }
1 2 3
, , d d d = d (3.2.3)

The nodal coordinates of the truss element can be defined as the following in the
isoparametric coordinate system of the mother element

{ }
, ,
i i i i
tru
q , = a (3.2.4)

The translational displacement of the truss element is given as follows in the mother
element coordinate system

( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
, ,
, ,
, ,
mot
mot
mot
N
i i i i i
tru mot mot
i
N
i i i i i
tru mot mot
i
N
i i i i i
tru mot mot
i
u N u
v N v
w N w
q ,
q ,
q ,
=
=
=
=
=
=
(3.2.5)

The translational displacement in the truss coordinate system can be obtained by
the transformation matrix

tru tru
= u T u (3.2.6)

The relationship between the nodal displacement
tru
u and strain
tru
is given as
the following using the
i
tru
B matrix

1
tru
N
i i
tru tru tru
i =
=
B u (3.2.7)


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47
The
i
tru
B matrix can be expressed as the following using the differential equations
of shape functions

i tru
tru
tru
N
x
( c
=
(
c

B
(3.2.8)

Finally, The stiffness matrix of embedded truss element is given as

( ) ( )
tru
T
ij tru mot tru mot tru
L
dL =
}
K B TN D B TN
, | | A E = D (3.2.9)

where A is the cross sectional area, and
tru
L is the length of truss element.

Embedded truss element uses 1 point Gaussian integration point rule.

The analysis results of the embedded truss elements are element internal forces,
stresses and strains at nodes 1 and 2 in the element coordinate system. All results
of an embedded truss element are outputted in the post-works window, refer to


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48
I - End
J - End
xx
o
xx
o
ECS x-axis
X
Y
Z

Figure 3.2.2 Output location for Embedded Truss element results

3.2.3.1 Element Member Force Results
The outputted element force is the axial force
( )
x xx
N Ao =
, and the tensile stress
is positive (+). The element internal forces at both ends are same in general, but
they may be different when self weight is assigned.

Fx ( )
x
N
: Axial force in the ECS
x
-direction

The element stress and strain are constant along the length since the embedded
truss element has two nodes and the shape functions are linear. Therefore, the
stress and strain at an arbitrary location can represent the stress and strain of the
element. The axial stress
xx
o
, axial strain
xx
c
, and plastic axial strain
p
xx
c
output data are as follows:

Sx ( )
xx
o
: Axial stress in the ECS
x
-axis
Ex ( )
xx
c
: Axial total strain in the ECS
x
-axis
PEx ( )
p
xx
c
: Axial total plastic strain in the ECS
x
-axis

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49
3.3 Beam Element
3.3.1 Overview
A beam element is simply a type of line elements defined by two nodes. It
accounts for tension, compression, bending, shear and torsion. If bending, shear
and torsion are not relevant, then the truss element can be used as an alternative.

A beam element can used to model structures that are long compared to the section
dimensions. If the ratio of the section depth to the length is greater than 1/5, the use
of plate or solid elements is recommended. This is due to consideration of the effect
of shear deformations in beam elements in a very accurate way. Beam elements
can be used for both static (linear & nonlinear) and dynamic analyses and is
capable of accounting for axial deformation, bending, torsion, shear deformation.
The torsional resistance of a beam element differs from the sectional polar moment
of inertia (they are the same for circular and cylindrical sections). Caution should be
exercised when the effects of torsional deformation are large, since the torsional
resistance is generally determined by experimental methods.

When elements with different DOF adjoin each other, rigid beam elements are
useful. Accounting for numerical error, the stiffness of the rigid beam elements is
generally set to 105~108 times the stiffness of the adjoining elements.
The beam element has three translational DOF and three rotational DOF per each
node regardless of the element or global coordinate system. For 2 node beam
elements, the local x-axis is defined as the direction along the line from node 1 to
node 2; element z-axis is defined as the direction parallel to the global Z-axis; and
element y-axis is defined using the right hand rule. If element x-axis and global Z-
axis are parallel, element y-axis is defined as parallel to global Y-axis, and element
z-axis is defined using the right hand rule.

For nonlinear static and construction stage analysis cases, midas GTS implements
DIANAs 2-node and 3-node beam element as shown in Fig. 3.1.1. Besides the
two aforementioned analysis cases, midas GTS the 2-node beam element. von

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50
Mises material model can be used in construction stage and nonlinear static
analysis case. For all other analysis cases, a linear elastic property will be used
instead.
y
z
Z
x
y
y Z x
e e e =
x
e
Z
e
x
e
y
e
z z y
e e e =
x
Z
x
element
i - end
j - end
determination of
local y-direction
determination of
local z-direction
X
Y
Z
GCS
Z
x
mid - node
i - end
j - end

Figure 3.3.1 Definition of Beam Element Coordinate System

Beam elements require the following linear elastic material properties:

E

Poissons Ratio :
v


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51
Weight Density :
t

o

Nonlinear static and construction stage analysis cases can define material nonlinear
behavior with DAIAN beam element. But on the other case, midas GTS uses elastic
beam internally, even user defines nonlinear material beam in the GUI.

Geometrical properties of beam elements are available in midas GTS Section
Library. The library contains a list of sectional shapes, which automatically
calculates the cross sectional area based on representative input dimensions
provided by the user. The cross sectional area is assumed constant along the length.
The sectional properties available in midas GTS are as follows:

Cross section area :
A

Torsional constant :
x
I
Moment of inertia about local y-axis :
y
I

Moment of inertia about local z-axis :
z
I
Effective shear area for local y-axis :
y
A

Effective shear area for local z-axis :
z
A

The eccentricity can be considered in sectional properties. In midas GTS, the
sectional eccentricity only is available. The sectional eccentricity of midas GTS is a
feature to allow the eccentric axis only at particular positions of the section, and the
positions available GTS are as follows

Left-Top Center-Top Right-Top
Left-Center Center-Center Right-Center
Left-Bottom Center-Bottom Right-Bottom
Beam elements in midas GTS are formulated using two types of theories. In case of
DIANA beam element, used in nonlinear static and construction stage analysis case,

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52
52
uses Bernoulli beam theory that does not consider the shear deformation of section.
In the other analysis case, midas GTS uses Timoshenko beam theory such that they
have stiffness for tension, compression, shear, bending and torsion. In this section,
the finite element formulation of the beam element is explained for the 2-
dimensional behavior on the x-z plane.

The deformation of the beam element is assumed as follows:

( ) ( ) and
y
u z x w w x | = = (3.3.1)

where
u
: Displacement in x-axis
z : z-Coordinate
y
|
: Angle about y-axis
w
: Displacement in z-axis

Strain and curvature are expressed as:

y
b x y
s xz y
u
z z
x x
w
x
|
c c k
|
c
c
= = = =
c c
c
= = +
c
(3.3.2)

where
b
c : Axial displacement due to bending
s
: Shear strain
y
k
: Curvature about y-axis

Moment, curvature, shear force and shear strain have the following relationship:

y
y b y
y s xz s xz
M D EI
x
V D GA
|
k

c
= =
c
= =
(3.3.3)

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53

where
b
D : Bending stiffness
s
D : Shear stiffness
E : Modulus of elasticity
I : Second moment of area
G : Shear modulus
s
A : Area

The shape function of a 2-node beam element is assumed as follows:

1 1 2 2 3 3
2
1 2 3
1 1
, , 1
2 2
y y y y
N N N
N N N
| | | |

= + + A
+
= = =
(3.3.4)

Using the shape function in Eq. (3.3.4), the curvature in Eq. (3.3.2) can be redefined
as shown in Eq. (3.3.5).
.

3 1 2
1 2 3
1 3 1 2
1 2 3
1
1
1 1 3 1 2
3
2
2
3
0 0
y y y y
y y y
y
y
y
b b y
N N N
x x x
N N N
J
w
N N N
J J
w
B
| |
k | | |
| | |

|
|

|
|

A
c c c
= + + A
c c c
c | | c c
= + + A
|
c c c
\ .

c ( c c
= + A
`
(
c c c

)
= + A B u
(3.3.5)

where
2
x l
J
c
= =
c
(Jacobian operator)

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54

Similarly, the shear strain is computed as follows:

2
2
1
y y y
b
xz
s s s
V M
D
D D x D x
|
c c
= = =
c c
(3.3.6)

Angle of rotation,
y
|
, is assumed as a second order polynomial equation.

1 2 3
1 4 1
y y y y
x x x x
l l l l
| | | |
| | | |
= + + A
| |
\ . \ .
(3.3.7)

By applying Eq.( 3.3.7) into Eq. (3.3.6), the shear strain can be expressed as follows:

3 3 3 3 2 2
2 12 12
,
3
b
xz s y y
s s
D EI
B
D l GA l
|
| | | |
A
= A = A = =
(3.3.8)

However, the shear strain must satisfy the following constraint condition:

( )
0
0
l
xz xz
dx =
}
(3.3.9)

Therefore, Eq.( 3.3.10) can be expressed as shown below.

( )
2 1 1 2 3 3
2
1 0
2 2 3
y y y
l l
w w l | | | | + + + + A = (3.3.10)

Now, the virtual angle of rotation of center can be expressed in terms of the rest of
angle of rotation.

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55
( )
( )
1
1
3
2
3
2
1
3
1
1 1
2
2 2
1
3
2
1 , 1 1
3 2 2
y
y
y
w
w
w
l l
w
l
l l
A l
|
| |
|
|
|
|
|
A
A A

(
A = =
`
(

+

)
=
(
= = + =
(

Au
A A A
A A
(3.3.11)
From Eq. (3.3.5) and Eq. (3.3.8), the curvature and the shear strain can be obtained.

( )
( )
y b b b b b
xz s s s
B B
B
| | | |
| |
k
A A
A A
= + = + =
= = =
B u Au B A u B u
Au B A u B u
(3.3.12)


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56
where
b
B : Curvature Displacement Matrix
s
B : Shear Strain Displacement Matrix

The stiffness matrix is expressed as follows:

0 0
,
b s
l l
T T
b b b b s s s s
D dx D dx
= +
= =
} }
K K K
K B B K B B
(3.3.13)

The above integral equation can be redefined in algebraic terms, and the final
stiffness of beam element is determined.

3 2 3 2
3 3
2
3
3 2
3
12 6 12 6
4 6 2
1 1
4 2
12 6 1
4
Sym. 1
4
l l l l
l l l EI
l l
l
| |
|
|
(

(
(
| | | | (
+
| |
(
\ . \ .
(
=
+ (
(
(
| | (
+
|
(
(
\ .
K (3.3.14)

This formulation of beam element is based on the element coordinate system being
the same as the global coordinate system. Therefore, in order to use this
formulation, it is necessary to transform the element coordinates into global
coordinates.


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57
Beam element results contain the element member force, curvature, and cross
sectional stresses. All results of the beam element are outputted in the post-works
window, refer to Online Help for a description of output labels listed in the post-
processor, Command Result > Analysis Results.

