This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier.

The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elseviers archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright

Author's personal copy

Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tectonophysics
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / t e c t o

Spatiotemporal variation in exhumation of the Crystallines in the NW-Himalaya, India: Constraints from ssion track dating analysis
R.C. Patel a,, Vikas Adlakha a, Nand Lal a, Paramjeet Singh a, Y. Kumar b
a b

Department of Geophysics, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra-136 119, India RITES, New Delhi, India

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
During Himalayan orogeny, coeval thrusting along the Main Central/Munsiari Thrust (MCT/MT) and extension along the South Tibetan-Detachment System (STDS) are widely responsible for rapid exhumation of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) zone. Apatite and zircon ssion-track data along the Kaliganga and Darma valleys in the Kumaon Himalaya serve to document the shallow bedrock exhumation history of the HHC. Taking into account sample location within the HHC with respect to the MCT/MT, the apatite ssion track (AFT) data-sets along the Darma (1.0 0.1 to 2.8 0.3 Ma) and Kaliganga (1.4 0.2 to 2.4 0.3 Ma) which are sharing same structural setting and rock types and being separated by 40 km, show very similar patterns of exhumation histories since Plio-Quaternary in the Kumaon Himalaya. Data sets along Darma and Kaliganga are very similar to data set of adjacent traverse (50 km away) along the Goriganga valley studied by Patel and Carter (2009). Whole data sets within the HHC in Kumaon Himalaya provide clear evidence for PlioQuaternary tectonic activity along the Vaikrita Thrust (VT). Precipitation in this region exerts a strong inuence on erosional surface processes. Fluvial erosional unloading along the Himalaya is focused on the high mountainous region of the HHC, where the orographic barrier forces out the maximum percentage of annual rainfall. FT cooling ages reveal coincidence between rapid erosion and exhumation that is focused in a ~ 2530 km wide sector of the HHC, rather than covering the entire orogen. Similarity of AFT age pattern and exhumation rates along all three major traverses (Goriganga, Darma and Kaliganga) indicates that the region has been experiencing constant rate of crustal uplift and erosion since long time. Comparison of ssion track ages from the Kumaon Himalaya with other segments of the NW-Himalaya shows spatiotemporal variation in exhumation. It is described due to the development of local structures such as dome/window in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Himalayas and Quaternary active thrusting along the VT and MCT/MT in the Garhwal-Kumaon Himalaya. 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 30 October 2009 Received in revised form 17 November 2010 Accepted 24 November 2010 Available online 30 November 2010 Keywords: Kumaon Himalaya Crystallines Fission track data Exhumation NW-Himalaya

1. Introduction Since the onset of the IndianEurasian collision at ~ 5055 Ma (Garzanti et al., 1987; Hodges, 2000; Klootwijk et al., 1992; Patriat and Achache, 1984; Rowley, 1996) crustal shortening, rock uplift and erosion have shaped the Himalayan orogen. Growth of the Himalaya was accommodated by shortening along the SW-directed fault systems (Hodges, 2000; Molnar and Tapponier, 1975). As a result the Himalaya can be divided into three main tectonic zones, namely Lesser Himalayan Sequence (LHS), Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) and Tethyan Himalayan Series (THS). Each of these units appears to have experienced different exhumation histories. Geochronological and eld-based evidence from the NW (Nanga Parbat massif) (Zeitler, 1985) and NE (Namche Barwa massif) (Burg et al., 1997; Seward and Burg, 2008) extremities of the Himalaya as well as

Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 9416734196; fax: +91 1744 238277. E-mail address: patelramesh_chandra@rediffmail.com (R.C. Patel). 0040-1951/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2010.11.011

from major watersheds draining the southern ank of Himalayan arc such as the Chenab-Bhot and Doda valleys in Jammu and Kashmir (Kumar et al., 1995; Sorkhabi et al., 1997); Sutlej valley in Himachal (Jain et al., 2000; Kumar et al., 2003; Lal et al., 1999; Thiede et al., 2004, 2005, 2009; Vannay et al., 2004), the Bhagirathi and Dhauliganga valleys in Garhwal (Patel and Carter, 2009; Sorkhabi et al., 1996), the Goriganga and Kaliganga valleys in Kumaon (Bojar et al., 2005; Patel and Carter, 2009; Patel et al., 2007) and the Marsyandi Catchment (Blythe et al., 2007; Huntington et al., 2006) and Kathmandu klippe (Herman et al., 2010; Robert et al., 2009) in Nepal suggest a close spatial correlation between enhanced exhumation of deep crustal rocks and extensive uvial erosion. It strongly suggests that a positive feedback relationship between tectonics and erosion is key processes that control exhumation of the entire HHC zone (Koons et al., 2002; Zeitler et al., 2001). Whether tectonics is controlling the erosion or erosion is dominating tectonism in controlling the exhumation of the HHC, is still actively debated. In the present study we have analyzed 10 apatite and 4 zircon samples using ssion track dating technique from the Kumaon region. Through this

Author's personal copy

2 R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113

data coupled with the already published data about the spatial and temporal (over 106107 years) variations in exhumation rates within a ~50 900 km2 segment of the HHC in NW-India (Fig. 1), we have tried to understand the tectonic and erosional mechanisms responsible for the observed variations, as ultimately this information will help in further understanding the orogenic growth.

We have used our new FT ages in conjunction with existing exhumation data to (1) determine the spatial distribution of exhumation in the Kumaon Himalaya of similar structural setting, (2) determine the regional distribution of exhumation and compare our results from exhumation pattern previously published across the NW-Himalaya to the west, (3) further evaluate if the correlation

Fig. 1. (a) Geological setting of the studied area in the Himalaya (topography based on the GTOPO30 digital elevation model, U.S., Geological Survey). (b) Geological map of the NWHimalayan region of India showing the tectonic setting of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) in the overall lithostratigraphic framework of the region (modied after Jain and Patel, 1999; Jain et al., 2000; Valdiya, 1980). The study area in the Kumaon Himalaya is shown in the square box. The areas of study of AFT ages on samples collected from similar structural locations to the west of the study area are shown on boxes. STDS: South Tibetan Detachment System, VT: Vaikrita Thrust, MCT: Main Central Thrust, MT: Munsiari Thrust, MBT: Main Boundary Thrust and HHC: Higher Himalayan Crystalline.

Author's personal copy

R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113 3

between exhumation and precipitation enhanced erosion in the HHC exists and (4) understand the role of tectonics in the exhumation history of the Kumaon region as well as of NW-Himalaya, India (Fig. 1). 2. Geological and tectonic settings The 2500 km long and ~ 300 km wide Himalayan arc represents the southern margin of the IndianEurasian collision zone and the Tibetan plateau. Since the collision, the kinematic evolution of the

Himalaya is controlled mainly by progressive action of a series of major fault systems exposed along southern Himalayan front, from north to south. Initially the HHC was extruded between the NEdipping Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the south and South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) in the north during the early Miocene (~2015 Ma) (Burchel et al., 1992; Dezes et al., 1999; Hodges, 2000; Srivastava and Mitra, 1994). The deformation front then gradually propagated to the south along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) during Late Miocene (~ 105 Ma) (DeCelles et al., 2001; Huyghe et al., 2001; Meigs et al., 1995) and most recently along the Main Frontal

Fig. 2. Geological map of the Kumaon Himalaya along the Goriganga, Darma and Kaliganga valleys (Modied after Thakur and Choudhury, 1983; Thakur, 1992 and Paul, 1998) along with geological cross-sections showing sample location (b) along the Goriganga valley, (c) along the Darma valley and (d) along the Kaliganga valley.

