INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS

What is ergonomics?
Ergonomics is the study of how the physical health of
workers is affected by their workplace. Studies have shown that certain things in the workplace (including temperature, lighting, air, and furniture and equipment design) can affect the speed at which employees work, their health, and their absenteeism. Ergonomic design means creating a healthier work area for employees.

When work environments are designed to be ergonomically correct, employees are happier and healthier, produce more work in a shorter period of time, miss fewer days, and quit their jobs less frequently. As a result, businesses can save a lot of money. When workplaces are not designed ergonomically, they can cause many types of injuries to employees. The most common type of injury is musculoskeletal injuries (MSI). MSI happens when a worker performs the same task over and over, causing stress on nerves, muscles, tendons, or other body parts. The most frequently reported MSI in North America is carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). CTS occurs when a nerve in the wrist is used over and over with the wrong equipment. The wrist is then unable to move properly, and the person suffering cannot input data or hold objects in that hand. CTS is often caused by long hours of keying at a computer workstation that is not properly adjusted to the workers height. Other illnesses caused by poor ergonomically designed work areas are eye strain, headaches, tiredness, allergies, backaches, and poor circulation.

History of the field

The foundations of the science of ergonomics appear to have been laid within the context of the culture of Ancient Greece. A good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization in the 5th century BC used ergonomic principles in the design of their tools, jobs, and workplaces. One outstanding example of this can be found in the description Hippocrates gave of how a surgeon's workplace should be designed and how the tools he uses should be arranged. The archaeological record also shows that the early Egyptian dynasties made tools and household equipment that illustrated ergonomic principles. It is therefore questionable whether the claim by Marmaras, et al., regarding the origin of ergonomics, can be justified. In the 19th century, Frederick Winslow Taylor pioneered the "scientific management" method, which proposed a way to find the optimum method of carrying out a given task. Taylor found that he could, for example, triple the amount of coal that workers were shoveling by incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the fastest shoveling rate was reached. Frank and Lillian Gilbreth expanded Taylor's methods in the early 1900s to develop the "time and motion study". They aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying from 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their productivity from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.[7] Prior to World War I the focus of aviation psychology was on the aviator himself, but the war shifted the focus onto the aircraft, in particular, the design of controls and displays, the effects of altitude and environmental factors on the pilot. The war saw the emergence of aeromedical research and the need for testing and measurement methods. Studies on driver behaviour started gaining momentum during this period, as Henry Ford started providing millions of Americans with automobiles. Another major development during this period was the performance of aeromedical research. By the end of World War I, two aeronautical labs were established, one at Brooks Airforce Base, Texas and the other at Wright field outside of Dayton, Ohio. Many tests were conducted to determine which characteristic differentiated the successful pilots from the unsuccessful ones. During the early 1930s, Edwin Link developed the first flight simulator. The trend continued and more sophisticated simulators and test equipment were developed. Another significant development was in the civilian sector, where the effects of illumination on worker productivity were examined. This led to the identification of the Hawthorne Effect, which suggested that motivational factors could significantly influence human performance World War II marked the development of new and complex machines and weaponry, and these made new demands on operators' cognition. it was no longer possible to adopt the Tayloristic principle of matching individuals to preexisting jobs. Now the design of equipment had to take into account human limitations and take advantage of human capabilities. The decision-making, attention, situational awareness and hand-eye coordination of the machine's operator became key in the success or failure of a task. There was a lot of research conducted to determine the human

capabilities and limitations that had to be accomplished. A lot of this research took off where the aeromedical research between the wars had left off. An example of this is the study done by Fitts and Jones (1947), who studied the most effective configuration of control knobs to be used in aircraft cockpits. A lot of this research transcended into other equipment with the aim of making the controls and displays easier for the operators to use. The entry of the terms "human factors" and "ergonomics" into the modern lexicon date from this period. It was observed that fully functional aircraft, flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In 1943 Alphonse Chapanis, a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that this so-called "pilot error" could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits. After the war, the Army Air Force published 19 volumes summarizing what had been established from research during the war.[7] In the decades since World War II, HF&E has continued to flourish and diversify. Work by Elias Porter and others within the RAND Corporation after WWII extended the conception of HF&E. "As the thinking progressed, a new concept developedthat it was possible to view an organization such as an air-defense, man-machine system as a single organism and that it was possible to study the behavior of such an organism. It was the climate for a breakthrough. In the initial 20 years after the World War II, most activities were done by the "founding fathers": Alphonse Chapanis, Paul Fitts, and Small. The beginning of The Cold War led to a major expansion of Defense supported research laboratories. Also, many labs established during WWII started expanding. Most of the research following the war was military-sponsored. Large sums of money were granted to universities to conduct research. The scope of the research also broadened from small equipments to entire workstations and systems. Concurrently, a lot of opportunities started opening up in the civilian industry. The focus shifted from research to participation through advice to engineers in the design of equipment. After 1965, the period saw a maturation of the discipline. The field has expanded with the development of the computer and computer applications.[7] The Space Age created new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme g-forces. Tolerance of the harsh environment of space and its effects on the mind and body were widely studied The dawn of the Information Age has resulted in the related field of humancomputer interaction (HCI). Likewise, the growing demand for and competition among consumer goods and electronics has resulted in more companies including human factors in product design.