3.3.5.1 Curvature and Element Member Force Output
The sign convention for element internal force is given in Figure 3.3.2, where the
arrows indicate positive (+) directions.

|y, |z : Curvature in the ECS about y, z-axis
Fx : Axial stress in the ECS x-axis
Fy, Fz : Shear stress in the ECS y, z-axis
Mx : Torsional moment about ECS x-axis
My, Mz : Bending moment about ECS y, z-axis.

Figure 3.3.2 Sign convention for beam element with respect to element coordinate system: Output of
element internal force and stress


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58
3.3.5.2 Beam Element Stress and Strain Results
The sign convention for internal stresses, except for bending moment stresses, is
the same as for internal forces. The bending moment stresses are positive (+) for
tension, and negative (-) for compression. The location of stress output, as
shown in Figure 3.3.3(a) appear at fiber points 1, 2, 3, 4. The normal stress
applied on the beams cross section

In Figure 3.3.3(b), when a stress is applied normal about the cross sectional area
of an arbitrary beam, a combination of bending and axial stress will form. These
stresses are averaged and outputted as a value respectively, as shown in Figure
3.3.3(c).

x
y
z
fiber 1
fiber 3
fiber 4
fiber 2
(a) location of stress output

(b) concept of combined bending and axial stresses

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59
x y
z
(c) shear stresses
xy
t
xz
t
(average shear)
(average shear)

Figure 3.3.3 Beam element stress

Sax : shear stress in the ECS x-axis
Ssy : shear stress in the ECS y-axis
Ssz : shear stress in the ECS z-axis
Bending Sby+ : stress due to bending moment ( )
z
M
about ECS z-axis
[location 1]
Bending Sby- : stress due to bending moment ( )
z
M
about ECS z-axis
[location 2]
Bending Sbz+ : stress due to bending moment
( )
y
M about ECS y-axis
[location 3]
Bending Sbz- : stress due to bending moment
( )
y
M about ECS y-axis
[location 4]
Combined Max : Max function for combining the max and min stress
combinations
Combined 1 : Combined stress 1 (axial stress + bending stress)


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3.4 Plane Stress Element
3.4.1 Overview
There are triangular and quadrilateral plane stress elements with 3,4,6, or 8 nodes.
The element is generally used for membranes which have a uniform thickness. It
is assumed that no stress components exist in the out-of-plane direction and that
the strains in the out-of-plane direction can be obtained on the basis of the
Poissons effects. The plane stress elements can only account for in-plane
deformations and may be used for both static (linear & non-linear) and dynamic
analyses.

An appropriate aspect ratio of an element may depend on several factors: element
type, geometric configuration, structural shape, etc. For accuracy, the corner angle
condition is much more important than the aspect ratio. It is generally recommended
that aspect ratio be 1 and that, for quadrilateral elements, corner angles be close to
90 degrees.

If it is not the case, it is recommended that the element shape be approximately
square over the regions where the stress field is highly disturbed or the accurate
result is needed. Also, as the size of element decreases relatively, the convergence
would be better.

3.4.2 Element Shape, Node Number, and DOF
Plane stress elements have the in-plane translational DOFs in the x and y directions
based on the element coordinate system.

The element coordinate system is the rectangular coordinate system based on the
right hand rule. The directions of local axes are shown in Figure 3.4.1.


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61
ECS x-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS z-axis
3
2
1
4
ECS x-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS z-axis
3
2
1
4
6
7
8
5

(a) Quadrilateral element coordinate system


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62
62
ECS x-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS z-axis
1
2
3
(12 direction)

ECS x-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS z-axis
1
2
3
(12 direction)
4
5
6

(b) Triangular element coordinate system

Figure 3.4.1 Plane stress element configuration

In the plane stress element, the following material properties are required to model
the linear elastic behavior of structural element.

E

Poissons Ratio :
v


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63
Weight Density :
t

o

For plane stress element the constitutive equation is identical to Eq. (3.4.1), and the
matrix form of this equation for linear elastic material is expressed as

2
1 0
1 0
1
1
0 0
2
xx xx
yy yy
xy xy
E
o c v
o v c
v
v
t
(
(
(

=
` ` (

) ) (

(3.4.1)

where the stress
zz
o
for the direction of thickness is always equal to zero
according to the assumption of the plane stress element, and
zz
c
is given as

yy
xx
zz
E E
o
o
c v v = + (3.4.2)

The thickness, which is one of the geometrical properties required for plane stress
element in midas GTS, is assumed constant throughout the entire element.

This element is formulated according to the Isoparametric Plane Stress Formulation
with Incompatible Modes. The formulation process is almost the same as for the
plane strain element, except in having Incompatible Modes.

Field variable with Incompatible Modes is expressed as follows:

{ }
T
i i i
u v = u (3.4.3)

The coordinates
x
,
y
within the element and translational displacements
u
,
v

are expressed as:

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64

1
N
i i
i
x N x
=
=
,
1
N
i i
i
y N y
=
=
,
1
N
i i
i
u N u
=
=
,
1
N
i i
i
v N v
=
=
(3.4.4)

The shape functions
i
N
in Eq. (3.4.4) are equal to those of plane strain element
given in Eq. (2.2.3~2.2.6). The shape functions of the plane stress element in midas
GTS are linear or quadratic as shown in Figure 3.4.1. The 3-noded triangular
element and 4-noded rectangular element are linear elements, and 6-noded
triangular element and 8-noded rectangular element are quadratic elements.

Nodal displacement
u
is related to strain
by
i
B
matrix as shown in Eq. (3.4.5).

1
N
i i
i =
=
B u (3.4.5)

The
i
B
matrix can be expressed as a differential shape function as shown below:

0
0
i
i
i
i i
N
x
N
y
N N
y x
(
c
(
c
(
(
c
=
(
c
(
(
c c
(
c c (

B
(3.4.6)
The element stiffness matrix is expressed using
i
B
matrix as the following

e
T
ij i j
A
t dA =
}
K B DB
(3.4.7)

where
t : Thickness
e
A
: Element area

The D matrix represents the relationship between stress and strain for isotropic
material.

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65
65
2
1 0
1 0
1
1
0 0
2
E
v
v
v
v
(
(
(
=
(
(
(

D
(3.4.8)

stiffness matrix.

Table 2.2.1 Number of integration points of plane stress element
3node triangle 1
6node triangle 3

The output results of the plane stress element are stresses and strains.

The stresses and strains at nodal points are outputted by extrapolating the stresses
that are calculated at the Gauss points within the element. The results at the central
point of the element are also outputted, and are expressed as the average of results
at the Gauss points.

The sign convention for stress and strain of the 4-noded element is given in Figure
3.4.2. The arrows indicate positive (+) directions. All results of a plane stress
element are outputted in the post-works window, refer to Online Help for a
description of output labels listed in the post-processor, Command Result >
Analysis Results.


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66

Figure 3.4.2 Sign Convention for stress and strain

Stress output results are as follows:

xx
o
: Normal stress in the ECS X direction
yy
o
: Normal stress in the ECS Y direction
xy yx
t t =
: Shear stress in the ECS X-Y direction
1 2
, o o
: Principal stresses in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2
vm
o
: Von Mises stress =
( )
2 2
1 2 1 2
o o o o +

Strain results from the plane strain element are as follows:
xx
c
: Normal strain in the ECS X direction
yy
c
: Normal strain in the ECS Y direction
zz
c
: Normal strain in the ECS Z direction
xy yx
=
: Shear strain in the ECS X-Y direction
1 2
, c c
: Principal strains in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2
p
xx
c : Plastic normal strain in the ECS X direction
p
yy
c
: Plastic normal strain in the ECS Y direction
p p
xy yx
=
: Plastic shear strain in the ECS X-Y direction
p p
1 2
, c c : Principal plastic strains in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2
y
x
,
xy xy
t
,
xy xy
t
,
xx xx
o c
,
yy yy
o c

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67
p
( )
p2 p2
1 2
2
3
c c +
3.5 Plate Element
3.5.1 Overview
Flat and curved plate 3D elements are defined by 3, 4, 6 & 8 nodes. These plate
elements can describe membrane deformation, out-of-plane shear and bending
behavior, such as shotcrete lining, shoring walls, foundation-floors.

Quadrilateral type of element is recommended for modeling structures with plate
elements. When modeling a curved plate, the angles between two adjacent
elements should be less than 10. Moreover, the angles should not exceed 2~3 in
the regions where reasonably accurate results are required, as shown in Figure
3.5.1.

It is also recommended that rectangular elements be used in regions where stress
intensities are expected to vary significantly and where detailed results are required.

Midas GTS uses DIANA plate element in nonlinear static and stage analysis case.
DIANA low high order plate elements are formulated by chapter 3.5.4.2 formulas
and do not use drilling DOF for the out of plane direction.

Figure 3.5.1 Example of plate elements used for a circular or cylindrical modeling

Plate
element
Angle between two adjacent elements
Node

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3.5.2 Elements Shape, Connectivity, Degrees of Freedom
The plate element has translational DOF in the ECS x, y and z directions, and
rotational DOF about the ECS x and y axes. The ECS uses x, y and z-axes in the
Cartesian coordinate system, following the right hand rule. The directions of the
ECS axes (Figure 3.5.2) are defined in the same way as in the plane stress element.
The order of nodal number is generated counterclockwise, and the number of
central node is given counterclockwise after numbering of corner nodes.

(a) Quadrilateral Element

ECS z-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS x-axis
1
2
3
4
1
3
2
5
6
7
8
4
ECS z-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS x-axis

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69

(b) Triangular Element

Figure 3.5.2 Plate Element: Configuration, Node I D, and Nodal Coordinate System

3.5.3 Elements Parameters
The following parameters are required for plate elements, in order to capture the
linear elastic behavior of structural materials:

E

Poissons Ratio :
v

Weight Density :

o

The von Mises material model, as well as linear elastic material model, is available
for plate elements in midas GTS. The thickness, which is one of the geometrical
properties required for plane stress element in midas GTS, is assumed constant
throughout the entire element.
1
2
3
ECS z-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS x-axis
(12 direction)
1
3
6
5
4
2
ECS z-axis
ECS y-axis
ECS x-axis
(1 2 direction)

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A plate element has three translational degrees of freedom in the ECS x, y and z-
directions and two rotational degrees of freedom in the ECS x and y-axes. The
discrete plate element separately accounts for in-plane and out-of-plane stiffness
effects. Whereas the curved plate element uses the continuum plate approach.
3.5.4.1 Discrete Plate
The following element formulations are used for discrete plate elements:

In plane deformation
- 3-node element
Iso-parametric Element (identical to that of a plane stress element), for which
Drilling DOF (rotational DOF about the z-axis) may be activated or not.
- 4-node element
Iso-parametric Element (identical to that of a plane stress element), for which
Drilling DOF (rotational DOF about the z-axis) may be activated or not.