Author's personal copy

4 R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113

Thrust (MFT) (Lave and Avoac, 2000; Patel and Kumar, 2003; Thakur et al., 1995; Valdiya, 1992). These thrusts bound orogen-parallel tectono-lithostratigraphical domains such as the THS, the HHC, the LHS and the Sub-Himalayan zone (Gansser, 1964; Hodges, 2000; Le Fort, 1975; Thakur, 1992). The HHC comprises stacked and folded thrust sheets of greenschist to amphibolite grade metamorphic rocks (Fig. 2). The geology of the study area is similar to its adjacent traverse in the Goriganga valley which has already been discussed in detail by Patel and Carter (2009) and Patel and Kumar (2009). During collision, southwest directed thrusting along the Vaikrita Thrust (VT) (Davidson et al., 1997; Valdiya, 1980) and MCT/MT (Bouchez and Pecher, 1981; Heim and Gansser, 1939; Jain and Anand, 1988; Jain and Manickvasagam, 1993; Jain et al., 2000; Searle et al., 2008; Thakur, 1987) emplaced the HHC rocks over the Lesser Himalayan Meta-sedimentary (LHMS) zone whilst normal faulting along the STDS (Burchel et al., 1992; Burg and Chen, 1984; Herren, 1987; Patel et al., 1993) detached the overlying THS from the metamorphic core (Fig. 1). The HHC rocks were thrust over the LHMS as nappes and more and more units of the LHMS were detached as duplex sheets from the under-thrusted Indian continent, and incorporated into the Himalayan wedge forming the Lesser Himalayan Crystalline (LHC). These crystalline nappes were staked and exhumed forming the Lesser Himalayan nappes (Thakur, 1992; Valdiya, 1980) and duplexes (DeCelles et al., 2001; Patel and Kumar, 2006; Srivastava and Mitra, 1994; Vannay et al., 2004). Variable tectonic and climatic forces during the topographic evolution of the Himalaya have generated three well dened physiographic belts, each being a distinct geological unit with different topographic characters: the Lesser Himalaya (LH), the Higher Himalaya (HH) and Tethys Himalaya (TH) (Fig. 3a and b). The LH is characterized by moderate topography with gentle slope while the HH in the north is characterized by a highly elevated (N 6000 m asl), high relief, and steep slope belt with very youthful and tectonically still active topography. To the north of the HH is the TH which is comparatively milder, tectonically instable topography (Fig. 3a and b). This abrupt change in topography between the HH and LH is described due to underplating along a crustal ramp in the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) and/or fault bend fold structures in the LH (Avouac, 2003; Bollinger et al., 2004, 2006; Cattin and Avouac, 2000; Gansser, 1964; Herman et al., 2010; Pandey et al., 1995; Robert et al., 2009; Schelling and Arita, 1991; Valdiya, 1980). Alternatively, it has been described due to recent thrusting along the MCT (Hodges et al., 2001, 2004; Seeber and Gornitz, 1983; Wobus et al., 2003). The absence of signature of major earthquakes since the last 500700 years in the Kumaon region (Iynegar and Sharma, 1999; Paul et al., 2007) indicates no impulsive uplift of rocks in this region. Even the present day seismic data does not show any major seismic activities in the region. High near-surface geothermal gradient, as revealed by the presence of several thermal springs (Fig. 2a) (Kumar, 2005), neotectonic structures (Paul, 1986; Paul et al., 2000) and micro-seismic activities in the region (Paul et al., 2007) indicate uplift of rocks but at constant rate along the MCT/MT and VT. 3. Fission track geochronology 3.1. Sampling and Analytical Procedures Ten samples (eight samples from the Darma and two samples from the Kaliganga traverses) (Fig. 2) each weighing 34 kg, were collected for ssion-track analysis across the HHC between two major tectonic boundaries namely the MCT/MT in the south and the STDS in the north and across the major tectonic boundary the VT. The samples' elevations vary between 1.5 and 3.5 km. Apatite and zircon concentrates were obtained by crushing and standard heavy liquid and magnetic separation techniques. Out of these ten samples, all yielded apatite but only four had a good concentration of zircon (two each
Fig. 3. (a) Topographic map with major tectonic contacts of the Kumaon region, (b) prole from south (A) to north (B) from the central Himalaya showing relationship among distance vs relief, elevation and precipitation (after Patel and Carter, 2009) and (c) TRMMderived rainfall variations for the study area and adjacent regions (precipitation data: GTOPO30, U.S. Geological Survey). The TRMM-based monsoon rainfall amounts are averaged from January 1998 to August 2008 (after Bookhagen and Burbank, 2006).

from both valleys). Mounting, polishing and etching were carried out following the standard procedure of Low-temperature Thermochronological Lab of Kurukshetra University, India (apatite etching with 1 N HNO3 at 30 C for 60 s, and zircon etching with KOHNaOH at

Author's personal copy

R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113 5

220 C for 36 h). Mounts were irradiated with muscovite external detectors at the thermal neutron facility of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, India. Dosimeter glass CN-1 was used for apatite samples while CN-5 was used for zircon samples. It is opposite of normal protocol to use CN-5 for apatite and CN-1 or 2 for zircon. However, the presence of countable density of induced tracks in micas for both glasses and samples makes it suitable to calculate the age. Counting of ssion tracks was done using optical microscope at 1500 magnication. Only crystals with prismatic sections parallel to the crystallographic c-axis were considered for analysis. However, due to low spontaneous track density, conned track length measurements could not be made. Ages (1) were calculated using zeta approach (Hurford and Green, 1983) with a zeta factor of 110.6 2.86 (for CN-1 glass) for apatite and of 296.96 8.18 (for CN-5 glass) for zircon. The zeta factors have been determined by multiple analyses of apatite and zircon standards following the recommendation of Hurford (1990). 3.2. Results The FT ages of ten apatite and four zircon samples are given in Table 1. This data along with published FT data from the Goriganga valley (Patel and Carter, 2009) and the Kaliganga valley (Patel et al., 2007) is shown on the location map (Fig. 2). FT ages from all the three valleys show no relationship to either structural position or elevation (Fig. 4a and b). 3.2.1. Darma valley Along the Darma valley, where the sample elevation varies from 2000 to 2800 m, the AFT ages range from 1.0 0.1 Ma to 2.8 0.3 Ma. Out of eight AFT ages in the HHC seven are between VT and STDS and only one is between MCT/MT and VT. The AFT ages in the hanging wall of VT appear to fall in one distinct group clustering around 1.7 Ma while one AFT age in the footwall of VT is comparatively older (2.8 0.3 Ma) (Fig. 4c). The two ZFT ages (i.e. 4.0 0.2 and 4.5 0.3 Ma) available from the hanging wall of the VT are statistically indistinct and give a weighted mean of 4.3 0.3 Ma. 3.2.2. Kaliganga valley Along the Kaliganga valley, two new (Table 1) and six published (MM-9: 2.4 0.3 Ma; MM-8: 2.4 0.3 Ma; MM-5: 2.1 0.2 Ma; MM-

4: 1.5 0.2 Ma; MM-2: 1.4 0.2 Ma and MM-14: 2.2 0.2 Ma) (Patel et al., 2007) AFT ages in the hanging wall of the VT range from 1.4 0.2 Ma to 2.4 0.3 Ma with clustering around 2 Ma while two ZFT ages are 4.5 0.2 Ma and 5.2 0.2 Ma (Fig. 4d). No FT age data is available from the footwall side of the VT. Age versus distance plot between South Chiplakot Thrust (SCT) (Close to Dharchula) and STDS along the Darma valley shows a similar pattern as observed along the Kaliganga (Patel et al., 2007) and Goriganga (Patel and Carter, 2009) valleys (Fig. 4c, d and e). Two distinct groups of ages are observed. One young group of ages is conned within the HHC between MCT/MT and STDS and other older group of ages within the Chiplakot Crystalline Belt (CCB) between SCT and North Chiplakot Thrust (NCT) (Fig. 2) (Patel et al., 2007).

4. Exhumation: modeling approach and results In the convergent orogen denudation enables the exhumation of deeply buried rocks. Exhumation rates are more difcult to calculate in convergent orogens, given that one must also consider advection of isotherms due to thrusting (Brown and Summereld, 1997; Mancktelow and Grasemann, 1997) and perturbations of isotherms due to topographic change (Stuwe et al., 1994). Low-temperature thermochronology studies in the HHC to the adjacent east and west of the study area show young ages (b 5 Ma) which is diagnostic of rapid cooling (Blythe et al., 2007; Grujic et al., 2006; Jain et al., 2000; Lal et al., 1999; Patel and Carter, 2009; Schlup et al., 2003; Sorkhabi et al., 1996; Thiede et al., 2004, 2005, 2009; Vannay et al., 2004). Fast cooling suggests high rates of rock uplift and erosion. These cause the thermal structure of the crust to be perturbed as heat is advected at rates that exceed normal heat loss by conduction which causes isotherms to move closer to the Earth's surface (Stuwe et al., 1994). It follows more closely that the undulations of overlying topography and therefore the distance between depth of closure isotherm and the surface may vary with sample location, a point reinforced by the thermal modeling studies of Braun (2002). Thrusting and topographic changes within the HHC respectively advected and perturbed the isotherms which had a signicant effect on the low temperature chronologic cooling ages of AFT over the last 23 Ma (Molnar and England, 1990; Patel and Carter, 2009; Peizhen et al., 2001; Thiede et al., 2009).

Table 1 Apatite and zircon ssion track data for the Kaliganga and Darma sections. Sample ref. Altitude (m) Tectonic Unit No of Xls Dosimeter d 84 50 52 31 42 61 58 48 59 43 1.324 1.297 1.288 1.288 1.288 1.288 1.288 1.288 1.288 1.288 Nd 5294 5187 5153 5153 5153 5153 5153 5153 5153 5153 Spontaneous s 0.50952 0.55326 0.79184 0.16056 0.50104 0.05513 0.10486 0.96234 0.52595 0.56459 Ns 107 67 97 114 48 86 151 115 76 59 Induced i 2.190 1.917 2.135 5.542 1.858 2.064 7.135 7.391 2.127 1.948 Ni 4599 2321 2615 3935 1780 3220 10274 8832 3074 2250 Uranium content (ppm) P2% Age (Ma) 1

Apatite MM-15 MM-16 DS-2 DS-3 DS-8 DS-10 DS-12 DS-15 DS-17 DS-20 Zircon MM-5 MM-16 DS-3 DS-8

3350 3300 2200 2200 2000 2000 2200 2550 2720 2800

HHC HHC Munsiari HHC HHC HHC HHC HHC HHC HHC

65 58 65 168 56 62 216 224 64 59

99 75 96 67 75 10 65 99 65 65

1.8 0.2 2.2 0.3 2.8 0.3 2.2 0.2 2.0 0.3 2.0 0.2 1.1 0.9 1.0 0.1 1.8 0.2 1.9 0.3

2900 3300 2200 2000

HHC HHC HHC HHC

24 18 11 05

3.041 3.041 3.041 3.041

1338 1338 1338 1338

1.206 2.071 2.007 9.187

524 520 322 90

1.206 1.837 2.196 9.155

5316 4588 3548 881

500 755 903 376

20 27 43 85

4.5 0.2 5.2 0.2 4.0 0.2 4.5 0.3

Samples correspond to the letter in the map in Fig. 2a. , track density ( 106 tracks cm 2); N, numbers of tracks counted, subscripts d, s and i denote, respectively, tracks in the uence monitor glass, spontaneous tracks and induced tracks. Analyses by external detector method using 0.5 for the 4/2 geometry correction factor; Ages calculated using dosimeter glass CN-1; (Apatite) CN1 = 110.6 2.86 and CN-5; (zircon) CN5 = 296.96 8.18, calibrated by multiple analyses of IUGS apatite and zircon age standards (see Hurford, 1990); P2 is probability for obtaining 2 value for v degrees of freedom, where v = no. crystals 1; Central age is a modal age, weighted for different precisions of individual crystals (see Galbraith, 1981). RE% corresponds to the relative error of the central age.