HF&E organizations
Formed in 1946 in the UK, the oldest professional body for human factors specialists and ergonomists is The Institute of Ergonomics and Human Factors, formally known as The Ergonomics Society. The Human Factors and Ergonomics Society (HFES) was founded in 1957. The Society's mission is to promote the discovery and exchange of knowledge concerning the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems and devices of all kinds. The International Ergonomics Association (IEA) is a federation of ergonomics and human factors societies from around the world. The mission of the IEA is to elaborate and advance ergonomics science and practice, and to improve the quality of life by expanding its scope of application and contribution to society. As of September 2008, the International Ergonomics Association has 46 federated societies and 2 affiliated societies

Specializations
Specializations within this field include visual ergonomics, cognitive ergonomics, usability, humancomputer interaction, and user experience engineering. New terms are being generated all the time. For instance, user trial engineer may refer to a human factors professional who specialises in user trials. Although the names change, human factors professionals apply an understanding of human factors to the design of equipment, systems and working methods in order to improve comfort, health, safety, and productivity. According to the International Ergonomics Association within the discipline of ergonomics there exist domains of specialization:

Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomy, and some of the anthropometric, physiological and bio mechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity. Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. (Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human-system and Human-Computer Interaction design.) Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of socio-technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. (Relevant topics include communication, crew resource management, work design, design of working times, teamwork, participatory design, community ergonomics, cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management.) Environmental ergonomics is concerned with human interaction with the environment. The physical environment is characterized by climate, temperature, pressure, vibration, light.[9]

The design of ergonomics

Office Chair

Introduction
The office chair is the most frequently used piece of office equipment. An ergonomically designed chair is an essential item for all computer workstations. Experts have identified several features characteristic of well-designed ergonomic office chairs. With increasing numbers of computer users in the workforce, the computer office chair has received great attention. It is presently estimated that 45 million American workers spend some time each day using a computer and keyboard. Approximately 30 million workers use the office chair, computer, keyboard, and pointing devices as their primary work equipment each day, all day, and up to 8 hours per day or more. Computer use has been linked to several types of injuries known as Upper Extremity Repetitive Stress Injuries (UE-RSI's), Cumulative Trauma Disorders (CTDs), or Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WRMSDs). RSIs, CTDs, and WRMSDs are associated with the upper extremities (UE) or arms, forearms, wrists, hands, and fingers as well as the neck, back and lower extremities (LE) or legs. Common CTDs associated with computer input devices include Carpal Tunnel Syndrome (CTS), Tendonitis, and Tenosynovitis effecting the hands, wrists, and forearms as well as Neck Tension Syndrome, Low Back Pain (LBP), and LE pain. The Bureau of Labor and Statistics (BLS) reported that the incidence of such disorders has increased 770% between 1981 and 1991 (BNA, 1995). Several studies have clearly shown a definitive link between CTDs and computer use (NIOSH, 1997). Ergonomics is the premier science which concerns itself with humans at work and the many aspects of the Human Computer Interface (HCI). Studies clearly demonstrate a scientific basis for ergonomic design of office chairs. The following is an overview of ergonomic issues related to office chairs.

Pictures of an ergonomics office chair

Features/Characteristic

Seat height adjustment Good ergonomics office chairs are the ones whose height is easily adjustable. This is especially so if the chair will be used by different people because people have different heights. Failure to have this feature would mean some people will hang their legs, something that reduces blood circulation and leads to medical problems. Most ergonomics office chairs have pneumatic or gas adjustment lever for lowering or raising the chair, but if this option is too expensive, there is always manual adjustment. Chairs should have a seat height ranging from 15 to 20 inches above the floor.