Out-of-plane deformation
- 3-node element
DKT
1
(Discrete Kirchhoff Triangle), DKMT
2
(Discrete Kirchhoff Mindlin
Triangle)
- 4-node element
DKQ
3
(Discrete Kirchhoff Quadrilateral), DKMQ
4
(Discrete Kirchhoff Mindlin
Quadrilateral)

1
J.L. Batoz, K.J. Bathe and L.W. Ho, A Study of Three-Node Triangular Plate Bending Elements, International
Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 15, 1771-1812, 1980
2
I. Katili, A New Discrete Kirchhoff-Mindlin Element Based on Mindlin-Reissner Plate Therory and Assumed
Shear Strain Fields Part I : An Extended DKT Element for Thick-Plate Bending Analysis, International Journal for
Numerical Methods in Engineering, Vol. 36, 1859-1883, 1993
3
J.L. Batoz and M. Ben Tahar, Evaluation of a New Thin Plate Quadrilateral Element, International Journal for
4
I. Katili, A New Discrete Kirchhoff-Mindlin Element Based on Mindlin-Reissner Plate Theory and Assumed Shear
Strain Fields-Part II : An Extended DKQ Element for Thick-Plate Bending Analysis, International Journal for

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The Iso-parametric Element formulation for the in-plane stiffness is identical to
that of the plane stress element and will be explained in section 1.4 Plane Stress
Element. The Element with Drilling DOF. option activates rotational DOF.
around the ECS z -axis
z
u
in each of the element nodes and these additional
rotations contribute to the in-plane element displacements u and v.

{ } , ,
T
i i i zi
u v u = u (3.5.1)

For an arbitrary point in an element with N nodes the coordinates x and y and
translational displacements
u
and
v
can be expressed as follows:

1
N
i i
i
x N x
=
=
,
1
N
i i
i
y N y
=
=
(3.5.2)
1 1
1 1
1
( )( )
8
1
( )( )
8
1, 2,.., 1, 2,3,.., ,1
N N
i i i j i zj zi
i i
N N
i i i j i zj zi
i i
u N u P y y
v N v P x x
i N N j N
u u
u u
= =
= =
= +
=
= =

(3.5.3)

where
zi
u
represents the drilling DOF. at the node, i and the shape function is
expressed as follows:

stiffness matrix.

Table 2.2.1 Number of integration points of discrete plate element
3node triangle 1

3-node element
1
1 N q =
,
2
N =
,
3
N q =
(3.5.4)

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1
4 (1 ) P q =
,
2
4 P q =
,
3
4 (1 ) P q q =
(3.5.5)

4-node element
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
1 2
3 4
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
4 4
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
4 4
N N
N N
q q
q q
= = +
= + + = +
(3.5.6)

2 2
1 2
2 2
3 4
1 1
(1 )(1 ), (1 )(1 )
2 2
1 1
(1 )(1 ), (1 )(1 )
2 2
P P
P P
q q
q q
= = +
= + =
(3.5.7)

The relationship between the nodal displacement
u
and the in-plane strain
is
defined by the matrix
i
B
.

1
N
i i
i =
=
B u (3.5.8)

where
i
B
is defined by the differentials of the shape function:

( )
( )
0
8 8
( )
( )
0
8 8
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
8 8 8 8
j i
i i k k i
i j
i k i k i
i
j i i j
i i i k k i k i k i
y y
N y y P P
x x x
x x
N x x P P
y y y
y y x x
N N y y P P x x P P
y x y y x x
(
c c c
(
c c c
(
(
c c c
= (
c c c
(
(

c c c c c c
(
+
c c c c c c (

B

1, 2,.., 1, , 2,3,.., ,1, ,1,.., 2, 1 i N N j N k N N N = = =
(3.5.9)

Using the matrix
i
B
, the element stiffness matrix for in-plane deformation is
defined as follows:

( )
e
I T
ij i j
A
t dA =
}
K B DB
(3.5.10)

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where
t : Element thickness
e
A
: Element area

For isotropic materials, the matrix Drepresenting the relationship between in-
plane stress and in-plane strain is

2
1 0
1 0
1
1
0 0
2
E
v
v
v
v
(
(
(
=
(
(
(

D
(3.5.11)

where E is the Youngs modulus and is the Poisson ratio.

When the Drilling Element option is activated, the translational displacements
perpendicular to the element edges require a third order interpolation as is
illustrated in Figure 3.5.3, which produces more accurate results.

Figure 3.5.3 Relation between the translation displacements and rotational DOF

The DKMT (3-node) and DKMQ (4-node) element formulations make use of the
method of shear strain assumption. The element considers only three DOF at
each node, i.e., the translational displacement in the ECS z-direction,
w
and the
rotational displacements about the ECS x and y-axes,
x
u
and y
u
.


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74
{ }
T
i i xi yi
w u u = u (3.5.12)

For an arbitrary point in an element with N nodes and coordinates
x
and
y
the
rotational displacements
,
x
u
and y
u
are defined as follows:

1 1
N N
x i xi i ij ni
i i
N PS u u u
= =
= + A

,
1 1
N N
y i yi i ij ni
i i
N PC u u u
= =
= A

(3.5.13)

/
ij ij ij
C x L =
,
/
ij ij ij
S y L =
, ij i j
x x x =
, ij i j
y y y =
,
2 2 2
ij ij ij
L x y = +

1, 2,.., 1, 2,3,.., ,1 i N N j N = =

The shape functions,
,
i
N
and
i
P
are defined by the Eqs. (3.5.4)~(3.5.7). When
calculating the virtual rotational angle,
ni
u A
at the midpoint of an edge, the
following assumptions can be made:
The equilibrium equations between the shear force and the bending moment
should be satisfied for N element edges.

, , s ns s ns n
Q M M =
(3.5.14)

Where n is the local coordinate in the direction normal to the edge and s is the
local coordinate in the direction tangential to the edge.

The rotation around the axis perpendicular to the element edge is represented as
a quadratic function along the edge, and the rotation around the axis tangential
direction to the edge is linear along the edge.

(1 ) 4 (1 )
n ni nj ni
ij ij ij ij
s s s s
L L L L
u u u u = + + A
,
(1 )
s si sj
ij ij
s s
L L
u u u = +

1, 2,.., 1, 2,3,.., ,1 i N N j N = =
(3.5.15)

The average shear strain,
sz
,which is calculated from Eq. (3.5.14) and shear
strain ,
sz
, which is directly calculated from the shape functions satisfy the

following condition:

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75

0
( ) 0
ij
L
sz sz
ds =
}
(3.5.16)

Substituting,
ni
u A
, obtained from the above assumptions into the Eq. (3.5.13),
the rotational displacements
,
x
u
and y
u
can be expressed in terms of
i
u
.

1
N
T
x xi i
i
u
=
=
H u ,
1
N
T
y yi i
i
u
=
=
H u (3.5.17)

where
,
xi yi
H H
are expressed as follows with respect to { wi, xi, yi }

3
3
2 (1 ) 2 (1 )
0
3
3
4 (1 ) 4 (1 )
0
3
3
4 (1 ) 4 (1 )
i ij
k ki
ki ki ij ij
i ij ij
k ki ki
xi i
ki ki ij ij
i ij ij
k ki ki
ki ki ij ij
PS
P S
L L
PS y
P S y
N
L L
PS x
P S x
L L
| |
| |
| |

+ +

= + +
` `
+ +

)

+ +
)
H (3.5.18)

3
3
2 (1 ) 2 (1 )
0
3
3
0
4 (1 ) 4 (1 )
3
3
4 (1 ) 4 (1 )
i ij
k ki
ki ki ij ij
i ij ij
k ki ki
yi
ki ki ij ij
i
i ij ij
k ki ki
ki ki ij ij
PC
PC
L L
PC y
PC y
L L
N
PC x
PC x
L L
| |
| |
| |

+

+ +

= +
` `
+ +

)

+
+ +
)
H
(3.5.19)
2
2
2
( )
(1 )
ij
ij
t
L
|
k v
=
(isotropic material)
1, 2,.., 1, 2,3,.., ,1 ,1,.., 2, 1 i N N j N k N N N = = =

The relationship between the nodal displacement and curvature is by the
matrix
bi
B
.

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76

1
N
bi i
i =
=
B u (3.5.20)

T
yi
T
xi
bi
T
T
yi
xi
x
y
x y
(
c
(
c (
(
c
( =
c (
(
c
c
(
(
c c

H
H
B
H
H
(3.5.21)
The shear deformation
is calculated using
sz
obtained from Eq. (3.5.16).
The relationship between
and the nodal displacement is defined by the matrix

si
B
.
1
N
si i
i =
=
B u (3.5.22)

3-node element

( ) ( )
1
(1 ) (1 )
2 2
1
( ) ( )
2 2
(1 ) (1 )
jk ij ij jk
ki ki
ij ij
j i i k
j i ij ij i k ki ki
si
ki ki jk ij
ki ki
i j k i
i j ij ij k i ki ki
S S S
S
y x
N N N N
A A L A A L
y x S
C S S
N N N N
A A L A A L
|
|
| |
|
|
| |
(
(

(
( + +
(
( =
(
(
(

(
( + +

B

1, 2,3 2,3,1 3,1, 2 i j k = = =
, i ij ki ki ij
A C S C S =
(3.5.23)

4-node element

1
(1 ) (1 )
2 2
1
2 2
(1 ) (1 )
ij
i k ki
ij ij
ij ki
si
ki ki ij
i k ki
ij ki
N N
y x
x x
y x
N N
y y
|
|
| |
|
|
| |
( c c c c
(
(
( c c + c c +
(
( =
(
( c c c c
(
(
( c c + c c +

B
(3.5.24)
1, 2,3, 4 2,3, 4,1 4,1, 2,3 i j k = = =


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77
1,3
2, 4
i
i
i
N
i
x N
N x
i
x

q
q
c c
=
c c c c
=

c c c c

=
c c
,
1,3
2, 4
i
i
i
N
i
y N
N y
i
y

q
q
c c
=
c c c c
=

c c c c

=
c c
(3.5.25)

Therefore, the element stiffness matrix for bending and shear deformations is
defined as follows:

3
( )
( )
12
e
O T T
ij bi bj si sj
A
t
t dA = +
}
K B DB B DB (3.5.26)

DKT (3-node) and DKQ (4-node) elements ignore shear deformations. For these
two elements the discretization as proposed by Kirchhoff-Love is assumed. The
element has only three DOF at each node, i.e., the translational displacement in
the ECS z-direction,
w
and the rotational displacements around the ECS x and
y-axes,
x
u
and y
u
. Within an element the coordinates
x
and
y
are defined by the
Eq. (3.5.2), whereas the rotations
x
u
and y
u
are defined using quadratic functions:
1 1
N N
x i xi i N xi
i i
N N u u u
+
= =
= + A

,
1 1
N N
y i yi i N yi
i i
N N u u u
+
= =
= + A

(3.5.27)

3-node element
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 1 2 2 , 2 1
2 1 , 4 1
4 , 4 1
N N
N N
N N
q q
q q q
q q q
= =
= =
= =
(3.5.28)

4-node element

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78
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
1 5 8
2 5 6
3 6 7
4 7 8
2 2
5 6
2 2
7 8
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
2 2
N N N
N N N
N N N
N N N
N N
N N
q
q
q
q
q q
q q
=
= +
= + +
= +
= = +
= + =
(3.5.29)

With respect to the virtual rotational angles
xi
u A
and
yi
u A
at the mid-edge point
the following assumptions are made:

At each node and mid-edge point, the conditions of the Kirchhoff-Love theory are
applied.
Node:
0
x
w
y
u
c
+ =
c
, 0
y
w
x
u
c
+ =
c
, mid-edge point: 0
n
w
s
u
c
+ =
c
(3.5.30)
The out of plane deflection w is a cubic function along the element edge, and the
rotation around the edge is linear along the element edge.