Author's personal copy

6 R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113

Fig. 4. The AFT ages are measured in this study are within error of the two lines. Apatite (a) and zircon (b) FT ages vs elevation plots along the Goriganga, Darma and Kaliganga valleys. FT ages vs distance plots: (c) along the Darma valley, (d) along the Kaliganga valley (Patel et al., 2007) and (e) along the Goriganga valley (Patel and Carter, 2009). Solid circles represent apatite FT ages and solid squares represent zircon FT age and (f) growth curves of AFT age and erosion rate plotted using AGE2EDOT (Ehlers et al., 2005): along the Goriganga valley (Patel and Carter, 2009) and along the Darma and Kaliganga valleys. The upper and lower curves represent the maximum and minimum values related to the range of thermal parameters suited to the Himalayas.

Failure to take sample location, topography, lateral advection and the form of the subsurface thermal eld into account can lead to overor under-estimation of exhumation rates but the magnitude of these effects is mainly governed by the exhumation rate itself. Model simulations performed by Huntington et al. (2007) found that, where exhumation rates are high, sample proles collected over a horizontal distance along the direction of lateral transport lead to underestimation of exhumation but this is generally balanced by the overestimation of exhumation associated with any topographic effects. The net result may be an apparent exhumation rate that closely approximates

the true vertical component of exhumation. The lateral transport can cause differences in exhumation paths. In case of fast eroding landscape its impact on exhumation rates is secondary to thermal advection. This was demonstrated by the 3-D coupled thermalkinematic modeling study of Whipp et al. (2007) which found no resolvable difference in AFT ages where the sampled slope faces the thrust vergence, even for a low angle (b 10) rock trajectory. However, in the study area the MCT/MT and VT dip due N at ~ 3045 and STDS dips due N ~ 3040. Huntington et al. (2007) pointed out that although the lateral components in rock uplift and long wavelength

Author's personal copy

R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113 7

topography can produce different exhumation paths between different samples but due to the considerable uncertainties in young AFT ages, these differences are not resolvable. Thus where FT ages are very young (as measured in this study) due to high rates of exhumation, the role of path of exhumation of different samples becomes insignicant. This means that complex 3D modeling approach is not required to quantify exhumation rates of different samples in each of the transects. Accordingly, a 1D (vertical) approach to thermal modeling as used by Patel and Carter (2009) along the Goriganga and Dhauliganga valleys is used to quantify exhumation rates. Since exhumation is rapid and dominated by erosional advection, the 1D modeling is based on geothermal gradient values in the range 2545 C km 1, e.g. Whipp et al. (2007) and zircon and apatite ssion track closure temperatures as ~ 240 C and ~ 135 C respectively (Brandon et al., 1998). The values used for thermal conductivity (2.13.6 W m 1K 1) are the same as reported by Ray et al. (2007) from the adjacent region and heat production values (0.83.0 W m 3) are those used by England et al. (1992); Roy and Rao (2000); Whipp et al. (2007); and Thiede et al. (2009). Modeling is done by using AFT (including 6 published AFT ages) and ZFT data from the Darma and Kaliganga valleys (Fig. 2). Models were run using the maximum and minimum values for heat ow, thermal diffusivity and geothermal gradients. The variation of erosion rates with AFT ages is shown in Fig. 4f. Although the two (maximum and minimum permitted exhumation) growth curves differ (increasingly so with FT age), it can be seen that the FT age uncertainties span the two curves for the range of AFT ages measured in this study. It shows no resolvable difference as the high rates of exhumation mask the end member differences in rock thermal properties considered in this study. For this reason the average of these values is used to derive sample exhumation rate. A summary of the results of exhumation rate from thermal modeling is presented in Table 2. Using the constraints from thermal modeling, the AFT data between VT and STDS from Kaliganga and Darma valleys yields an average exhumation rate of 1.6 0.2 mm a 1. It is statistically indistinct from the mean exhumation rate (2.1 0.3 mm a 1) reported for the Goriganga valley (Patel and Carter, 2009).This indicates the similar exhumation behavior of the HHC in the hanging wall of the VT in the Kumaon Himalaya. 5. Precipitation and discharge characteristics Precipitation has a rst order control on discharge, and therefore uvial erosion. It has been reported that the Indian monsoon was triggered as early as ~23 Ma (Clift and Sun, 2006) and certainly existed by ~1210 Ma (Dettman et al., 2001, 2003; Rea, 1993). Several studies indicate intensication of monsoon between ~ 9 and 7 Ma (Huyghe et al., 2005; Kutzbach et al., 1993; Prell and Kutzbach, 1992; Quade et al., 1989). Orbitally forced worldwide climate uctuations modulating monsoon intensity and probably enabling moisture entry by the westerlies into the NW Himalaya possibly developed in the last ~ 2.6 Ma (Clemens et al., 1991; Prell and Kutzbach, 1992; Wang et al., 2005; Zhisheng et al., 2001). The changed monsoonal pattern
Table 2 Results of erosion rate modeling. River section and mineral (tectonic unit) Kaliganga Apatite Zircon Darma Apatite Zircon Thermal diffusivity range km2 Ma 1 2950 2950 Internal heat production range C Ma 1 1235 1235 Geo-thermal gradient range C km 1 2545 2545

remained sustained during Plio-Quaternary time and is still continuing at present (Clift et al., 2008; Prell and Kutzbach, 1992). Fig. 3b and c shows modern rainfall in this region adapted from the rainfall and topographic relief compilation made by Bookhagen and Burbank (2006). The data shows that there is no difference in rainfall in the whole Kumaon region. The topography and relief are also broadly similar across the entire region (Fig. 3a). Geomorphic and sedimentary evidence for the blockage of the channel courses in the geological past around Rilkot, Dugtu and Garbyang are found along Goriganga, Darma and Kaliganga rivers respectively. The natural damming at Garbyang was for long duration where extensive lacustrine deposits together with old rock slide debris and terrace deposits are found (Paul et al., 2000). Sudden oods, resulting from heavy rain or failure of such natural dams appear to be a regular phenomenon in the Kaliganga and its tributaries and such oods must signicantly contribute to the removal of eroded rocks out of the valley. On the basis of topographic and precipitation data, and using models of bed rock river incision, a rate of erosion index (erosion rate divided by erodibility) has been calculated for the entire Himalayan range by Finlayson et al. (2002). Interestingly, the area of the Kaliganga and its tributary rivers is characterized by high erosional index and it appears to correspond to one of the main zones of focused high erosional potential at the central part of the Himalaya between the syntaxes (Finlayson et al., 2002). 6. Discussion The mechanism of accommodation of convergence of India across the entire Himalayan orogen is still being debated. There are a diverse range of mechanical and thermo-mechanical models which have been put forward during the last thirty years (Yin, 2006 and references therein). Most models highlight rapid exhumation of the HHC relative to the surrounding rocks, and emphasize the role of ductile ow. The recent channel ow model of Beaumont et al. (2001) couples ductile ow of the HHC with surface erosion since along the southern topographic front monsoon rains are at their most intense. This model requires the boundaries of the HHC, i.e. the STDS and the MCT, to be active during ow. But it is unclear how these fault zones have facilitated exhumation in the brittle uppermost portions of the crust in different sectors of the Himalaya. Crustal shortening, rock uplift and erosion of the rocks of the HHC, have exhumed the deeper high grade metamorphic rocks to the surface since the early Miocene (Hodges et al., 1992). Data of peak metamorphism from the HHC suggests that denudation rates during ~2319 Ma were N 3 mm a 1 (Thiede et al., 2009). This was the time of strengthening monsoons due to which foreland sedimentary deposits at increase erosion rates occurred (Clift et al., 2008). Rapid exhumation during this period (~2319 Ma) (Coleman, 1998; Harris et al., 2004; Hubbard and Harrison, 1989; Searle et al., 1999; Vance and Harris, 1999) is described due to combination of focused denudation, extension along the overlying STDS and shortening along the basal MCT (Cottle et al., 2007). Subsequently, the denudation rates in

