When analyzing situations as diverse as electrical oscillations, vibrating mechanical systems, longitudinal oscillations in crystals, and many other

physical phenomena, Fourier series are found to arise naturally. Furthermore, the individual terms in a Fourier series often have an important physical interpretation. In a vibrating mechanical system, for example, each component of a Fourier series representation of the overall vibration represents a fundamental mode of vibration. The full Fourier series shows how each mode contributes to the solution, and which the most significant modes are. This information can often be used to advantage, either by showing how the modes can be utilized to achieve a desired effect, or by using the information to enable systems to be constructed that minimize undesirable vibrations. It is for these and other reasons that it is necessary for engineers and physicists to study the properties of Fourier series.
x f ( x ) = a + ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) 0 series n =1

Fourier

representation of a

= a0 + a1 cos x + b1 sin x + a2 cos 2 x + b2 sin 2 x + , function f(x) over the interval is an expression of the form where the coefficients are L f ) L a0 , a1 , a2 , ,( bx 0 , b1 , b3 , b4 ,

(1)

determined by the function . It is important to notice that the Fourier series representation of contains two infinite sums, one of even functions (the cosines) and the other of odd functions (the sines). It would be recalled that a function defined in the interval is said to be an even function in the interval if f ( x) = f ( x) (2) and to be an odd function in the interval if f ( x) = f ( x) (3) .

 x < . x cos( xx )< )== cos( sin( x)) The cosine function is an even function sin( because in agreement with the definition in (2). As this is true for all x, the function cos(x) is an even function for similarly, sin(x) is an odd function because in agreement with the definition in (3). This also is true for all x, so the function sin(x) is an odd function for Most functions are either even nor odd, L xL

but any function in an interval can be expressed as the sum of an even function and an odd function defined over the interval. To appreciate this, let f(x) be an arbitrary function defined over the interval , and write it in the form (4) Then the function (5) h( x ) = 1 ( f ( x) + f ( x) ) 2 f ( x) = 1 [ f ( x) + f ( x)] + 1 [ f ( x) f ( x)] for L x L 2 2

is seen to be an even function, because whereas the function (6)

h( x) = h( x ),

g ( x) =

1 ( f ( x) f ( x) ) 2

is seen to be an odd function, because , so the assertion is proved. Example 1.1

g ( x) = g ( x)

Classify the following functions as even, odd, or neither. (a) cosh(x), (b) sinh(x) (c) x2 + sin(x) (d) 1 + x2 + 3x4

Solution (a) As for all x, the functions cosh(x) is cosh( x) = cosh( x ) an even function for all x. (b)

As for all x, the function sinh(x) is an sinh( x) = sinh( x) odd function for all x. (c) so x2 is an even function for all x, while ( x ) 2 = x 2 , sin(x) is an odd function for all x, so the function x2 + sin(x) is neither even nor odd. In this case the function x2 + sin(x) is already expressed as the sum of an even function and an odd function. (d)
4 2 2 44 Set . Then , so f(x) is an even f ( x) =f1(+ 3 x 1 ( )+ =x x 1 )2+ + + = x3 ( 3 x + x33 xx )4 = f ( x)

function. This result can be obtained by a different argument as follows. A constant does not change when the sign of x is changed, so all constants are even functions and, in particular, 1 is an even function. The function x2 has already been shown to be an even function, and the function 3x4 is an even function because . Thus, as the function is the sum of three even functions, it must be an even function. cos nx To arrive at a formula for the an in (1) corresponding to a given function f(x), result (1) is first multiplied term by term by to obtain f ( x) cos nx = a0 cos nx + a1 cos x cos nx + a2 cos 2 xcoxnx + a3 cos 3 x cos nx + + an 1 cos(n 1) x cos nx + an cos 2 nx + an +1 cos(n + 1) x cos nx + + b1 sin x cos nx + b2 sin 2 x cos nx + . x Integrating this result over the interval gives

f ( x ) cos nxdx = a0 cos nxdx + a1 cos x cos nxdx + a2 cos 2 x cos nxdx cos nx 2 ( x) coxnx =a dx. + a3 f cos 3 x cos dx nxdx +n + an nx cos 1 cos( n 1) x cos nxdx

All integrals on the right with the exception of the one with

+ an cos 2 nxdx + an +1 cos(n + 1) x cos nxdx

+ + b1 sin x cos nxdx + b2 sin 2 x cos nxdx +

the integrand vanishes, giving rise to the result

However, so

cos 2 nxdx = , for n 0 and 1.dx, = 2 , 1 1 a = f ( x ) dx and a = f ( x) cos nxdx 0 n for n = 1, 2, 3, ... 2 x 1 b = A similar argument involving the n f ( x) sin nxdx multiplication of the Fourier series

(1) by sin(nx) followed by integration over the interval and use of the orthogonality properties of sin(nx) shows the coefficients bn are given by for n = 1, 2, 3, ... x The Fourier series representation of f(x) over the interval is . f ( x) = a0 + ( an cos nx + bn sin nx )
n =1

Although Fourier series comprise only even and odd functions, results (4) to (6) allow a Fourier series to represent arbitrary functions that are neither even nor odd. A Taylor series expansion of a function f(x) about a point x0 requires the function to be repeatedly differentiable at x0. However, the coefficients of a Fourier series are defined in terms of definite integrals that are still defined when f(x) has finite jump discontinuities in the fundamental interval. It is this property of a definite integral that makes a Fourier series representation of a function more general that a Taylor series expansion. The properties of Fourier series reflect the periodicity of the sine and cosine functions used in the expansion, where the period of a periodic function is defined as follows. A function g(x) is said to be periodic with period T if g ( x + T ) = g ( x) (7) for all x, and T is the smallest value for which (7) is true. A periodic function g(x) may either be continuous or discontinuous, and an example of a continuous periodic function with period T is shown in the figure below.

The

functions

1,

n = 0, 1, 2, 2 (2n 1) < x < (2n + 1) ,x with f ( x) = a0 + ( an cos nx + bn sin nx ) n =1

cos(nx) and sin(nx) in the Fourier series representation are all periodic with period , so the Fourier series representation f(x) defined on the interval is also periodic with period . It does not necessarily follow that outside the fundamental interval the function f(x) coincides with its Fourier series representation, because the behaviour of f(x) outside the fundamental interval does not enter into the Euler formulas. Each representation of f(x) in an interval of the form is called a periodic extension of the fundamental interval for f(x).