Seat width and depth adjustment Good ergonomics office chairs have enough width and depth so that the user is supported comfortably. For this reason, when buying office chairs, you should consider the body dimensions of the intended users. If the chair is going to be used by different people, you should go for a width of 17 to 20 inches. The depth should be such that the intended user is able to lean back while leaving a few inches between the seat and the back of the knees. Good ergonomics office chairs should also have adjustable forward and backward tilt so that the user can be comfortable

Lumbar support adjustment Those who do most of their work while seated often complain of back problems. However, good ergonomics office chairs come with lower back or lumbar support. Back problems occur when the inward curve of the lumbar spine tends to flatten, therefore straining the structure of the lower spine. Lumbar support of a chair means you are able to adjust the depth and height of the seat this is in the part joining the backrest of the chair and the seat.

Backrest adjustment A good ergonomics office chair should have a backrest that is adjustable anywhere between 12 and 20 inches. Some office chairs have backrests that are separated from the seat and in that case, the adjustment should be done on the angle and the height. The adjustments should be made until the backrest is able to support the natural curve of the spine. This prevents back problems and makes sure you are comfortable. A locking mechanism should be in place to secure the backrest against going too far back.

Armrest height adjustment A good ergonomics office chair should have armrest height adjustment. This ensures that the user is comfortable because the arms and the shoulders can relax. However, this feature should not be used for typing purposes. This feature relieves RSI or repetitive strain injury which is a common feature for those who type a lot. Appropriate seat material A good ergonomics office chair is one made from a material that is comfortable. The material should not make the users back to sweat, meaning it should absorb some of the sweat. However, the material used depends on the budget with highend chairs being made from leather or velvet.

KEYBOARD

introduction
In 1994 Microsoft introduced the Microsoft Natural Keyboard. It wasnt the very first ergonomic keyboard, but it was the first widely accepted, affordable ergonomic keyboard. The basic goal of ergonomic keyboards is to keep a users hands, fingers, and wrists in a more natural position. They have a split, raised middle. The keys are slightly fanned outward. Most of them also attempt to keep your wrists raised. The most recent Microsoft ergonomic keyboard is the Microsoft Natural Ergonomic 4000. This design changes the old one pretty significantly. The middle portion of the keyboard is raised slightly higher. Also, the wrist area has built-in padding and a detachable component that raises the back of the keyboard (as opposed to the front, like most keyboards do). There are the standard tabs in the front to raise it as well, if thats what you want.

Pictures of an ergonomic keyboard

Features/characteristic of an ergonomic keyboard

Articulated Keys

The most visually notable element of an ergonomic keyboard is its articulated keys, which usually split the keyboard into two sections between the G and H keys. Rather than form a straight line of keys across one row, these sections form an inverted V shape. Manufacturers claim that this alignment reduces muscle and joint strain and can increase typing speed. Not all ergonomic keyboard have this alignment, however.

Curved Keys

More recent forms of ergonomic keyboard design include curving rows of keys that form a sort of smile shape. Some of these designs also are articulated into an inverted-V shape; others keep the keys along a single row. In these keyboard designs, the keys are rarely the perfect squares that were built into early computers and still come installed in many laptop keyboards.

Elevation

In addition to discouraging the wrist pronation that occurs when typing on keys arranged in straight rows, ergonomic keyboards also are designed to reduce hand elevation. Some even arrange keys on a downward slope, in which computer users drape their wrist over a pad where their fingers reach down toward the keys. This design encourages computer users to keep the tops of their hands aligned with their arms to reduce muscle and joint strain.

Key Pressure

The pressure with which users depress keys and the feedback given are also important factors in keyboard design. Older keyboards required significant pressure from users to depress the keys. Newer keyboards have sophisticated armatures that respond to a lighter touch and rebound with a quiet, gentle tap. Some ergonomic keyboards have touch-sensitive keyboards in which the keys do not depress at all. Both of these designs are supposed to reduce strain on finger and arm muscles.

FUNCTION OF AN ERGONOMIC KEYBOARD

Posture

Improper posture while using a keyboard can cause stress to tendons and nerves. Ergonomic keyboards promote a neutral posture for the operator's wrists, hands and forearms.

Repetition and Comfort

Repetitive work on a keyboard can be an occupational risk factor when repetition exceeds the soft tissue's ability to recover from exertion. Ergonomic keyboards are designed to be more comfortable allowing for less exertion on soft tissue.

Types of Ergonomic Keyboards

Several styles of ergonomic keyboards have been introduced. Split keyboards are designed to straighten the wrists for a more natural working position. Supportive keyboards have built in wrist and palm rests for comfort and support. Negative-slope keyboards help reduce the risk of carpal tunnel syndrome by bending the wrists forwards rather than backwards.