FT cooling age range (all data) Ma

Mean exhum. rate (all data) mm a 1 1.6 0.2 1.0 0.3

Exhumation rate range mm a 1 2 S of VT N of VT

1.4 0.2 to 2.4 0.3 4.5 0.2 to 5.2 0.2

No data No data

1.2 0.2 to 1.9 0.2 1.0 0.2 to 1.1 0.3

2950 2950

1235 1235

2545 2545

1.0 0.1 to 2.8 0.3 4.0 0.2 to 4.5 0.3

1.6 0.2 1.2 0.2

No data No data

1.0 0.2 to 2.2 0.2 1.1 0.3 to1.3 0.1

Author's personal copy

8 R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113

the HHC and sedimentary deposits in the foreland were decreased during ~ 1913 Ma (Szulc et al., 2006; Thiede et al., 2009). The erosion rate in the HHC was between ~0.5 and 0.7 mm a 1 during this time. It is studied that as increasing amounts of resistant basement are exposed, exhumation rates decrease while surface uplift rates increase, if shortening rates remain steady (Burbank et al., 1999; Sobel and Strecker, 2003). Probably, this was the duration during which more resistant basement rocks were exposed in the Himalaya and extension along STDS was decreased due to which the exhumation of the HHC reduced although Indian monsoon and shortening across the Himalaya remained steady. Similar observations have already been made in Tien Shan, Krgyzstan (Burbank et al., 1999) and northern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina (Sobel and Strecker, 2003). Hence, the surface uplift outpaced erosion which resulted in the rise of the Himalaya. Low denudation rate of ~0.5 mm a 1 continued till 4 Ma within the HHC. Finally, denudation rates over the last 3 Ma within the HHC have increased to about 12 mm a 1 (Patel and Carter, 2009; Thiede et al., 2009). The strongest arguments for continuous erosion of the HHC over geological time scale are (1) once intensely deformed, metamorphosed (greenschist to amphibolite grades) and sheared HHC rocks at greater depth are now exposed at the highest peaks of the HHC and (2) the complete removal of the HHC nappes (LHC rocks) in the Kumaon Himalaya which correlates with approximately 1520 km thick crystalline rocks. They once covered the LHMS zone which is presently exposed between the HHC and crystalline nappes in the Kumaon region. The LHC zone in the south of the MCT was exposed to rapid erosion at ~ 3 mm a 1 between ~132 Ma. This pulse of erosion between ~132 Ma within the LHC is a plausible result of emplacement and denudation of the crystalline nappes of the HHC and LHC on the top of the LHMS zone (Patel et al., 2007; Thiede et al., 2009). In some segments of this region, the HHC nappes have been completely removed and today meta-sedimentary rocks of the LHMS zone are exposed in tectonic windows and half windows (Srivastava and Mitra, 1994; Thakur, 1992; Valdiya, 1980, 1988). These imply that efcient erosion due to the rapid rise of the Himalayan Mountain coupled with increased precipitation has removed a huge mass of rock since the MCT/MT was active. Thick, continuous sediment deposition since Paleocene Eocene reported from the foreland basins (the sub-Himalaya and the Subathu sub-basin within the LHMS zone (Burbank et al., 1996; Jain et al., 2008; Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992; Richter et al., 1992), Bengal and Indus fans (Copeland and Harison, 1990; Einsele et al.,

1996; Metivier et al., 1999)) represents the HHC as the dominant provenance of detrital sediments since Miocene (Derry and FranceLanord, 1997). The high-grade metamorphic index minerals namely garnet and staurolite ~20 Ma, kyanite ~ 12 Ma and sillimanite ~ 8 Ma (Najman et al., 2002, 2003; White et al., 2002) subsequently indicate rapid exhumation, continuous erosion and transit of eroded materials to the sedimentary basins since Miocene time. We thus infer that the maximum uplift, erosion and exhumation of the HHC have been sustained since Miocene time. Recent measurements of low-temperature chronometric ages in the NW-Himalaya by Thiede et al. (2009) and Patel and Carter (2009) identied a zone of 3040 km wide belt between the MCT and STDS of mostly HHC unit having young FT ages (b 5 Ma). Based on new data combined with published data (Patel et al., 2007), this zone of young cooling ages is also recognized along both Darma and Kaliganga valleys. Exhumation rates from the Darma (1.6 0.2 mm a 1) and Kaliganga (1.6 0.2 mm a 1) valleys (Table 2) are very close to the exhumation rate along the Goriganga valley (2.1 0.3 mm a 1) since ~2 Ma. AFT ages in the Kumaon Himalaya do not change signicantly between the MCT/MT and VT (Fig. 4c, d and e). Similarly, there is no major change in AFT age with increasing distance due north from VT despite an increase in elevation (Fig. 4c, d and e). Ageelevation plots using only the samples taken perpendicular to the strike of the bounding faults (Fig. 4a and b) show no differences among these valleys. ZFT ages show a similar pattern as AFT ages. These indicate that the HHC in the north of the VT in Kumaon Himalaya is exhuming and uplifting uniformly as a single block since at least ~4 Ma. However, the offset pattern of AFT ages across the VT in the Darma valley appears to show thrust sense displacement along the VT since at least ~ 2 Ma as observed along the Goriganga valley by Patel and Carter (2009). AFT ages vs distance plots along Darma and Kaliganga valley show a at line (Fig. 4c and d), as observed in Goriganga valley by Bojar et al. (2005) and Patel and Carter (2009), which suggest that erosion rates are in balance with tectonically driven rock uplift. It is consistent with a system of equilibrium where isotherms are parallel to each other or to the surface (Fig. 5). Although the ZFT ages are limited but ages north of the VT are seen to plot on a at line. Based on the old and new datasets and greater sample density, the FT data in this study area from north of the VT are time invariant which can be referred as exhumational steady state (Willett and Brandon, 2002). It is also described as a system when the tectonic uplift at constant rates within

Fig. 5. Cartoon to show relationship between surface and FT closure isotherms and sample exhumation path. In topographic and exhumation steady-state the distance a sample travels from closure to surface remains broadly the same. In the cartoon the situation is in steady-state and there is an unchangeable FT age to the right associated with uniform exhumation paths. The nature of the age-distance trend will not be a perfect line, as local evolving topographic changes will also inuence subsurface isotherms.

Author's personal copy

R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113 9

the HHC block is entirely balanced by erosion which implies that no topography evolves since at least 4 Ma. The large discharge associated with removal of huge quantities of sediments from the region is the main driving mechanism for exhumation of the HHC and carving of the existing topography and relief across the uplifting Himalaya. These observations are consistent with the young AFT and ZFT ages obtained in the present study. It suggests that geomorphic erosional processes observed today, have been operating since at least ~ 2 Ma in the Kumaon region. 6.1. Regional variations Many studies of AFT age analysis have been reported from the different traverses across the HHC in NW-Himalaya (Bojar et al., 2005; Jain et al., 2000; Kumar et al., 1995, 2003; Lal et al., 1999; Patel and Carter, 2009; Sorkhabi et al., 1996; Thiede et al., 2004, 2005, 2009; Vannay et al., 2004) and it is now appreciated that exhumation of the

HHC has been rapid and similar along the strike. A recent compilation of study of the NW-Himalaya by Thiede et al. (2009) highlights a zone of 3040 km wide belt along 200 km of strike between the MCT/MT and STDS of mostly HHC units in Himachal Himalaya where very young AFT ages (b 5 Ma) are recorded. They describe this zone as insensitive to structural variation but sensitive to erosion that controlled the distribution of the exhumation and rock uplift. To evaluate the spatial variations in the AFT data within the HHC, the ages have been plotted as a function of distance from the core of the dome in Suru-Doda, Chenab-Bhot, Sutlej valleys, and from the MCT/MT along Dhauliganga, Goriganga, Darma and Kaliganga valleys of NW-Himalaya (Fig. 6 and Table 3). Climatically, the NW-Himalaya is a wet region receiving uniform precipitation except the Suru-Doda valleys which are located in the arid region of Zanskar, J & K (Table 3). The region of Suru-Doda, Chenab-Bhot and Sutlej valleys is characterized by dome/window structures such as Suru dome, Kishtwar and Larji-Kulu-Rampur windows respectively (Fig. 1) (Jain et al., 2000;

Fig. 6. FT age plotted against distance to examine the relationship between structure and age pattern. Samples transect shown along (a) Suru-Doda valleys in Zanskar between Panikhar and Ringdom (source of data from Kumar et al., 1995) (b) Chenab-Bhot rivers in Kishtwar region, J&K between Kishtwar and Padam (source of data from Kumar et al., 1995) (c) Sutlej valleys, Himachal Pradesh (Thiede et al., 2005 and Vannay et al., 2004) and (d) Dhauliganga valley, Garhwal Himalaya (Patel and Carter, 2009) Solid circles represent apatite FT ages, and empty squares represent zircon FT ages. Samples collected along the strike are not included.

Author's personal copy

10 Traverse number in Fig. 1 R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113

0.2 0.035.1 0.3

0.6 0.25 1 0.6 0.210.8 1.8 2.6 1.24.9 0.8 1.7 0.32.4 0.5 0.9 0.33.6 0.5 0.6 0.12.9 0.6 0.4 0.21.4 1.0 1.0 0.12.8 0.5 1.4 0.22.4 0.3