( / 2) ( )
3 1 (0) 3 1
2 4 2 4
ij ij
i j
ij ij
w L w L
w
w w
s L s L s
c c
c
= + +
c c c
(3.5.31)

1
( )
2
si si sj
u u u A = + ,
1, 2,.., 1, 2,3,.., ,1 i N N j N = =
(3.5.32)

By substituting
xi
u A
and yi
u A
obtained from the above assumptions into the Eq.
(3.5.27),
x
u
and y
u
can be expressed in terms of
i
u
:

1
N
T
x xi i
i
u
=
=
H u ,
1
N
T
y yi i
i
u
=
=
H u (3.5.33)

where
xi
H and
yi
H
are:

midas GTS
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79

3
( )
2
ij i N ki k N
xi i ij i N ki k N
ij i N ki k N
d N d N
N e N e N
b N b N
+ +
+ +
+ +

=
`

+

)
H
,
3
( )
2
ij i N ki k N
yi ij i N ki k N
i ij i N ki k N
a N a N
b N b N
N c N c N
+ +
+ +
+ +

= +
`

)
H
(3.5.34)
1, 2,.., 1, 2,3,.., ,1 ,1,.., 2, 1 i N N j N k N N N = = =

,
ij
a ,
ij
b ,
ij
c ,
ij
d
and
ij
e
are determined by the geometric configuration of the
element, which are defined as follows:

2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1
/ , / , ( ) /
4 4 2
1 1
/ , ( ) /
4 2
ij ij ij ij ij ij ij ij ij ij ij
ij ij ij ij ij ij ij
a x L b x y L c x y L
d y L e y x L
= = =
= =
(3.5.35)

The relationship between the nodal displacement and the curvature is defined
by the Eq. (3.5.20), and
bi
B
is defined by the Eq. (3.5.21). Since DKT and DKQ
elements ignore shear deformations, the element stiffness related to the bending
and shearing deformation are defined as follows:

3
( )
12
e
O T
ij bi bj
A
t
dA =
}
K B DB (3.5.36)

It is possible to define a four-node discrete plate element for which not all the
nodes are located on a flat plane. When the above formulation is applied to such
an element, the geometric configuration of the element cannot be represented.
In order to resolve this problem, the stiffness correction method proposed by
MacNeal
5
is used. As illustrated in Figure 3.5.4, the stiffness matrix
P
K

calculated on the A B C D plane is transformed into the stiffness K on the
actual plane 1 2 3 4 , using the transformation matrix S .

5
R.H. MacNeal, Finite Elements : Their Design and Performance, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1994

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T
P
= K S K S (3.5.37)

Figure 3.5.4 Warped Geometry of 4 Node Flat Plate Element

The transformation matrix S is used to transform the forces
P
F
at nodes
( A B C D ) to the forces F at nodes (1 2 3 4 ).

T
P
= F S F (3.5.38)
{ }
1 2 3 4
, , ,
T
T T T T
P P P P P
= F F F F F (3.5.39)
{ }
, , , , ,
T
Pi x y z x y z
Pi
F F F M M M = F (3.5.40)

The components considered in the force transformation matrix are the forces and
moments in the out-of-plane directions resulting from the angles formed by the
edges of the element ( A B C D ) to the plane ( 1 2 3 4 ).

* 32 23
3 2
23 23
( )
z z
F F
F F h
L L
A = A =
(3.5.41)

1
A
B
C
D
2
3
4
*
h
*
h
32
F
23
F
2 Z
F
z
y
x

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81
* 32 23
3 2
23 23
( )
z z
M M
M M h
L L
A = A =
(3.5.42)

The out-of-plane moment
zi
M A
is not directly used in the transformation matrix
S .
3.5.4.2 Curved Plates
Since the formulation of a curved plate element is based on the continuum plate
approach, the stiffness for in-plane deformation and out-of-plane deformation can
be calculated together. In the curved plate element, translational displacements
u
,
v
,
w
and rotational displacements
1
u
,
2
u
about vector
1i
V
,
2i
V
are
considered.

{ }
1 2
T
i i i i i i
u v w u u = u (3.5.43)

Three vectors
i
V
defined at each node are shown in Figure 3.5.5. V3
is the
vector normal to the curved plate surface.
1
V
can be calculated by projecting the
elements local x-axis onto the curved surface of the plate. Because the three
vectors constitute a right-hand coordinate system
2
V
can be obtained from V1

and V3
.

{ }
1 1 1 1
, ,
T
i i i i
l m n = V , { }
2 2 2 2
, ,
T
i i i i
l m n = V , { }
3 3 3 3
, ,
T
i i i i
l m n = V (3.5.44)


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82

Figure 3.5.5 Nodal Coordinate System obtained by projecting ECS

The curved plate element has three translational displacements
, u
v
and
w

referring to the ECS and two rotations
1
u
and
2
u
around the vectors
1i
V
and
2i
V
.

3
1
3
1
3
1
( )
2
( )
2
( )
2
N
i i i
i
N
i i i
i
N
i i i
i
t
x N x l
t
y N y m
t
z N z n
,
,
,
=
=
=
= +
= +
= +
(3.5.45)

11 1 12 2
1
21 1 22 2
1
31 1 32 2
1
{ ( )}
2
{ ( )}
2
{ ( )}
2
N
i i i i i i
i
N
i i i i i i
i
N
i i i i i i
i
t
u N u
t
v N v
t
w N w
, u u
, u u
, u u
=
=
=
= + +
= + +
= + +
(3.5.46)

Where
i
t
is the nodal thickness and
i
is the rotation matrix projecting the

rotations around the Vi direction to the ECS.
y
z
x
projection
V1
V2
V3
ECS

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83

6-node element
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
3 4
5 6
1 1 2 2 , 2 1
2 1 , 4 1
4 , 4 1
N N
N N
N N
q q
q q q
q q q
= =
= =
= =
(3.5.47)

8-node element
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
1 5 8
2 5 6
3 6 7
4 7 8
2 2
5 6
2 2
7 8
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
4 2 2
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
2 2
1 1
1 1 , 1 1
2 2
N N N
N N N
N N N
N N N
N N
N N
q
q
q
q
q q
q q
=
= +
= + +
= +
= = +
= + =
(3.5.48)
The matrix
i
B
defines the relation between nodal displacements and the strain
G
,

1
N
G i i
i =
=
B u
(3.5.49)

where the strain
G
includes all the components of 3D strain tensor.

{ }
, , , , ,
T
G xx yy zz xy yz zx
c c c = (3.5.50)

The matrix
i
B
is defined as:

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84
2, 1,
2, 1,
1
1 2, 1,
1
2, 1,
2, 1,
0 0
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0 0
2 2
0 0
2 2
0 0 0
2 2
i i i i i
i i
i i i i i
i i
i i
i i i i
i
i i i i i
i i
i i
i i i i
N t N t N
l l
N t N t N
l l
t t
N l N l
N t N t N
m m
t t
N n N n
, ,

, ,
q q q
, ,

c c c (
(
c c c
c c c
c c c
=
(
(
c c c

c c c

J 0 0
B H 0 J 0
0 0 J
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(3.5.51)

where
H: Boolean matrix
J : Jacobian matrix

The strain
G
is defined in the ECS which is constant for all points in the element.
In order to transfer the strain
G
onto the curved surface it must be transformed

using the local transformation matrix T. In a curved plate element every point in
the plate element will have its own T. By using the transformation matrix T the
stiffness matrix can be defined as follows:

e
T T
ij i j
V
dV =
}
K B T DTB
(3.5.52)

stiffness matrix.

Table 2.2.1 Number of integration points of curved plate element
6node triangle 3

In the case where the rotational DOF about the z-axis is considered, the
formulation of the virtual rotational stiffness as proposed by Zienkiewicz and

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85
Taylor
6
is applied.

2
( , ,( ) )
e
e n
M z z
f t d u u
O
H = O
}
D
(3.5.53)

where
M
D
: Matrix representing the relationship between stress and strain
The element results for plate elements are internal force, stress, and strain per unit
length. The results are same without distinction of the order of element. In addition,
user-defined coordinate systems can be defined in order to output results with
respect to a reference system.

All results of the plate element are outputted in the post-works window, refer to
3.5.5.1 Output Results of Element Forces per unit Length
Plate elements follow the sign convention shown in Figure 3.5.6. Note, the (+)
direction is indicated by the direction of the arrow head.
The stresses and strains at nodal points are outputted by extrapolating the
stresses that are calculated at the Gauss points within the element. The results at
the central point of the element are also outputted, and are expressed as the
average of results at the Gauss points. The sign convention at the top, middle,
and bottom surfaces is given in Figure 3.5.7 (a) and (b).

Stress output results are as follows:

6 O.C. Zienkiewicz and R.L. Taylor, The Finite Element Method Vol. 2, McGraw-Hill Book Co., London, 1991

midas GTS
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86
xx
o
: Normal stress in the ECS x direction
yy
o
: Normal stress in the ECS y direction
xy yx
t t =
: Shear stress in the ECS x-y direction
yz zy
t t =
: Shear stress in the ECS y-z direction
xz zx
t t =
: Shear stress in the ECS z-x direction
1 2
, o o
: Principal stresses in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2
vm
o
: Von Mises stress =
( )
2 2
1 2 1 2
o o o o +

Strain output results of Plate elements are as follows:

xx
c
: Normal strain in the ECS x direction
yy
c
: Normal strain in the ECS y direction

zz
c
: Normal strain in the ECS z direction
xy yx
=
: Shear strain in the ECS x-y direction
yz zy
=
: Shear strain in the ECS y-z direction

zx xz
=
: Shear strain in the ECS z-x direction
1 2
, c c
: Principal strains in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2
p
xx
c : Plastic normal strain in the ECS x direction

p
yy
c
: Plastic normal strain in the ECS y direction

p p
xy yx
=
: Plastic shear strain in the ECS x-y direction

p p
yz zy
=
: Plastic shear strain in the ECS y-z direction

p p
zx xz
= : Plastic shear strain in the ECS z-x direction
p p
1 2
, c c
: Principal plastic strains in the direction of principal axes, 1, 2
p
( )
p2 p2
1 2
2
3
c c +


midas GTS
87
87

(a) Output locations of element forces per unit length

(b) Forces per unit length due to in-plane actions at the output locations
(c) Moments per unit length due to out-of-plane bending actions at the output locations
Figure 3.5.6 Output locations of plate element forces per unit length and the sign convention


midas GTS
88
88
center of element
output locations of the element stresses
(at each connecting node and the center
at top/bottom surfaces)

(a) Output location of element stresses

xy
t
x
o
xy
t
x
o
xy
t
y
o
xy
t
y
o
2
o
1
o
1
o
2
o
u
x
y
x
y
1
2

(b) Sign convention for plate element stresses

Figure 3.5.7 Sign convention for solid element stresses at connecting nodes.
:
:
:
:
:
x
y
xy
2
x y x y 2
1 xy
2
+
= + +
2 2
=
| |
|
\ .
Axial stress in the ECS x - direction
Axial stress in the ECS y - direction
Shear stress in the ECS x - y plane
Maximum principal stress
Minimum principal stress

:
:
: ( )
2
x y x y 2
xy
2
x y 2
xy xy
2 2
eff 1 1 2 2
+
+
2 2

= +
2
= +
| |
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .
Maximum shear stress

Angle between the x - axis and the principal axis,1
von - Mises Stress
:
:
:
:
:
x
y
xy
2
x y x y 2
1 xy
2
+
= + +
2 2
=
| |
|
\ .