SOLUTION

Ergonomics applies information about human behaviour, abilities and limitations and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, tasks, jobs and environments for productive, safe, comfortable and effective human use The goal for the design of workplaces is to design for as many people as possible and to have an understanding of the Ergonomic principles of posture and movement which play a central role in the provision of a safe, healthy and comfortable work environment

ERGONOMIC MOUSE

Introduction

There are a huge variety of computer mouse. They come in all sorts of shapes and sizes. You've got the tiny portable types, the one with the scroller in the middle, the (annoying) no button mouse from Mac, computer mouse with more than left-click, right-click, so on and so forth.

If you are serious about ergonomics and preventing computer-mouse related injuries such as Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, it is best to invest in an ergonomic mouse. I won't sugar coat the fact that they cost more, but who can put a price on health? The primary reasons why so many computer users experience discomfort and pain in their wrists and hands is because an ordinary computer mouse is not the best fit. Most people don't consider buying a computer mouse because of the size and shape. They don't check if the mouse fits their hand. They buy because of function, user ability, even color or brand! There is the usual problem buying a computer mouse that is too small for your hand. Of course, if you have a smaller hand, you should get a smaller mouse. With a smaller ergonomics mouse, there is not even support for your hand causing strain and fatigue. Ergonomic computer mouse (mice) comes in multiple sizes and some even for left hand users.

An non-ergonomic computer mouse puts undue stress on your forearm because, if you haven't noticed, your arm sort of twists when using it. Unknowingly, you've twisted your arm to adjust yourself to the mouse. Ergonomics is all about keeping your body posture as natural and efficient as possible and ergonomic design is about designing these tools to fit us, not us to fit them. An ergonomic computer mouse adapts to our natural position. Ordinary computer mouse can also be too slippery. This causes us to tense our fingers around the mouse to control it. Just take for instance, how much more effort you take to walk across a slippery floor. Notice how much your body tense up to control your movements. This is similar. An ergonomic mouse takes into account these details.

Pictures of an ergonomic mouse

Function of an ergonomic mouse

1) A more natural grip. When you choose an ergonomic computer mouse that is the right shape and size for your hand, it results with a more natural and easier grip and hold. This eases the tendon and muscle fatigue in your hand, elbow and arm. 2) Better support Buying the mouse that is the right size for hand supports your hand. 3) Assumes natural wrist position Assumes the natural position of your wrists even when working, using your ergonomic computer mouse does not require you to twist your forearm. 4) Less effort and energy used when mousing. Is not too slippery on the screen, or on your mousepad. Reduces tension.

Features of an ergonomic mouse

1. Ergonomics: If you're a cube-dweller and you're going to be using this mouse for daily tasks, go with an ergonomic mouse. Although the definition of ergonomics varies from brand to brand, the mouse should at least contour to the shape of your hand. The only downsides are that there is usually a learning curve while you adjust, and ergonomic mice aren't ambidextrous. 2. Size: As with ergonomics, size definitions differ from one brand to the next. What qualifies as "full sized" or "travel sized" may not be what you're used to or what you need. Although most mice in retailers are trapped behind that darn clamshell packaging, some retailers have sample units on display that can be tested. Also check out the computer display in the store to get an idea of what's comfortable for you. 3. Battery Life: If you go wireless, you're going to be replacing those batteries from time to time. To extend the battery life of your mouse, look for one that comes with an on/off switch and use it. 4. Receivers: As with battery life, this is a concern for wireless mice. Does it use a full-sized receiver that juts out of the laptop, or does it use a nano receiver that lets you pack away the laptop without needing to be removed? Does it come with a receiver placeholder? Like USB flash drives, ballpoint pens and spare keys, mice receivers often end up in the "big pile of stuff in heaven," to paraphrase George Carlin, so having a magnetic placeholder or a designated slot is immensely helpful. Likewise, check to make sure the mouse comes with the appropriate receiver. This usually isn't a problem for mice that use 2.4GHz wireless technology, but many mice use Bluetooth and often don't come with a Bluetooth receiver. Check to see if your computer has integrated Bluetooth before you purchase a Blueooth mouse. 5. Programmable Buttons: Some people can't live without their programmable buttons, while others never figure out how to set them. As with ergonomics, programmable buttons can be indispensible time-savers if this is going to be your everyday mouse. If you're not sure you'll use them, look for buttons that are discretely placed so you can always ignore them.