4.9 0.38.9 0.5

8.011.7 2.3 0.46.1 0.5

NE/SE of dome/ window/MCT/MT

0.810.4

Kumar et al., 1995; Kundig, 1989; Thakur, 1992). The AFT ages are younger within the core of the dome and window structures while ages become older away from these structures. In Suru-Doda valleys, the inuence of precipitation controlled erosion should be minimum due to very low precipitation. But in spite of this, the AFT ages show a distinct pattern of becoming older away from the dome structure (Fig. 6a). Similar pattern of age distribution (young AFT ages at the core of window and becoming older away from the window) across the Kishtwar and Larji-Kuku-Rampur windows has also been observed (Fig. 6b and c). These clearly indicate that amplication of dome structures has inuenced the exhumation pattern. The evolution of these dome/windows presents remarkable similarities with the syntaxes at the eastern and western ends of the Himalaya (Burbank et al., 1996; Coward et al., 1986; Zeitler et al., 1989). In those dome/windows, exhumation of the LHC rocks below MCT is not achieved through extensional faulting of the over-thickened crust. Instead, it has a considerable shortening component. Dome/window amplication would have been responsible for topographic uplift that becoming zone of rapid erosion. This dynamically sustained erosion due to tectonic induced topographic uplift formed the zone of localized deformation in the NW Himalaya. AFT age pattern with a near linear increase from the MCT/MT, across the VT, towards north along Dhauliganga valley in the Garhwal Himalaya indicates uniform behavior of the region without any differential movement on either side of the VT since the Pliocene (Fig. 6d) (Patel and Carter, 2009). The AFT analysis along Darma, Kaliganga and Goriganga valleys (Fig. 4c, d and e) shows thrust sense of movement along the VT and MCT/MT with distinct groups of ages on either side of the faults in the Kumaon Himalaya. Differential exhumation history between the Garhwal and Kumaon Himalaya in spite of their location in similar precipitation zone precludes local variation in the kinetic history of crustal shortening. 6.2. Wider Implication The mechanism of crustal shortening across the entire orogen and its inuence on the erosional/exhumation pattern in the Himalaya are not well understood. According to one school of thought, in convergent orogen like Himalaya, tectonics has activated different structures at different locations and affected the local topographic slopes and erosive processes (Burbank et al., 2003; Dahlen et al., 1984; Davis et al., 1983). According to another school of thought, the spatial and temporal variations in climate affect the change in the locus of exhumation by re-distributing mass and in turn change the location of deformation and surface uplift to maintain critical taper (Beaumont et al., 2001; Bookhagen et al., 2005; Molnar and England, 1990; Reiners et al., 2003; Schaller and Ehlers, 2006; Whipple and Meade, 2006; Willett, 1999). Recently, two tectonic mechanisms, such as (1) thrusting over a mid-crustal ramp (Avouac, 2003; Bollinger et al., 2004, 2006; Cattin and Avouac, 2000; DeCelles et al., 2001; Gansser, 1964; Harrison et al., 1998; Herman et al., 2010; Lave and Avauac, 2001; Pandey et al., 1995; Robert et al., 2009; Robinson et al., 2003; Schelling and Arita, 1991; Valdiya, 1980) and (2) out-of-sequence thrusting along the front of the HHC (Harrison et al., 1998; Hodges et al., 2004; Wobus et al., 2003) have been suggested to explain the exhumation pattern in the Himalaya. In particular, thrusting over the ramp model predicts gradual younging in ages across the LH from the MBT to the MCT (Bollinger et al., 2004, 2006; Robert et al., 2009) or linear increase from north to south (i.e. from the HHC to LHS) (Herman et al., 2010) while the out-of sequence model predicts an age jump in the topographic transition zone (Hodges et al., 2004; Wobus et al., 2006). Our results suggest that both climate and tectonics are simultaneously operating in inuencing the exhumation of the HHC. The exhumation pattern of several traverses across the HHC of the NWHimalaya, though falling in the same zones of precipitation, shows

7 7 5 8 9 and 10 1.1 0.41.4 0.2 HHC HHC HHC Bhagirathi Valley Dhauli-ganga Valley Goriganga Valley Garhwal Himalaya Kumaon Himalaya 0.61.2 0.61.2 0.61.4

Accumulated precipitation (in m) (19982008)

0.40.8

0.61.2

0.61.2

NE of dome/window/MCT

0.6 0.13.1 0.7

Exhumation rate ranges (in mm/year)

1.0 0.24.9 0.5

3.8 0.35.6 0.6

2.0 0.43.7 0.9 2.7

AFT age ranges (in Ma)

HHC HHC and LHC in window HHC and LHC in window HHC and LHC in window

Tectonic unit

3.4 (Mandi Granite) 6.8 (Jutogh Nappe) 4.6 0.610.1 0.9 3.0 1.44.1 1.6 7.6 0.617.9 0.9 (CCB/LHC) Darma Valley Kaliganga Valley HHC HHC

2.1 0.110.3 0.3

NW/SW of dome/ window/MCT

Table 3 Compilation of AFT ages from NW-Himalaya (Fig. 1).

Traverse name

Area

J & K Himalaya

Himachal Himalaya

Panikhar-Ringdom (Suru Valley) Along Ringdom-Padam Kishtwar-Padam (Chenab-Bhot Nala) Beas-Chandra-bhaga Valleys Sutlej Valley

HHC

2.1 0.22.8 0.4 0.7 0.61.7 0.3

Dome/window

1.1 0.2 1. 07 1. 36 0. 54 0.93.7 & 0.94.3 1.8

Dome/ window

0.3

3.6

SW of Dome/ Window/MCT

0.7

1.0 2.6 0.3 1.1 0.22.3 0.3

0.120.18 0.35 0.50.7

S of VT

0.1

2.5 0.8 0.12.1 0.3 2.3 0.33.0 0.4 1.0 0.22.2 0.2 1.2 0.21.9 0.2

N of VT

10 12 11

2 1 3

6 4

Author's personal copy

R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113 11

different patterns of exhumation. This cannot be explained by change in climatic erosion. Local tectonics such as dome/window formation due to thrusting over the ramp of the MCT/MT in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal and Garhwal Himalayas, and out-of-sequence thrusting along the MCT/MT and VT in the Kumaon Himalaya are major mechanisms of uplift and exhumation patterns of the rocks of the HHC in the NW-Himalaya. 7. Conclusions The apatite and zircon ssion track ages presented here allow us to understand the exhumation history of the HHC in the Kumaon Himalaya, NW-India. The AFT ages from all three valleys in the Kumaon Himalaya in general show similar age range and exhumation history indicating uplift and exhumation of the HHC in the Kumaon Himalaya as a single block. The results are different than the studies from J & K, Himachal and Garhwal Himalayas in similar structural setting in NW-Himalaya. When the data from the Kumaon Himalaya is compared with the other region of the NW Himalaya taking into account sample location with respect to MCT/MT and VT, it is observed that there is a signicant difference in exhumation history from region to region. The FT data from the HHC of the Kumaon Himalaya shows no change in AFT and ZFT ages with distance from the MCT/MT and VT and is consistent with exhumation steady-state since ~ 2 Ma with erosional efuxes balance the tectonic inux while in the south of the MCT/MT i.e. within the CCB such exhumation steadystate condition has been achieved since 9 to 14 Ma. Since young exhumation ages are concentrated in the hanging wall of the MCT/MT and VT, the tectonics along these is viewed as the initial driver for faster uplift of the HHC and the uniformly rapid erosion is linked to the long term uniform precipitation throughout the Kumaon Himalaya. In the other hand, older exhumation ages in the south of the MCT/MT reect no reactivation of the duplex structure through which the CCB was emplaced over the LHMS zone since Miocene time. In other transects of NW-Himalaya, exhumation and age pattern are controlled by dome/window formation due to thrusting over the ramp of the MCT/MT. Young AFT ages are located along the axial zone while ages are gradually becoming older away from the dome/window structures. Here, a close spatial correlation is found between high rates of exhumation of the deeper crustal rocks of the HHC and extensive uvial erosion controlled by a strong positive feedback relationship between tectonics and surcial processes. A regional observation from both NW- and Nepal Himalayas shows both thrusting over a mid-crustal ramp and out-of-sequence thrusting along the front of the HHC to be involved in crustal shortening and exhumation of the HHC but the mechanism differs from one region to other. Acknowledgements This study was nancially supported by the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India's research projects (Nos. ESS/CA/A-9/ 52/97 and ESS/16/242/2005/Kameng/03) awarded to R.C. Patel. Dr. Andy Carter, UCL, London, Prof. A.K. Jain, Department of Earth Sciences, I.I.T., Roorkee and Dr. K.R. Gupta, Ex-Scientist-G, DST, New Delhi are sincerely thankful for their ongoing support. We thank Rasmus C. Thiede and Barry P. Kohn for constructive suggestions in the earliest version of the manuscript. The two unanimous reviewers are profusely thanked for getting the manuscript into its present shape. References
Avouac, J.P., 2003. Mountain building, erosion, and the seismic cycle in the Nepal Himalaya. Advance in Geophysics 46, 180. doi:10.1016/S0065-2687 (03)46001-9. Beaumount, C., Jamison, R.A., Nguyen, M.H., Lee, B., 2001. Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation. Nature 414, 738742.