:
:
: ( )
2
x y x y 2
xy
2
x y 2
xy xy
2 2
eff 1 1 2 2
+
+
2 2

= +
2
= +
| |
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .

von - Mises Stress
:
:
:
:
:
x
y
xy
2
x y x y 2
1 xy
2
+
= + +
2 2
=
| |
|
\ .

:
:
: ( )
2
x y x y 2
xy
2
x y 2
xy xy
2 2
eff 1 1 2 2
+
+
2 2

= +
2
= +
| |
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .

von - Mises Stress
:
:
:
:
:
x
y
xy
2
x y x y 2
1 xy
2
+
= + +
2 2
=
| |
|
\ .

:
:
: ( )
2
x y x y 2
xy
2
x y 2
xy xy
2 2
eff 1 1 2 2
+
+
2 2

= +
2
= +
| |
|
\ .
| |
|
\ .

von - Mises Stress

Interface Elements
Chapter 4
midas GTS
89
89

4.1 Interface Element
4.1.1 Overview
midas GTS uses interface elements to allow slippage between dissimilar materials
or between elements having distinctively different stiffness. These special types of
elements, proposed by Goodman et al. (1968), formulate the basis of relative nodal
displacements of solid elements surrounding the interface element. Typical
applications for structural interface elements are elastic bedding, nonlinear-elastic
bedding (for instance no-tension bedding), discrete cracking , bond-slip along
reinforcement, friction between surfaces, joints in rock, masonry etc. With respect
to shape and connectivity, there are three types of structural interface elements:

1. Nodal interface elements
Placed between two nodes. With these elements, the interface
surface and directions are user-specified.

2. Line interface elements
Placed between truss elements, beam elements or edges of two- and
three-dimensional elements. With these elements the interface
surface and directions are evaluated automatically from the geometry
of the element itself.

3. Plane interface elements
Placed between faces of three-dimensional elements. With these
elements the interface surface and directions are also evaluated
automatically from the geometry of the element itself.

Elastic stiffness in terms of relative displacements at both sides of the interface and
stress in the interface are defined for interface elements in both normal and
tangential directions.

Further a Coulomb friction criterion is applied to limit the shear strength of the
interface.

midas GTS
90
90

The Coulomb friction model defines the maximum shear stress in the interface as
function of the normal stress and the cohesion and friction angle material
parameters.

Tensile stresses in the interface elements can be avoided by activating a Tension
cut-off criterion in the interface property dialogue.

The nodal coordinates of the interface element are the same for the two rows along
the length or width of the element. The number of DOFs is identical to that of the
plane or solid elements with nodal connectivity.

The interface element follows the general finite element formulation with an element
thickness is equal to zero. When performing a numerical analysis with zero
thickness, the penalty stiffness rule must be applied by introducing the normal and
shear stiffness modulus as shown in Eq (4.1.2). Since large penalty stiffness may
result in numerical instability, it can also produce inaccurate relative displacements
for even very small values. Thus, an appropriate penalty stiffness value should be
used. The recommended penalty stiffness value is k = 1000 x E/dv
in midas GTS,
where E is the smallest Youngs modulus among the elements, and
v
d
is the
nonzero thickness element. The nonzero thickness element defined by the penalty
stiffness generally ranges from 0.1 to 1. The nonzero thickness element is not an
actual thickness parameter, but adopts a scale factor concept to control the unit and
size of the penalty stiffness. While the unit of the elastic modulus is
2
/ N m , the unit
of the penalty stiffness is
3
/ N m .

The normal and shear stress control the behavior of the interface element. The
general constitutive equation, which relates the traction, t, and relative displacement,
Au , is as follows:

= A t D u (4.1.1)

In case of 2D analysis, basic variables are shown below and illustrated in Figure
4.1.1:
Chapter 4 Interface Elements

midas GTS
91
91

x
y
t
t

=
`

)
t ,
0
0
x
y
k
k
(
=
(

D
,
x
y
u
u
A

A =
`
A

)
u (4.1.2)

where

k
x
: Normal stiffness
k
y
: Shear stiffness
x
t
: Normal traction [
2
/ N m ]
y
t
: Tangent traction [
2
/ N m ]
x
u A
: Normal relative displacement [
m
]
y
u A
: Tangent relative displacement [
m
]

Figure 4.1.1: I nterface element between two nodes in a 2D configuration.


midas GTS
92
92
For 3D analysis, the individual components are shown below and illustrated in
Figure 4.1.2:

x
y
z
t
t
t

=
`

)
t ,
0 0
0 0
0 0
x
y
z
k
k
k
(
(
=
(
(

D ,
x
y
z
u
u
u
A

A = A
`

A
)
u (4.1.3)

where

x
t
: Traction force along the normal line [
2
/ N m ]
y
t
,
z
t
: Tangential traction force[
2
/ N m ]
x
u A
: Relative displacement along the normal line [
m
]
y
u A
,
z
u A
: Tangential relative displacement [
m
]

x
u A
y
u A
z
u A
x
t
y
t
z
t

(a) Relative Displacement (b) Traction Force

Figure 4.1.2 : Relative displacement and traction force on 3D interface element indicated
by perforated line.

Note: In Eq. (4.1.2) and (4.1.3), the displacement and the traction for one direction
are independent of those for the other directions. For example, the traction in z
direction is independent of the behavior in x or y directions.


midas GTS
93
93
midas GTS supports the line-interface element as shown in Fig. 4.1.3, and the
plane-interface element as shown in Fig. 4.1.4. The line-shaped and plate-shaped
elements are used limitedly in 2D and 3D cases.
4.1.2.1 2D Analysis
In midas GTS line interface elements are applicable only in two-dimensional
analysis while supporting both high and low order line interface elements as
shown in Fig. 4.1.3. Line-interface elements can be used to describe
opening/closing and sliding between plane-strain elements or between plane-
strain and beam elements or between axisymmetric elements.
4.1.2.2 3D Analysis
The following type of interfaces can be analyzed in order to capture soil-structure
interaction in a 3D analysis. The following element relationships which interface
can be modeled in are as follows: solid to solid, plate to solid, in addition to, plane
stress or geogrid elements.

- Node to node 1+1 nodes
- low order plane triangle 3+3 nodes
- high order plane triangle 6+6 nodes
- low order plane quadrilateral 4+4 nodes
- high order plane quadrilateral 8+8 nodes


midas GTS
94
94

x
z
y
top
y
u
top
x
u
top
z
u
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
1
3
2
4
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
top
y
u top
x
u
top
z
u
x
z
y
1
3
2
4
3
6
X
Y
Z
X
Y
Z

Figure 4.1.3: Line I nterface Element

4
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
top
y
u
top
x
u
top
z
u
top
y
u
top
x
u
top
z
u
1
2
3
5
6
7
8
1
2
3
4
5
6
4
11
12
3
7
2
6
10
14
15
8
9
13
1
5
16
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
top
y
u
top
x
u
top
z
u
9
3
6
1
4
2
5
7
10
8
11
12
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
top
y
u
top
x
u
top
z
u
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
y

Figure 4.1.4: Plate I nterface Element


midas GTS
95
95
For 2D structural models, a line interface element with unit thickness is used in
addition to the following stiffness constants:

x
k
: ECS x-axis stiffness in normal direction
y
k
: ECS y-axis stiffness in tangential direction
z
k
: ECS z-axis stiffness in tangential direction
An interface element relates the relative displacements
n
u
,
s
u
,
t
u
with the
stiffness matrix D, as shown in Eq. (4.1.4)

x x
y y
z z
t u
t u
t u
A

= A
` `

A
) )
D (4.1.4)

The interface elements strain energy formulation is as follows:

inter
T
inter inter
d
I
= I
}
K B DB
(4.1.5)

In addition, the internal force can be obtained using the following integral:

T
inter inter
d
I
= I
}
F B t
(4.1.6)

By performing a numerical integration, the stiffness matrix, Eq. (4.1.5), can be
expressed as the following formulation:

1
det
Nip
j T j j j
inter inter inter
j =
=
K B DB J W
(4.1.7)
1
det
Nip
j j j
inter inter
j =
=
F B t J W
(4.1.8)

midas GTS
96
96

where
Nip : Number of integral points for interface element
inter
B
: Matrix for the relationship between relative displacement and
element displacement

The integration points are integrated using Newton-Cotes integration method for
the stiffness matrix.