Solution
Ergonomics applies information about human behaviour, abilities and limitations and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, tasks, jobs and environments for productive, safe, comfortable and effective human use The goal for the design of workplaces is to design for as many people as possible and to have an understanding of the Ergonomic principles of posture and movement which play a central role in the provision of a safe, healthy and comfortable work environment

Ergonomic workplace
Introduction
In view of the rapid growth in industrial production in the last decades, it has become necessary to approach issues of work organization, management, and working conditions in a comprehensive manner. Employers have begun to monitor closely all factors potentially impeding continued increases in productivity. Initially, advances were driven mainly by mechanization of the production process, which soon got out of control becoming a frequent cause of occupational injuries and diseases. The consequence was an increased role of the human factor as the main part of systems composed of man, machine, and the working environment.

Aware of the need to improve working conditions, a research team of the Poznan University of Technology has developed a comprehensive method of ergonomic workplace evaluation. With the use of 14 evaluation criteria, specific working conditions can be evaluated against standards describing a number of minimal requirements to be met by employers

Pictures of an ergonomic workplace

Features of an ergonomic workplace

(1) Seat height and shape is determined by lower leg length. The taller the individual, the taller the chair. Feet need to be flat on the floor with the knees lower than the hips. The seat surface should be the correct size for the individual. It should have the forward edge turned down and be firm, flat or contoured to meet individual desires. A flat seat allows for the easy movement in chairs during the day, and assists in upright posture. The seat tilts forward or rocks back to accommodate different work tasks. Sitting in a forward-tilted chair will assist in upright position of the spine andhead. (2) Castors allow for easy movement between work surfaces. They come in various types tomatch floor surfaces. (3) Arm rests are generally preferred to give support to arms and assist with good sitting posture.They should be adjustable to meet individual needs and adjust to desk height. (4) Back Rest must have a well formed lumbar pad to support the lumbar spine, be heightadjustable, have an adjustable inclination and lock at any desired position. (5) Adjustments should be easy to reach. Models with hydraulic lifts are common. Good ergonomic chairs are the most costly part of the workstation. The chair is a tool just like thecomputer, if the employee is not positioned properly, productivity will suffer

Function of an ergonomic workplace

The goal for the design of workplaces is to design for as many people as possible and to have an understanding of the Ergonomic principles of posture and movement which play a central role in the provision of a safe, healthy and comfortable work environment. Posture and movement at work will be dictated by the task and the workplace, the bodys muscles, ligaments and joints are involved in adopting posture, carrying out a movement and applying a force. The muscles provide the force necessary to adopt a posture or make a movement. Poor posture and movement can contribute to local mechanical stress on the muscles, ligaments and joints, resulting in complaints of the neck, back, shoulder, wrist and other parts of the musculoskeletal system.

Solution
Ergonomics applies information about human behaviour, abilities and limitations and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, tasks, jobs and environments for productive, safe, comfortable and effective human use The goal for the design of workplaces is to design for as many people as possible and to have an understanding of the Ergonomic principles of posture and movement which play a central role in the provision of a safe, healthy and comfortable work environment

Function of an ergonomic office chair

Sitting is a position that adds stress to the structures in the spine. To avoid developing or compounding back problems, it is important to have an ergonomic chair that supports the lower back and evokes good posture. In today's society, many will be sitting all day long either in office environments or operating machines. Although sitting requires less physical effort than standing or walking, it still puts a lot of stress on the lumbar area. Combined effects of a sedentary lifestyle and a job that requires sitting can lead to many health problems. The selection of a suitable chair is a critical step in preventing health problems for people working in a sitting position. A well-designed chair allows the user to sit in a balanced position. Buying an ergonomic chair is a good beginning but it must be combined with a proper posture to maximize the benefits!

Solution
Ergonomics applies information about human behaviour, abilities and limitations and other characteristics to the design of tools, machines, tasks, jobs and environments for productive, safe, comfortable and effective human use The goal for the design of workplaces is to design for as many people as possible and to have an understanding of the Ergonomic principles of posture and movement which play a central role in the provision of a safe, healthy and comfortable work environment

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, ergonomics is the designing of work environments and specific job task to fit workers needs for safety, comfort and productivity, rather than expecting workers to adapt to situations which may harm their anatomies and biological systems. It is the science of adjusting your work environment to fit your body and make it most comfortable

CONTENT
TITLE Introduction Design of ergonomics: -Office Chair -Keyboard -Mouse -Workplace PAGES

conclusion