Blythe, A.E., Burbank, D.W., Carter, A., Schmidt, K., Putkonen, J., 2007. Plio-quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon ssion track and apatite (UTh)/He analysis. Tectonics 26, TC3002. doi:10.1029/2006TC001990. Bojar, A.-V., Fritz, H., Nicolescu, S., Bregar, M., Gupta, R.P., 2005. Timing and mechanisms of Central Himalayan exhumation: discriminating between tectonic and erosion processes. Terra Nova 17, 427433. Bollinger, L., Avouac, J.P., Beyssac, O., Catlos, E.J., Harrison, T.M., Grove, M., Goffe, B., Sapkota, S., 2004. Thermal structure and exhumation history of the Lesser Himalaya in central Nepal. Tectonics 23, TC5015. doi:10.1029/2003TC001564. Bollinger, L., Henry, P., Avouac, J.P., 2006. Mountain building in the Nepal Himalaya: thermal and kinematic model. Earth Planet Science Letters 244, 58 71. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.01.045. Bookhagen, B., Burbank, D.W., 2006. Topography, relief, and TRMM-derived rainfall variations along the Himalaya. Geophysical Research Letters 33, L08405. doi:10.1029/2006GL026037. Bookhagen, B., Thiede, R.C., Strecker, M.R., 2005. Late Quaternary intensied monsoon phases control landscape evolution in the northwest Himalaya. Geological Society of America 33 (2), 149152. Bouchez, J.L., Pecher, A., 1981. The Himalayan Main Central Thrust pile and its quartz rich tectonites in central Nepal. Tectonophysics 78, 2350. Brandon, M., Roden-Tice, M., Garver, J., 1998. Late Cenozoic exhumation of the Cascadia accretionary wedge in the Olympic Mountains, northwest Washington State. Geological Society of America Bulletin 110, 9851009. Braun, J., 2002. Estimating exhumation rate and relief evolution by spectral analysis of age-elevation datasets. Terra Nova 14, 210214. Brown, R.W., Summereld, M.A., 1997. Some uncertainties in the derivation of rates of denudation from thermochronologic data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 22 (3), 239248. Burbank, D.W., Beck, R.A., Mulder, T., 1996. The Himalayan foreland basin. In: Yin, A., Harison, T.M. (Eds.), The Tectonic Evolution of Asia. Cambridge University, pp. 149188. Burbank, D.W., McLean, J.K., Bullen, M., Abdrakhmatov, K.Y., Miller, M.G., 1999. Thrustbelt partitioning of intermontane basins by basement folding, Tien Shan, Krgyzstan. Basin Research 11, 7592. Burbank, D.W., Blythe, A.E., Putkonen, J.K., Pratt-Sitaula, B.A., Gabet, E.J., Oskin, M.E., Barros, A.P., Ojha, T.P., 2003. Decoupling of erosion and precipitation in the Himalaya. Nature 426, 652655. Burchel, B.C., Zhiliang, C., Hodges, K.V., Yuping, L., Royden, L.H., Changrong, D., Jiene, X., 1992. The south Tibetan detachment system, Himalayan orogen: extension contemporaneous with and parallel to shortening in a collisional mountain belt. Geological Society of America Special Paper 269, 144. Burg, J.P., Chen, G.M., 1984. Tectonics and structural zonation of southern Tibet. Nature 311, 219223. Burg, J.P., Davy, P., Nieverg lt, P., Oberli, F., Seward, D., Diao, Z., Meier, M., 1997. Exhumation during crustal folding in Namche Barwa syntaxis. Terra Nova 9, 117123. Cattin, R., Avouac, J.P., 2000. Modelling mountain building and the seismic cycle in the Himalaya of Nepal. Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (13), 13,38913,407. doi:10.1029/2000JB900032. Clemens, S., Prell, W., Murray, D., Shimmield, G., Weedom, G., 1991. Forcing mechanism of Indian Ocean monsoon. Nature 353, 720725. Clift, P.D., Sun, Z., 2006. The sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the Yinggehai-Song Hong Basin and the southern Hainan margin, South China Sea; implications for Tibetan uplift and monsoon intensication. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, B06405. doi:10.1029/2005JB004048. Clift, P.D., Hodges, K.V., Heslop, D., Hannigan, R., Long, H.V., Calves, G., 2008. Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity. Nature Geoscience 1, 875880. Coleman, M.E., 1998. UPb constraints on OligoceneMiocene deformation and anatexis within the Central Himalaya, Marsyandi valley, Nepal. American Science Journal 298, 553571. Copeland, P., Harrison, M.T., 1990. Episodic rapid uplift in the Himalaya revealed by 40Ar/39Ar analysis of detrital K-felspar and muscovite, Bengal fan. Geology 18, 354359. Cottle, J.M., Jessup, M.J., Newell, D.L., Searle, M.P., Law, R.D., Horstwood, M.S.A., 2007. Structural insights into the early stages of exhumation along an orogen-scale detachment: the South Tibetan Detachment System, Dzakaa Chu section, Eastern Himalaya. Journal of Structural Geology 29, 17811797. Coward, M.P., Windley, B.F., Broughton, R.D., Luff, I.W., Petterson, M.G., Pudsey, C.J., Rex, D.C., Khan, M.A., 1986. Collision tectonics in NW-Himalayas. Geological Society Special Publication 19, 203219. Dahlen, F.A., Suppe, J., Davis, D., 1984. Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges: Cohesive Coulomb wedge theory. Journal of Geophysical Research 89, 1008710101. doi:10.1029/JB089iB 12p 10087. Davidson, C., Grujic, D.E., Hollister, L.S., Schmid, S.M., 1997. Metamorphic reactions related to decompression and synkinematic intrusion of leucogranite, High Himalayan Crystallines, Bhutan. Journal of Metamorphic Geology 15, 593612. Davis, D., Suppe, J., Dahlen, F.A., 1983. Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges. Journal of Geophysical Research 88, 11531172. doi:10.1029/JB088iB02p01153. DeCelles, P.G., et al., 2001. Stratigraphy, structure, and tectonic evolution of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt in western Nepal. Tectonics 20, 487509. Derry, L.A., France-Lanord, C., 1997. Himalayan weathering and erosion uxes: climate and tectonic controls. In: Ruddiman, W.F. (Ed.), Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change. Plenum, New York, pp. 290312. Dettman, D.L., Kohn, M.J., Quade, J., Ryerson, F.J., Ojha, T.P., Hamidullah, S., 2001. Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 Ma. Geology 29, 3134. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2001) 029b0031:SSIEFAN2.0. CO;2.

Author's personal copy

12 R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113 Himalayan foreland basin: clues for exhumation and denudation of the Himalaya during the IndiaAsia collision. Geological Society of America Bulletin 121 (3/4), 519535. doi:10.1130/B26304.1. Klootwijk, C.T., Gee, J.S., Peirce, J.W., Smith, G.M., McFadden, P.L., 1992. An early India Asia contactpaleomagnetic constraints from Ninety East Ridge, Ocean Drilling Program Leg 121. Geology 20, 395398. Koons, P.O., Zeitler, P.K., Chamberlain, C.P., Craw, D., Meltzer, A.S., 2002. Mechanical links between erosion and metamorphism in Nanga Parbat, Pakistan Himalaya. American Journal of Science 302, 749773. Kumar, G., 2005. Geology of Uttar Pradesh and Uttranchal. Geological Society of India. 383 pp. Kumar, A., Lal, N., Jain, A., Sorkhabi, R.B., 1995. Late Cenozoic-Quaternary ThermoTectonic history of Higher Himalayan Crystalline (HHC) in Kishtwar-Padar-Zanskar region, NW Himalaya: evidence from ssion track ages. Journal of the Geological Society of India 45, 375391. Kumar, D., Jain, A.K., Patel, R.C., Lal, N., 2003. Exhumation of the Himalayan metamorphic belt (HMB): role of crustal-scale folds as revealed from Fission Track ages. Deep Continental Studies in India News Letter, 13. Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, pp. 1820 (1). Kundig, R., 1989. Domal structures and high grade metamorphism in the Higher Himalayan Crystalline, Zanskar region, northwest Himalaya, India. Journal of Metamorphic Geology 7, 4355. Kutzbach, J.E., Prell, W.L., Ruddiman, W.F., 1993. Sensitivity of Eurasian climate to surface uplift of the Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Geology 101, 177190. Lal, N., Mehta, Y.P., Kumar, D., Kumar, A., Jain, A.K., 1999. Cooling and exhumation history of the Mandi granite and adjoining tectonic units, Himachal Pradesh, and estimation of closure temperature from external surface of zircon. In: Jain, A.K., Manickavasagam, R.M. (Eds.), Geodynamics of the NW Himalaya: Gondawana Research Group Memories, 6, pp. 207216. Lave, J., Avouac, J.P., 2000. Active folding of uvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal. Journal of Geophysical Research 105, 57355770. Lav, J., Avouac, J.P., 2001. Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal. Journal of Geophysical Research 106 (26), 561591. doi:10.1029/ 2001JB000359. Le Fort, P., 1975. Himalaya, the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc. American Journal of Science 275a, 144. Mancktelow, N.S., Grasemann, B., 1997. Time-dependent effects of heat advection and topography on cooling histories during erosion. Tectonophysics 270, 167195. Meigs, A.J., Burbank, D.W., Beck, R.A., 1995. MiddleLate Miocene (N 10 Ma) formation of the Main Boundary Thrust in the western Himalaya. Geology 23, 423426. Metivier, F., et al., 1999. Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic. Geophysical Journal International 137, 280318. Molnar, P., England, P., 1990. Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climatic change: chicken or egg? Nature 346, 2934. Molnar, P., Tapponier, P., 1975. Cenozoic tectonics of Asia effects of a continental collision. Science 189 (4201), 419426. Najman, Y., Garzanti, E., Pringle, M., Bickle, M., Ando, S., Brozovic, N., 2002. Exhumation and attainment of steady state in the Himalaya: insights from the detrital sediment record. EOS. Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 83, F1302. Najman, Y., Pringle, M., Bickle, M., Garzanti, E., Burbank, D., Ando, S., Brozovic, N., 2003. Non-steady-state exhumation of the Higher Himalaya, N.W. India: insights from a combined isotopic and sedimentological approach. Geophysical Research Abstracts, 5. European Geophysical Society, Nice. Pandey, M.R., Tandukar, R.P., Avouac, J.P., Lave, J., Massot, J.P., 1995. Interseismic strain accumulation on the Himalayan crustal ramp (Nepal). Geophysical Research Letter 22, 751754. doi:10.1029/94GL02971. Patel, R.C., Carter, A., 2009. Exhumation history of the Higher Himalayan Crystalline along Dhauliganga-Goriganga River valleys, NW India: new constraints from ssion-track analysis. Tectonics 28, TC3004. doi:10.1029/2008TC002373. Patel, R.C., Kumar, Y., 2003. Geomorphological study of Quaternary Tectonics of the Doon Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Journal of Nepal Geological Society 28, 121132. Patel, R.C., Kumar, Y., 2006. Late-to-post collisional brittleductile deformation in the Himalayan orogen: evidences from structural studies in the Lesser Himalayan Crystallines, Kumaon Himalaya, India. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 27, 735750. Patel, R.C., Kumar, Y., 2009. Deformation and structural analysis of the Higher Himalayan Crystallines along Goriganga valley, Kumaon Himalaya, India. In: Kumar, S. (Ed.), Magamatism, Tectonism and Mineralization. Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., New Delhi, India, pp. 146166. Patel, R.C., Sandeep, S., Asokan, A., Manickavasagam, R.M., Jain, A.K., 1993. Extensional tectonics in the Himalayan orogen Zanskar, NW India. In: Trelaor, P.J., Searle, M.P. (Eds.), Himalayan Tectonics: Geological Society Special Publication, 74, pp. 445 459. Patel, R.C., Kumar, Y., Lal, N., Kumar, A., 2007. Thermotectonic history of the Chiplakot Crystalline Belt in the Lesser Himalaya, Kumaon, India: constraints from apatite ssion-track thermochronology. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 29, 430439. Patriat, P., Achache, J., 1984. IndiaEurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates. Nature 311, 615621. Paul, S.K., 1986. Seismic condition in northeastern Kumaon Himalaya and adjoining area in far most western Nepal. International Symposium on neo-tectonics in South Asia, survey of India, Dehradun (India), pp. 396406. Paul, S.K., 1998. Geology and tectonics of the Central Crystallines of northeastern Kumaon Himalaya, India. Journal of Nepal Geological Society 18, 151167. Paul, S.K., Bartarya, S.K., Rautela, P., Mahajan, A.K., 2000. Catastrophic mass movement of 1998 monsoons at Malpa in Kali valley, Kumaon Himalaya (India). Geomorphology 35, 169180.