Table 4.1.1 Number of integration points of interface element
4node line 2
6node line 3
6node triangle 3
12node triangle 6

4.1.4.1 2D Line Interface Elements
The stiffness matrix Eq. (4.1.2) defines the 2D line interface. In this case, the
global coordinates of a node can be related to the nodal values using the shape
function (N
i
) as shown below:

1 1 2 2 5 5
3 3 4 4 6 6
1 1 2 2 5 5
3 3 4 4 6 6
( )
( )
( )
( )
bot bot bot bot bot bot bot
top top top top top top top
x N x N x N x
x N x N x N x
y N y N y N y
y N y N y N y
= + +
= + +
= + +
= + +
(4.1.9)

Note, the terms in parenthesis are for higher order elements only. The global
displacements of a node can be expressed in nodal displacement terms using the
isoparametric shape function:


midas GTS
97
97
1 1 2 2 5 5
3 3 4 4 6 6
1 1 2 2 5 5
3 3 4 4 6 6
( )
( )
( )
( )
u N u N u N u
u N u N u N u
v N v N v N v
v N v N v N v
= + +
= + +
= + +
= + +
(4.1.10)

The isoparametric shape functions are expressed below:

for the linear interface element
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 3
2 4
1
1
2
1
1
2
bot top
bot top
N N
N N

= =
= = +
(4.1.11)
for the higher order interface element
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 3
2 4
5 6
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
bot top
bot top
bot top
N N
N N
N N

= =
= = +
= =
(4.1.12)
4.1.4.2 3D Interface Elements
The isoparametric formulation for 3D interface elements can be defined using
global coordinates and shape function for a quadrilateral element.


midas GTS
98
98
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
13 13 14 14 15 15
( )
(
bot bot bot bot bot bot bot bot bot
bot bot bot bot bot bot bot bot
top top top top top top top top top
top top top top top
x N x N x N x N x
N x N x N x N x
x N x N x N x N x
N x N x N x
= + + +
+ + + +
= + + +
+ + +
16 16
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
13 13 14
)
( )
(
top top top
top top top
N x
y N y N y N y N y
N y N y N y N y
y N y N y N y N y
N y N
+
= + + +
+ + + +
= + + +
+ +
14 15 15 16 16
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
1
)
( )
(
top top top top top
y N y N y
z N z N z N z N z
N z N z N z N z
z N z N z N z N z
N
+ +
= + + +
+ + + +
= + + +
+
3 13 14 14 15 15 16 16
)
top top top top top top top top
z N z N z N z + + +
(4.1.13)


midas GTS
99
99
In the same manner, the global displacements can be expressed as follows:

1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
13 13 14 14 15 15
( )
(
top top top top top
u N u N u N u N u
N u N u N u N u
u N u N u N u N u
N u N u N u
= + + +
+ + + +
= + + +
+ + +
16 16
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
13 13 14
)
( )
(
top top top
top top top
N u
v N v N v N v N v
N v N v N v N v
v N v N v N v N v
N v N
+
= + + +
+ + + +
= + + +
+ +
14 15 15 16 16
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12
5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8
1
)
( )
(
top top top top top
v N v N v
w N w N w N w N w
N w N w N w N w
w N w N w N w N w
N
+ +
= + + +
+ + + +
= + + +
+
3 13 14 14 15 15 16 16
)
top top top top top top top top
w N w N w N w + + +
(4.1.14)

Isoparametric shape function for a 3D plane interface is expressed below:
8-node:

( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
1 5
2 6
3 7
4 8
1
, , 1 1
4
1
, , 1 1
4
1
, , 1 1
4
1
, , 1 1
4
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
N N
N N
N N
N N
q q q
q q q
q q q
q q q
= =
= = +
= = + +
= = +
(4.1.15)


midas GTS
100
100
Shape function of a 16-node interface element:
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( )
1 5
2 6
3 7
4 8
9 13
10 14
11 15
2
2
1
, , 1 1 1
4
1
, , 1 1 1
4
1
, , 1 1 1
4
1
, , 1 1 1
4
1
, , 1 1
2
1
, , 1 1
2
,
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
N N
N N
N N
N N
N N
N N
N N
q q q q
q q q q
q q q q
q q q q
q q q
q q q
q
= =
= = +
= = + + +
= = + +
= =
= = +
= ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )( )
12 16
2
2
1
, 1 1
2
1
, , 1 1
2
bot top
N N
q q
q q q
= +
= =
(4.1.16)

Shape function of a 6-node tetra-element:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 4
2 5
3 6
, , 1
, ,
, ,
bot top
bot top
bot top
N N
N N
N N
q q q
q q
q q q
= =
= =
= =
(4.1.17)

Shape function of a 12-node tetra-element:
( ) ( ) ( )( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 4
2 5
3 6
7 10
8 11
9 12
, , 1 2 2 1
, , 2 1
, , 2 1
, , 4 1
, , 4
, , 4 1
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
bot top
N N
N N
N N
N N
N N
N N
q q q q
q q
q q q q
q q q
q q q
q q q q
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
(4.1.18)


midas GTS
101
101
The integral points are placed on the interface in between the top and bottom
elements in midas GTS, and the nodal points are the integral points in Newton-
Cotes method. Newton Gauss integration scheme is defined with the respective
number of integration points per element-type.

The matrix for the relationship between relative displacement and element
displacement is same as the extended B matrix.
Interface elements are classified as line interface element and plate interface
element. The output results of the interface elements are traction, relative
displacements, and plastic relative displacements as follows All results of an
interface element are outputted in the post-works window, refer to Online Help for a
Analysis Results.

Traction
- 2D Line Interface Element
x
t
: ECS x-axis traction normal direction
y
t
: ECS y-axis traction tangential direction

3D Plane Interface Element
x
t
: ECS x-axis traction normal direction
y
t
: ECS y-axis traction tangential direction
z
t
: ECS z-axis traction tangential direction

Relative Displacement
- 2D Line Interface Element
x
u A
: ECS x-axis relative displacement normal direction
y
u A
: ECS y-axis relative displacement tangential direction
p
x
u A : ECS x-axis plastic displacement normal direction
p
y
u A
: ECS y-axis plastic displacement tangential direction

midas GTS
102
102
3D Plane Interface Element
x
u A
: ECS x-axis relative displacement
y
u A
: ECS y-axis relative displacement
z
u A
: ECS z-axis relative displacement
p
x
u A : ECS x-axis plastic displacement
p
y
u A
: ECS y-axis plastic displacement
p
z
u A : ECS z-axis plastic displacement
4.2 Plate Interface Element: Segment Joint
4.2.1 Overview
Plate interface elements are used to represent the nonlinearity of segmented joints
between the tunnel lining segments as shown in Figure 4.2.1. Application of the
plate interface element is essential for modeling TBM tunnels that are constructed
using a segmented lining method The joint can describe hinging, opening and
closing and shearing of tunnel-segments.

Although the basic concept about plate interface element is identical to a two-
dimensional line interface element, the translational and rotational DOFs should be
attached in the plate interface element.


midas GTS
103
103
shield tunnel
joint
segment
x
z
y
top
y
u
top
x
u
top
z
u
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
1
3
2
4
X
Y
Z
top
z
u
bot
z
u
top
z
u
bot
z
u
high-order plate
interface element
bot
x
u
bot
z
u
bot
y
u
top
y
u top
x
u
top
z
u
x
z
y
1
3
2
4
3
6
X
Y
Z
bot
z
u
top
z
u
low-order plate
interface element

Figure 4.2.1 Plate interface element (high-order & low-order)

4-noded low-order and 6-noded high-order plate elements are available in midas
GTS, but only in 3D analysis.
The general shape of a plate interface element is similar to a two-dimensional line
interface element as shown in Fig 4.2.2. Nodes 1 and 2 are placed on the bottom,
and nodes 3 and 4 on the top.


midas GTS
104
104
For high order elements, the nodal number sequence is first generated assuming
low order element as shown in Figure 4.2.2, and then the central nodes are
numbered from the bottom to the top.

1 2
3 4
x
y
z
,
q
z
u x
u
y
u
y
|

Figure 4.2.2: Topology of Plate interface topology and displacement

The translational displacements in local z axis and rotational displacements in local
y axis will be attached to plate interface element as compared with line interface
element as shown in Fig 4.2.3.

1 2
3 4 z
u A
x
u A
y
u A
y
| A
top
z
u
top
x
u
top
y
u
top
y
|
bot
z
u
bot
x
u
bot
y
u
bot
y
|

Figure 4.2.3 Displacement and traction of Plate interface elements

The element traction and relative displacements that occur on the interface of plate
interface element are shown in Fig 4.2.3, and the matrix form is expressed as the
following

x
y
z
y
n
t
t
t
m

=
`

)
,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
x x side x oppositeside
y y side y oppositeside
e
z z side z oppositeside
y y side y oppositeside
u u u
u u u
u
u u u
| | |
A

A

A = =
` `
A

A
) )
(4.2.1)


midas GTS
105
105
The material property of plate interface element is given as

E

Poissons Ratio :
v

Plate Interface element thickness : b

Assuming the behavior as rigid body motion, the constitutive equation of plate
interface element is given as the following

( )
( )
2
0 0 0
0 0 0
2 1
0 0 0
2 1
0 0 0
12
x x
y y
z z
y y
E
E
n u
t u
E
t u
m
Eb
v
v
|
(
(
(
A
( +

A
(
=
` `
(
A

(
+

A (
) )
(
(

(4.2.2)

midas GTS supports the Coulomb friction model for friction slip behavior as well as
rigid body motion in plate interface element; in addition to, Jansen model for
nonlinear bending behavior. Refer to Part 3. Constitutive Model for more information.
The DOFs of plate interface element are expressed about the element coordinate
system, where local y axis is determined as the direction from node 1 to 2. The local
x axis is tangential to the interface. The local z axis is obtained by the average along
the direction of thickness, and the local coordinate system is automatically
determined by searching the connected plate elements in midas GTS as shown in
Figure 4.2.4.


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106

Figure 4.2.4 Calculate local axis of Plate interface element
4.2.4.1 Linear Plate Interface Elements

1
2
3
4
x
y
z
,
q

Figure 4.2.5 Plate interface element connectivity

Figure 4.2.5 illustrates a plate interface element in between two elements. A linear
interpolation of this element is expressed as follow

y
l
= ( ) ( )
1 1 2
u u u u A = A + A A
(4.2.3)

3-point Newton-Cotes method is used for integration.
4.2.4.2 Quadratic Plate Interface Elements
1 3 2
4 6 5

Figure 4.2.6 Quadratic Plate I nterface Element

Eq. (4.2.4) is a linear interpolation method which calculates the quadratic plate
interface element:

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107
1 2
y
l
= + ( )
2 3 1 1 3
2 2
2 2
u u u u
u u u
A A A + A | | | |
A = A + + A
| |
\ . \ .
(4.2.4)
The numerical integration formulation used is the 3-node Newton-Cotes method.
4.2.5 Element Output Results
Output results for plate interface elements are identical in low order and high order
elements, and printed out based on element coordinate system. The outputs are
element force, relative displacements, and plastic relative displacements. All results
of a plate interface element are outputted in the post-works window, refer to Online
Help for a description of output labels listed in the post-processor, Command Result
> Analysis Results.

Element Internal Force Results:

x
t
: ECS x-axis traction
y
t
: ECS y-axis traction

z
t
: ECS z-axis traction
y
m
: ECS y-axis moment

Relative Displacement and Plastic Relative Displacement:
x
u A
y
u A

z
u A
y
| A
: ECS relative rotation about y-axis

p
x
u A : ECS x-axis plastic displacement

p
y
u A
: ECS y-axis plastic displacement

p
z
u A : ECS z-axis plastic displacement

p
y
| A
: ECS plastic rotation about y-axis


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4.3 Pile Element
4.3.1 Overview
Pile element are convenient for 3D modeling, because preservation of nodal
connectivity is no longer required furthermore, (nonlinear) interface effects such as
frictional slip of pile and soil can be considered. For pile elements, both the
properties of the Beam element, as well as for the interface between pile and soil,
need to be defined. The input parameters of the Pile element are identical to those
of Beam element. Interface properties considered for Pile element will be explained
in more detail.

The following diagram, as shown in Figure 4.3.1, is a simple illustration considering
beam element embedded in a mother element. Pile elements can only be created
using solid elements.

X
J-end
Mother
element
: Pile element
Z
Y
I-end

Figure 4.3.1 Pile element

In the previous section a solid element intersected by a part of a pile was discussed.

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109
This part of the pile element is connected to the solid by pile-solid interface element.
As the pile-part element has its own nodes, relative displacements between pile and
solid elements are possible and the interface behavior is defined in the pile-solid
interface element.

The element local x-axis is defined as the direction along the line from node 1 to
node 2, element y-axis is defined as the direction parallel to the global Z-axis, and
element z-axis is defined using the right hand rule. If element x-axis and global Z-
axis are parallel, element y-axis is defined as parallel to global Y-axis, and element
z-axis is defined using the right hand rule. The element DOF is given in Figure. 4.3.2.

I - End
J - End
Mother element
ECS-x
ECS-y
ECS-z
Global-X
Global-Y
Global-Z
ECS-x
ECS-y
ECS-z

Figure 4.3.2 Coordinate System of Pile Element


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110
In the case when rigid behavior is assumed, the pile element parameters are as
follows:

x
k
: ECS x-axis stiffness in normal direction
y
k
: ECS y-axis stiffness in tangential direction
z
k
: ECS z-axis stiffness in tangential direction

The strength and stiffness can be assigned as variable with respect to depth in the
behavior of pile element in addition to rigid body motion. Refer to Part 3. Constitutive
Model for more information.
Pile elements can be modeled in low/high order solid elements:

8node/20node 6plane elements (Brick)
6node/15node 5plane elements (Wedge)
4node/10node 4plane elements (Tetra)

Pile elements that can be modeled with linear elements are as follows:

2node truss elements
2node beam elements

The global coordinate system for interface elements is as follows:

{ }
3 2 1
X X X = X
(4.3.1)


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111
The element local coordinate system for interface elements can be defined using
the global coordinate system as follows:

( ) ( ) ( ) { } { }
3 2 1
3
3
3
2
3
1 3
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
1
3
1
2
1
1 1
, , , , , , X X X X X X x X X X x X X X x = = x (4.3.2)

Figure: 4.3.3 Types of I nterface Elements between Solid and Line Elements

The global coordinate system can be expressed as
I X= (4.3.3)

The local coordinate system can be represented in terms of an orthogonal matrix as
(
(
(
=
3
3
3
2
3
1
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
X X X
X X X
X X X
x (4.3.4)

Elementary
Coordinate
y
z
x
Elementary
Coordinate
y
z
x

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Nodal coordinates can be arranged using the local coordinate system as follows:

( ) ( ) ( ) { }
( ) ( ) ( ) { }
T
X X X x X X X x X X X x
X X X
X X X
X X X
x x x x x x x x x x x x
3
3
3
2
3
1 3
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
1
3
1
2
1
1 1
3
3
3
2
3
1
2
3
2
2
2
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
3
3
3
2
3
1 3
2
3
2
2
2
1 2
1
3
1
2
1
1 1
, , , , , ,
, , , , , ,
(
(
(
=
= x
(4.3.5)

The quadratic shape function can be plotted and written as follows:

Figure 4.3.4: 2D Shape Function Configuration

( ) ( )
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
= N , ( ) ( )
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
+ = N , ( )
2
3
1 = N (4.3.6)

The shape function at the Gauss integration points is denoted by
l
k
N . Where the
node number and l is the integration point number. If there are two integration points,
l=1,2. then nodal coordinates can be expressed as
k
i
a using the node number, k
and the number of degrees of freedom, i. For Solid elements, three translational
degrees of freedom are used.

)
`
=

= = =
3
1
3
3
1
2
3
1
1
, ,
k
l
k
k
k
l
k
k
k
l
k
k l
N a N a N a a (4.3.7)

l
a is the coordinate of the Gauss integration point for a Line element about the
element local coordinate system. Since the coordinate of the integration point of
Line element is known in the Isoparametric coordinate system of a Solid element,
the coordinate system of the integration point of Line element can be known in the
element coordinate system of Solid element using the nodal coordinate of Solid
element.
The coordinates in the Isoparametric coordinate system are given by:
N
1

N
2

N
3


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113

{ }
l l l l
, q , , = (4.3.8)

If the basic element is a 15-node Wedge element, the shape function can be defined
by:

l
k
N
15
(4.3.9)

Where k , is the exponent of the shape function and l is the exponent of the
integration point. If three nodes pass through the 15-node Wedge element, the
Relative Displacement- Displacement matrix can be formulated as follows:

15 15
1 15 1 3
15 15
1 15 1 3
15 15
1 15 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l
N N N N
N N N N
N N N N
(
(
=
(
(

B
(4.3.10)

If three nodes pass through a 10-node Tetra element, the Relative Displacement-
Displacement matrix can be formulated as follows:

10 10
1 10 1 3
10 10
1 10 1 3
10 10
1 10 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
l l l l
l l l l l
l l l l
N N N N
N N N N
N N N N
(
(
=
(
(

B
(4.3.11)

The gradient stiffness matrix of Solid-Beam interface element is expressed below:
=
=
np
l
l l
l
T
l
t
W
1
det J TB B K (4.3.12)

where
t
K
is the gradient stiffness matrix,
l
W
is the weight, and T is the Relative
Displacement Friction matrix.
The integration points are integrated using Newton-Cotes integration method for
the stiffness matrix.

Table 4.3.1 Number of integration points of pile element

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114
4node line 2
6node line 3

The types of material models used for Solid-Beam interface elements include Linear
Elastic model and Nonlinear Elastic model. The Relative Displacement-Friction
matrix is formulated as follows:

0 0
0 0
0 0
x
y
z
k
k
k
(
(
=
(
(

D (4.3.13)

Normal stress
o
and shear stress (
t
) are associated with a constitutive equation
which relates them to normal strain and tangent strain. A 3D structure retains one
normal strain and two tangent strains.

x x
y y
z z
t u
t u
t u
A

= A
` `

A
) )
D (4.3.14)
The pile element output results are traction and relative displacement: All results of
the pile element are outputted in the post-works window, refer to Online Help for a
Analysis Results.

x
t
: ECS x-axis traction
y
t
: ECS y-axis traction
z
t
: ECS z-axis traction
x
u A
y
u A

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115
z
u A
4.4 Pile Tip Bearing Element
4.4.1 Overview
Previously, pile elements were introduced based on line-to-solid interfaces
considered the non-linearity due to pile shaft friction (slip); however, failed to
consider the non-linearity due to soil failure at the pile tip (i.e. pile toe). As a
consequence, the previous pile elements were mostly appropriate to model long
piles where the contribution of the tip to the overall pile capacity is negligible.
Furthermore, the creation of pile element is complemented by adding a point-to-
solid interface element at the pile tip such that a limit for pile tip bearing capacity can
be specified by the user. Therefore, the new pile element considers non-linearity
arising both from pile shaft friction and from soil failure at pile tip.

When creating pile elements using the Create Pile (3D) dialog, the user can activate
the Pile tip spring option. In this case, a point-to-solid interface element is created at
the tip of each pile, connecting the end node of the pile beam to the surrounding 3D
soil elements. This point-to-solid interface element has an internal orientation
allowing the user to define a non-linear behavior between the beam and the soil in
the axial direction of the pile. This non-linear behavior can be based on either
perfect plasticity (high elastic stiffness and limited bearing capacity), or a user-
defined multi-linear force-displacement diagram.

- Tip Bearing Capacity is the maximum bearing force allowed at the pile tip.

- Tip Spring Stiffness is the initial elastic stiffness used before pile tip failure.
If this option is chosen, the pile tip will behave elastically until reaching the
specified bearing capacity where it then behaves in a perfectly plastic way.
Note that it is advised to specify an elastic stiffness at the tip which is large
enough to produce negligible displacement but smaller than the shear
stiffness modulus of the shaft over the pile length in order to increase the
robustness of the numerical analysis.


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116
- Function is an alternative option to consider Tip Spring Stiffness. It allows
users to define a function relating the normalized tip reaction force to the
relative axial displacement between the pile tip and the soil elements.
Ultimately, the point-to-solid interface element will use a multi-linear force-
displacement diagram resulting from the multiplication of this normalized
function (unit insensitive) by the specified tip bearing capacity (unit
sensitive).

Pile tip bearing elements inherit Solid-line and Solid-point interface from the
standard Pile and Pile tip bearing library respectively. Please refer to section Pile
Element. Figure 4.4.1 illustrates how a pile tip bearing is modeled in midas GTS
defining a solid-point interface in an element with an additional solid-line interface.

Figure 4.4.1 Modeling of Pile tip bearing element

The pile tip bearings axial stiffness is added to the nodes that correspond to the pile
tip among the nodes where pile element intersects with beam.
Pile tip bearing

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117

4.4.2 Pile tip bearing element with rigid link.

Figure 4.4.3 Various types of I nterface Elements between Solid Line Element

Pile tip bearing
Pile tip bearing
Axis of pile tip bearing
y
z
x
Pile tip bearing

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In the case when assuming rigid body behavior for a pile element, the following
material parameters are required:

x
k
: ECS stiffness parameter x-axis
y
k
: ECS stiffness parameter y-axis
z
k
: ECS stiffness parameter z-axis

The behavior following strength softening curve can be defined in addition to rigid
body motion in midas GTS. Refer to Part 3. Constitutive Model for more information.
4.4.4 Constitutive Equation
The formulation of pile tip element is similar to that of point interface element, and
the pile tip element is defined as the point interface element between mother and
point elements. For convenience of formulation, the mother element, i.e. solid
element, is assumed as three-dimensional element.

To define the translational displacement of the pile tip element, the displacements
i
mot
u for the mother element and
i
pt
u
for the point element should be first defined.

{ }
{ }
, ,
, ,
i i i i
mot mot mot mot
i i i i
pt pt pt pt
u v w
u v w
=
=
u
u
(4.4.1)

Since the element is one-dimensional, the same transformation matrix as for the pile
element is used without user input, for convenience.

tip pile
= T T
(4.4.2)

In the isoparametric coordinate system of mother element, the nodal coordinates of
the pile tip element are defined as


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119
{ }
, ,
i i i i
tip iso iso iso
q , = a (4.4.3)

and can be illustrated as show in Figure 4.4.4.

{ }
, ,
i i i
iso iso iso
q ,
q
,
: Node point in isoparametric coordinate of mother element
Pile tip bearing
element
Mother element

Figure 4.4.4: Mother element isoparametric coordinate system and Pile tip bearing element element
coordinate system

The shape functions of pile tip are expressed as the difference between the shape
functions of mother element and point element at the location of the pile tip.