Dettman, D.L., Fang, X.M., Garzione, C.N., Li, J.J., 2003. Uplift-driven climate change at 12 Ma: along delta O18 record from the NE margin of the Tibetan plateau. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 214, 267277. Dezes, P.J., Vannay, J.C., Steck, A., Bussy, F., Cosca, M., 1999. Synorogenic extension: quantitative constraints on the age and displacement of the Zanskar Shear Zone (northwest Himalaya). Geological Society of America Bulletin 111, 364374. Ehlers, T.A., et al., 2005. Computational tools for low-temperature thermochronometer interpretation. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 58, 589622. Einsele, G., Ratschbacher, L., Wetzel, A., 1996. The HimalayaBengal fan denudation accumulation system during the past 20 Ma. Journal of Geology 1041, 63184. England, P., et al., 1992. Heat-sources for tertiary metamorphism and anatexis in the Annapurna-Manaslu Region, Central Nepal. Journal of Geophysical Research, Solid Earth 97, 21072128. Finlayson, D.P., Montgomery, D.R., Hallet, B., 2002. Spatial coincidence of rapid inferred erosion with young metamorphic massifs in the Himalayas. Geology 30, 219222. Galbraith, R.F., 1981. On statistical models for ssion track counts. Journal of Mathematical Geology 13, 471478. Gansser, A., 1964. Geology of the Himalayas, 289. Interscience, London. Garzanti, E., Baud, A., Mascle, G., 1987. Sedimentary record of the northward ight of India and its collision with Eurasia (Ladakh Himalaya, India). Geodinamica Acta 1, 297312. Grujic, D., Coutand, I., Bookhagen, B., Bonnet, S., Blythe, A., Duncan, C., 2006. Climatic forcing of erosion, landscape, and tectonics in the Bhutan Himalayas. Geology 34, 801804. Harris, N.B.W., Caddick, M., Kosler, J., Goswami, S., Vance, D., Tindle, A.G., 2004. The pressuretemperaturetime path of migmatites from the Sikkim Himalaya. Journal of Metamorphic Geology 22, 249264. Harrison, T.M., Grove, M., Lovera, O.M., Catlos, E.J., 1998. A model for the origin of Himalayan anatexis and inverted metamorphism. Journal of Geophysical Research 103, 27,01727,032. doi:10.1029/98JB02468. Heim, A., Gansser, A., 1939. Central Himalaya. Societe Helvetique des Sciences Naturelles 73, 1245. Herman, F., Copeland, P., Avouac, J.P., Bollinger, L., Maho, G., Le Fort, P., Rai, S., Foster, D., Pcher, A., Stwe, K., Henry, P., 2010. Exhumation, crustal deformation, and thermal structure of the Nepal Himalaya derived from the inversion of thermochronological and thermobarometric data and modeling of the topography. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, B06407. doi:10.1029/2008JB006126. Herren, E., 1987. Zanskar Shear Zone: northeastsouthwest extension within the Higher Himalaya (Ladakh, India). Geology 15, 409413. Hodges, K.V., 2000. Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives. Geological Society of America Bulletin 112 (3), 324350. Hodges, K.V., Parrish, R.R., Housh, T.B., Lux, D.R., Burchel, B.C., Royden, L.H., Chen, Z., 1992. Simultaneous Miocene extension and shortening in the Himalayan Orogen. Science 258, 14661470. Hodges, K.V., Hurtado, J.M., Whipple, K.X., 2001. Southward extrusions of Tibetan crust and its effect on Himalayan tectonics. Tectonics 20, 799809. doi:10.1029/2001TC001281. Hodges, K.V., Wobus, C., Ruhl, K., Schildgen, T., Whipple, K., 2004. Quaternary deformation, river steepening and heavy precipitation at the front of Higher Himalayan ranges. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 220, 379389. Hubbard, M.S., Harrison, T.M., 1989. 40Ar/39Ar age constraints on deformation and metamorphism in the MCT Zone and Tibetan Slab, eastern Nepal Himalaya. Tectonics 8, 865880. Huntington, K.W., Blyth, A.E., Hodges, K.V., 2006. Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 252, 107118. Huntington, K.W., Ehlers, T.A., Hodges, K.V., Whipp Jr., D.M., 2007. Topography, exhumation pathway, age uncertainties, and the interpretation of thermochronometer data. Tectonics 26, TC4012. doi:10.1029/2007TC002108. Hurford, A.J., 1990. Standardization of ssion track dating calibration: recommendation by ssion track working group of IUGS Subcommission on Geochronology. Chemical Geology (Isotope Geoscience Section) 80, 171178. Hurford, A.J., Green, P.F., 1983. The zeta age calibration of ssion-track dating. Chemical Geology 41, 285317. Huyghe, P., et al., 2001. Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: geochemical and sedimentological evidence. Geology 29, 10071010. Huyghe, P., Mugnier, J.L., Gajurel, A.P., Delcaillau, B., 2005. Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal), Isl. Arc. Deep Sea Trenches Back-Arc Basins 14, 311327. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00500.x. Iynegar, R.N., Sharma, D., 1999. Some earthquakes of the Himalayan region from historical sources. Journal of Himalayan Geology 8185. Jain, A.K., Anand, A., 1988. Deformational and strain patterns of an intracontinental collision ductile shear zone an example from the Higher Garhwal Himalaya. Journal of Structural Geology 10, 717734. Jain, A.K., Manickavasagam, R.M., 1993. Inverted metamorphism in the intracontinental ductile shear zone during Himalayan collision tectonics. Geology 21, 407410. Jain, A.K., Patel, R.C., 1999. Structure of the Higher Himalayan Crystallines along the Suru-Doda Valleys (Zansker), NW-Himalaya. In: Jain, A.K., Manickavasagam, R.M. (Eds.), Geodynamics of the NW Himalaya: Gondawana Research Group Memories, 6, pp. 91110. Jain, A.K., Kumar, D., Singh, S., Kumar, A., Lal, N., 2000. Timing, quantication and tectonic modelling of Plicocene-Quaternary movements in the NW Himalaya: evidences from ssion track dating. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 179, 437451. Jain, A.K., Lal, N., Sulemani, B., Awasthi, A.K., Singh, S., Kumar, R., Kumar, D., 2008. Detrital-zircon ssion-track ages from the Lower Cenozoic sediments, NW