( ) ( )
, , ,
i i i i i i i
tip mot iso iso iso pt pt
N N q ,
(
=

N (4.4.4)

The above shape function can be used to obtain the relative displacement of a pile
element:

{ }
,
T
i i i
tip tip mot pt
A = u N u u (4.4.5)

The relative displacements in pile tip element coordinate system are obtained from
the transformation matrix.

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120

tip tip tip

A = A u T u
(4.4.6)

The pile tip element stiffness matrix can be expressed by the following equation:

( ) ( )
tip
T
ij tip tip tip tip tip
V
dV =
}
K T N D T N
(4.4.7)

where D is the constitutive matrix defined from the user-defined axial stiffness.
Since 1D pile tip elements can only be applied in 3D models, the stiffness in non-
axial direction is set to a very high value so that the displacement in non-axial
directions are always negligible.

0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
n
k (
(
=
(
(

D (4.4.8)

The local tip traction can be defined by the following relationship between the local
relative tip displacement and D matrix:

{ } { }
tip tip
x x
t u
= A
= A
t D u
D
(4.4.9)
The results of the pile elements are as follows:

x
t
: ECS x-axis traction force
y
t
: ECS y-axis traction force
z
t
: ECS z-axis traction force
x
u A
y
u A
z
u A

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121

All results of a pile tip bearing element are outputted in the post-works window, refer
to Online Help for a description of output labels listed in the post-processor,
4.5 Geogrid Element
Geotechnical fiber materials are high polymers used in combination with sands, clays,
gravels, etc. and closely relate to geotechnical engineering works. They are used to
prevent soil erosion and for filtering. Thereafter, they are used to dismantle, reinforce
and drain soils, and recently they are used for waterproofing, preventing fissure,
protecting underground structures and absorbing impact.

Geogrid elements are thin and flat structures, which do not retain flexural stiffness but
retains axial stiffness. Geogrid elements cannot resist compression and can take
tension only. In general, these elements are used for reinforcing soils.

2D Linear Elements

2-D elements are represented as truss element exhibiting only tension only
behavior. The geometrical property of truss assumes unit width and only
the thickness parameter is required.

3D Plane Elements

3D elements are represented by plane stress elements which follows an
Inversed Rankine Model. The Inversed Rankine model assumes only the
principal stress values of tension only forces. The structural parameter
input requires only a thickness value. Refer to Part 3 Constitutive model
for more information.
4.6 Elastic Link
An elastic link connects two nodes where the stiffness parameter is user-defined. The
elastic link only accounts for the stiffness in the ECS. Figure 4.6.1 presents the

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122
directions of the ECS axes. An elastic link may be assigned as tension-only or
compression-only properties which can be composed of three translational and three
rotational stiffness parameters. The translational and rotational stiffness of an elastic
link element are expressed in terms of unit force per unit length and unit moment per
unit radian respectively.

Examples for elastic link elements are elastic bearings of a bridge structure,
connecting the bridge deck and the piers. Compression-only elastic link elements can
be used to model soil boundary conditions.

Figure 4.6.1 Coordinate system of an Elastic Link

4.7 Rigid Link
The rigid link function constrains geometric relative displacements or rotations
between 2 or more nodes of a structure. A geometric constraint prescribes that one
degree of freedom of a particular node is defined by one or more degrees of freedom
of one or more nodes. The reference nodes are called the master nodes, and the
subordinated node is called the slave node. The geometric relationships for the
eccentric bending condition of the master node and slave node are expressed by the
Eq. (4.7.1).

z
y
x
2
1
Ref.

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123
Xs Xm Ym Zm
Ys Ym Zm Xm
Zs Zm Xm Ym
Xs Xm
Ys Ym
Zs Zm
m s
m s
m s
U U R Z R Y
U U R X R Z
U U R Y R X
R R
R R
R R
X X X
Y Y Y
Z Z Z
= +
= +
= +
=
=
=
A =
A =
A =
(4.7.1)

where

, ,
Xs Ys Zs
U U U
: Translations of slave node in the GCS X, Y and Z directions
, ,
Xm Ym Zm
U U U
: Translations of master node in the GCS X, Y and Z
directions
, ,
Xs Ys Zs
R R R
: Rotations of slave node in the GCS X, Y and Z directions
, ,
Xs Ys Zs
R R R
: Rotations of master node in the GCS X, Y and Z directions
, ,
s s s
X Y Z
: Global coordinates of slave node
, ,
m m m
X Y Z
: Global coordinates of master node

A rigid link may be applied to parts of the model which are assumed to be rigid. It
also can be used in the case of a stiffened plate for an eccentric connection of plate
and stiffener. Figure 4.7.1 illustrates a rigid plane connection applied to a floor
(diaphragm). When a building is subjected to a lateral load, the relative horizontal
deformation in the floor plane is generally negligible compared to that in columns, walls
and bracings. This rigid diaphragm behavior of the floor can be prescribed by
constraining all the relative in-plane displacements to be equal. The movements
consist of two in-plane translational displacements and one rotational displacement
about the perpendicular direction to the plane.

Xs Xm Zm
Ys Ym Zm
Zs Zm
U U R Y
U U R X
R R
=
= +
=
(4.7.2)

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124

Figure 4.7.1 illustrates a rigid plane connection applied to a floor (diaphragm). When a
building is subjected to a lateral load, the relative horizontal deformation in the floor
plane is generally negligible compared to that in columns, walls and bracings. This
rigid diaphragm behavior of the floor can be prescribed by constraining all the relative
in-plane displacements to be equal. The movements consist of two in-plane
translational displacements and one rotational displacement about the perpendicular
direction to the plane.

Figure 4.7.1: Floor plate subjected to a torsional moment about a vertical axis.

When a structure of a flow, as illustrated in Figure. 4.7.1, is subjected to a torsional
moment about the vertical direction and the in-plane stiffness of the floor is significantly
greater than the stiffness of the columns, the entire floor will be rotated by | , where
1 2 3 4
| | | | | = = = =
. Accordingly, the four degrees of freedom can be reduced to a
single degree of freedom. Figure. 4.7.2 shows this process in which a total of 24 (6x4)
degrees of freedom is reduced to 15 DOF. within the floor plane, based on the
assumption that the floor shape is rigid when rotating.

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125

Figure 4.7.2 Reduction of d.o.f. for floor diaphragm of significant in-plane stiffness.

Figure 4.7.3 shows a rigid body and plane connection. Figure 4.7.3 (a) illustrates the
application of a rigid link using a rigid body connection. In the region where detail
results are required the rectangular tube is modeled with plate elements, and the tube
floor diaphragm
Z
Y
Y
X
X
1 2
3 4
floor diaphragm
master node
master node
slave node
slave node
Z X Y
U R R
Z X Y
U R R
Z X Y
U R R
Z X Y
U R R
X Y Z
U R R
X Y Z X Y Z
U U U R R R
X Y Z X Y Z
U U U R R R
X Y Z X Y Z
U U U R R R
X Y Z X Y Z
U U U R R R

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126
is represented by beam elements where no detailed results are required. Figure 4.7.3
(b) shows an application of a rigid plane connection for a column offset in a two-
dimensional plane. Whenever the rigid link is used in a plane, geometric constraints
must be assigned to two translational displacement components and one rotational
component around the axis perpendicular to the plane. When a rigid link is used for all
directional components, as shown in Figure 4.7.3 (a), geometric constraints must be
assigned to all six degrees of freedom.

(a) A tubed modeled using a beam element and plate elements, and connected by Rigid Body Connection.

Z
rectangular tube modeled with plate elements
rectangular tube modeled
as a beam element
Rigid Link
master node
Y
X
: slave nodes (12 nodes)
* all 6 degrees of freedom of
the slave nodes are linked
to the master node.

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127

(b) Eccentricity of an offset-column linked by Rigid Plane Connection

Figure 4.7.3 Application examples of Rigid Links

4.8 Point Spring/Damping
Point springs are used to define the elastic stiffness of adjoining structures or ground
support conditions. They are also used to prevent singular errors from occurring at
the connecting nodes of elements with limited degrees of freedom, such as truss,
plane stress, etc.

Point spring at a node can be expressed in six degrees of freedom: three translational
and three rotational components with respect to the GCS as shown in Figure 4.8.1.
The translational and rotational spring stiffness is defined as a unit force per unit length
and unit moment per unit radian respectively. When modeling foundation sub-soils with
point springs, the spring stiffness can be calculated as the product of Youngs modulus
of sub-soil and the effective areas of the corresponding node divided by the effective
deformation of the soil in depth.
Point damping defines a damping spring at a node. The point damping can be mainly

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128
used to model viscous damping boundary conditions of soils and is defined as six
degrees of freedom: three translational and three rotational components, per node.
Due to the characteristics of damping, the point damping can only be used in dynamic
analyses and not in linear analysis. Point spring and point damping specified at a node,
in general, follows the GCS unless an NCS is specified, in which case they are defined
relative to the NCS.

Figure 4.8.1 Element Coordinate System of Point Spring/Damping

4.9 Matrix spring
The stiffness in different directions of a point spring is independent of each other.
Matrix Springs are introduced to couple displacements or rotations in one direction to
forces and moments in another direction. An example of an application of a matrix
spring is the coupling of a rotation to translations. Matrix spring stiffness can be user-
defined, but attention should be given to the condition that the matrix must be positive
definite. Because the matrix must be symmetric, only the upper triangular matrix can
be specified.

In general matrix springs follows the GCS unless an NCS is specified, in which case it
is defined relative to the NCS.

Z
Nodal Point
SY
SZ
SX
SRY
SRX
SRZ
Y
X


midas GTS
129
129
Reference:
Elements that can be used for respective Analysis Case
Element Type
Analysis Case
LS EG TH EL RS NL SP CD CS SRM SAM
Truss
LO - -
HO - - - - - - - - -
Embedded Truss
LO - -
HO - - - - - - - - -
Beam
LO -
HO - - - - - - - - -
Plate
LO - - -
HO - - -
Plane Stress
LO - - -
HO - - -
Plane Strain
LO
HO -
Axisymmetric
LO - - - - - -
HO - - - - - -
Solid
LO -
HO -
Interface Element
LIN
LO -
HO -
PLANE
LO - -
HO - -
Plate Interface
LO - - -
HO - - -
Pile
LO - - -
HO - - - - - - - - -
Pile Tip - - -
Geogrid
LIN
LO - -
HO - - - - - - - - -
PLANE
LO - - -
HO - - -
Elastic Link - -
Rigid Link - -
Point Spring - -
Matrix Spring - -

Part 2 Finite Element Formulation

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Part 2 Finite Element Formulation

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Part II Element Formulations

: Tresca (maximum shear stress) =

: Tresca (maximum shear stress) =

: Tresca (maximum shear stress) =

, which is directly calculated from the shape functions satisfy the

and the nodal displacement is defined by the matrix

is the rotation matrix projecting the

includes all the components of 3D strain tensor.

onto the curved surface it must be transformed

Maximum shear stress

Maximum shear stress

Maximum shear stress

Maximum shear stress

tip tip tip

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