Author's personal copy

R.C. Patel et al. / Tectonophysics 504 (2011) 113 Paul, A., Pant, C.C., Darmwal, G.S., Pathak, V., 2007. Seismicity of Uttarakhand as recorded by Kumaon digital telemetered Seismic Network. In: Varma, O.P., Mahajan, A.K., Gupta, V. (Eds.), Natural Hazards, Spl. Vol. of IGC. Indian Geological Congress, pp. 5763. Peizhen, Z., Molnar, P., Downs, W.R., 2001. Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 24 Myr ago due to the inuence of climate change on erosion rates. Nature 410, 891897. Prell, W., Kutzbach, J.E., 1992. Sensitivity of the Indian monsoon to forcing parameters and implications for its evolution. Nature 360, 647652. doi:10.1038/360647a0. Quade, J., Cerling, T.E., Bowman, J.R., 1989. Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan. Nature 342, 163166. Ray, L., Bhattacharya, A., Roy, S., 2007. Thermal conductivity of Higher Himalayan Crystallines from Garhwal Himalaya, India. Tectonophysics 434 (14), 7179. Raymo, M.E., Ruddiman, W.F., 1992. Tectonic forcing of the Late Cenozoic climate. Nature 359, 117122. Rea, D.K., 1993. Delivery of Himalayan sediment to the northern Indian Ocean and its relation to global climate, sea level, uplift, and seawater strontium. In: Duncan, R.A., et al. (Ed.), Synthesis of Results from Scientic Drilling in the Indian Ocean. Geophys. Monogr. Ser., vol. 70. AGU, Washington, D. C., pp. 387402. Reiners, P.W., Ehlers, T.A., Mitchell, S.G., Montgomery, D.R., 2003. Coupled spatial variations in precipitation and long-term erosion rates across the Washington Cascades. Nature 426, 645647. doi:10.1038/nature02111. Richter, F.M., Rowley, D.B., DePaolo, D.J., 1992. Sr isotope evolution of seawater: role of tectonics. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 109, 1123. Robert, X., van der Beek, P.A., Braun, J., Perry, C., Dubille, M., Mugnier, J.-L., 2009. Assessing Quaternary reactivation of the Main Central Thrust zone (central Nepal Himalaya): new thermochronologic data and numerical modelling. Geology 37 (8), 731734. Robinson, D.M., DeCelles, P.G., Garzione, C.N., Pearson, O.N., Harrison, T.M., Catlos, E.J., 2003. Kinematic model for the Main Central Thrust in Nepal. Geology 31, 359362. doi:10.1130/0091-7613, 031b0359:KMFTMCN2.0.CO;2. Rowley, D.B., 1996. Age of initiation of collision between India and Asia review of stratigraphic data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 145, 113. Roy, S., Rao, R.U.M., 2000. Heat ow in the Indian schield. Journal of Geophysical Research, Solid Earth 105, 2558725604. Schaller, M., Ehlers, T.A., 2006. Limits to quantifying climate driven changes in denudation rates with cosmogenic radionuclides. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 248, 153167. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.05.027. Schelling, D., Arita, K., 1991. Thrust tectonics, crustal shortening, and the structure of the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya. Tectonics 10, 851862. Schlup, M., Carter, A., Cosca, M., Steck, A., 2003. Exhumation history of eastern Ladakh Revealed by Ar-40/Ar-39 and ssion-track ages: the Indus-Tso Morari transect, NW-Himalaya. Journal of the Geological Society of London 160, 385399. Searle, M.P., Noble, S.R., Hurford, A.J., Rex, D.X., 1999. Age of crustal melting, emplacement and exhumation history of the Shivling leucogranite, Garhwal Himalaya. Geological Magazine 136, 513525. Searle, M.P., Law, R.D., Godin, L., Larson, K.P., Streule, M.J., Cottle, J.M., Jessup, M.J., 2008. Dening the Himalayan Main Central Thrust in Nepal. Journal of the Geological Society of London 165, 523534. Seeber, L., Gornitz, V., 1983. River proles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of active tectonics. Tectonophysics 92, 335367. doi:10.1016/0040-1951(83)90201-9. Seward, D., Burg, J.-P., 2008. Growth of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis and associated evolution of the Tsangpo Gorge: constraints from structural and thermochronological data. Tectonophysics 451, 282289. Sobel, E.R., Strecker, M.R., 2003. Uplift, exhumation and precipitation: tectonic and climatic control of late Cenozoic landscape evolution in the northern Sierras Pampeanas, Argentina. Basin Research 15, 431451. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2117.2003.00214.x. Sorkhabi, R.B., Stump, E., Foland, K.A., Jain, A.K., 1996. Fission-track and 40Ar/39Ar evidence for episodic denudation of the Gangotri granites in the Garhwal Higher Himalaya, India. Tectonophysics 260, 187199. Sorkhabi, R.B., Jain, A.K., Itaya, T., Fukui, S., Lal, N., Kumar, A., 1997. Cooling age record of domal uplift in the core of the Higher Himalayan Crystallines (HHC), southwest Zanskar, India. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, (Earth Planetary Science) 106/3, 169179. Srivastava, P., Mitra, G., 1994. Thrust geometries and deep structure of the outer and lesser Himalaya, Kumaon and Garhwal (India): implications for evolution of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt. Tectonics 13, 89109. Stwe, K., White, L., Brown, R., 1994. The inuence of eroding topography on steady state isotherms. Application to ssion track analysis. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 124, 6374. 13

Szulc, A.G., Najman, Y., Sinclair, H.D., Pringle, M.S., Bickle, M., Chapman, H., Garzanti, E., Ando, S., Huyghe, P., Mugnier, J.L., Ojha, T.P., DeCelles, P.G., 2006. Tectonic evolution of the Himalaya constrained by detrital 40Ar/39Ar, SmNd and petrographic data from the Siwalik foreland basin succession, SW Nepal. Basin Research 18, 375391. Thakur, V.C., 1987. Platetectonic interpretation of the western Himalaya. Tectonophysics 134, 91102. Thakur, V.C., 1992. Geology of Western Himalaya. Pergamon Press. 366 pp. Thakur, V.C., Choudhury, B.K., 1983. Deformation, metamorphism and tectonic relations of Central Crystallines and Main Central Thrust in Eastern Kumaon Himalaya. In: Saklani, P.S. (Ed.), Himalayan Shears. Himalayan Books, New Delhi, pp. 4547. Thakur, V.C., Sati, D., Rautela, P., Bist, K.S., Choudhury, B.K., 1995. The recent rise of the river bed near Mohand, Uttar Pradesh. Current Science 68, 588590. Thiede, R.C., Bookhagen, B., Arrowsmith, J.R., Sobel, E.R., Strecker, M.R., 2004. Climatic control on areas of rapid exhumation along the Southern Himalayan Front. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 222, 791806. Thiede, R.C., Arrowsmith, J.R., Bookhagen, B., Mcwilliams, M.O., Sobel, E.R., Strecker, M.R., 2005. From tectonically to erosionally controlled development of the Himalayan orogen. Geology 33, 689692. Thiede, R.C., Ehlers, T.A., Bookhagen, B., Strecker, M.R., 2009. Erosional variability along the NW Himalaya. Journal of Geophysical Research 114, F01015. doi:10.1029/ 2008JF001010. Valdiya, K.S., 1980. Geology of Kumaon Lesser Himalaya. Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun, India. 291 pp. Valdiya, K.S., 1988. Tectonics and evolution of the central sector of the Himalaya, Phill. Transaction of Royal Society of London A 326, 151175. Valdiya, K.S., 1992. The main Boundary Thrust zone in the Himalaya, India. Annales Tectonicae Special Issue 6, 5484. Vannay, J.-C., Grasemann, B., Rahn, M., Frank, W., Carter, A., Baudraz, V., Cosca, M., 2004. Miocene to Holocene exhumation of metamorphic crustal wedges in the NW Himalaya: evidence for tectonic extrusion coupled to Xuvial erosion. Tectonics 23, TC1014. doi:10.1029/2002TC001429. Vannce, D., Harris, N., 1999. Timing of prograde metamorphism in the Zanskar Himalaya. Geology 27, 395398. Wang, P., Clemensb, S., Beaufortc, L., Braconnotd, P., Ganssene, G., Jiana, Z., Kershawf, P., Sarnthein, M., 2005. Evolution and variability of the Asian monsoon system: state of the art and outstanding issues. Quaternary Science Reviews 24, 595629. Whipp Jr., D.M., Ehlers, T.A., Blythe, A.E., Huntington, K.W., Hodges, K.V., Burbank, D.W., 2007. Plio-quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 2. Thermokinematic and thermochronometer age prediction model. Tectonics 26, TC3003. doi:10.1029/2006TC001991. Whipple, K.X., Meade, B.J., 2006. Orogen response to changes in climatic and tectonic forcing. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 243, 218228. doi:10.1016/j. epsl.2005.12.022. White, N.M., Pringle, M., Garzanti, E., Bickle, M., Najman, Y., Chapman, H., Friend, P., 2002. Constraints on the exhumation and erosion of the High Himalayan Slab, NW India, from foreland basin deposits. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 195, 2944. Willett, S.D., 1999. Orogeny and orography: the effects of erosion on the structure of mountain belts. Journal of Geophysical Research 104/28, 957982. Willett, S.D., Brandon, M.T., 2002. On steady states in mountain belts. Geology 30 (2), 175178. Wobus, C.W., Hodges, K.V., Whipple, K.X., 2003. Has focused denudation sustained active thrusting at the Himalayan topographic front? Geology 31, 861864. doi:10.1130/G19730.1. Wobus, C.W., Whipple, K.X., Hodges, K.V., 2006. Neotectonics of the Central Nepalese Himalaya: constraints from geomorphic, detrital 40Ar/39Ar thermochronology and thermal modelling. Tectonics 25, TC4011. doi:10.1029/2005TC001935. Yin, A., 2006. Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Himalayan orogen as constrained by along-strike variation of structural geometry, exhumation history, and foreland sedimentation. Earth Science Review 76, 1131. Zeitler, P.K., 1985. Cooling history of the NW Himalaya, Pakistan. Tectonics 4, 127151. Zeitler, P.K., Sutter, J., Williams, I.S., Zartman, R.E., Tahirkheli, R.A.K., 1989. Geolchronology and temperature history of the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh Massifs, Pakistan. In: Malinconico, L.L., Lillie, R.J. (Eds.), Tectonics of the Western Himalayas: Spec. Pap. Geological Society America, 232, pp. 123. Zeitler, P.K., et al., 2001. Crustal networking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: metamorphic consequences of thermalmechanical coupling y erosion. Tectonics 20, 712728. Zhisheng, A., Kutzbach, J., Prell, W., Porter, S., 2001. Evolution of Asian monsoons and phased uplift of the HimalayaTibetan plateau since late Miocene times. Nature 411, 6266. doi:10.1038/35075035.