Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jyh-Cherng Shieh
Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering National Taiwan University 09/28/2009 1
MAIN TOPICS
Pressure at a Point Basic Equation for Pressure Field Pressure variation in a Fluid at Rest Standard Atmosphere Measurement of Pressure Manometry Mechanical and Electronic Pressure Measuring Devices Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface Pressure Prism Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface Buoyancy, Floating, and Stability Rigid-Body Motion
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y = s cos
z PZ PS = (Z + ) 2
z = s sin
y Py PS = a y 2
Shear stress
x=0y=0z=0
PZ = Py = PS
Pressure at a Point
Independent of direction
To obtain an basic equation for pressure field in a static fluid. Apply Newtons second law to a differential fluid mass
F = m a
There are two types of forces acting on the mass of fluid: surface force and body force.
m = V
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r r r FB = gm = gV
r r FBk = xyzk
m = V
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Shear stresses
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The pressure at the left face Element p p dy p dy p L = p + (y L y ) = p + = p y y 2 y 2 The pressure at the right face
Element
p p dy p dy p R = p + (y R y ) = p + = p + y y 2 y 2
p dy p dy p F y = p y 2 x z p + y 2 xz = y xyz
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xz
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p r p r p r gradp = p = i+ j+ k x y z
Gradient
GradientScalar field u(P) Vector field Grad u Gradient of u u scalar
u r u r u r gradu = u = i+ j+ k x y z
Gradient Operator scalar fieldvector field
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r r r r F = FS + FB = ( p + g)xyz r v v = ( p + g)dV m a = V a
r r pxyz xyzk = axyz
The general equation of motion for a fluid in which there are no shearing stresses
r r p k = a
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g x = 0, g y = 0, gz = g
P =0 x P =0 y P = z
dp = g = dz
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Pressure-Height Relation
dp = g = dz
Integrated to determine the pressure distribution in a static fluid with appropriate boundary conditions.
Restriction: Static fluid. Gravity is the only body force. The z axis is vertical and upward. How the specific weight varies with z?
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P vs. z
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dp = g = dz
p2
p1
dp = dz
z2
z1
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p1 p2 h=
h p1-p2
h is called the pressure head and is interpreted as the height of a column of fluid of specific weight required to give a pressure difference p1p2.
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po =0
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The required equality of pressure at equal elevations throughout a system is important for the operation of hydraulic jacks, lifts, and presses, as well as hydraulic controls on aircraft and other type of heavy machinery.
F1 = pA1 F2 = pA 2 F2 = A2 F1 A1
The transmission of fluid pressure throughout a stationary fluid is the principle upon which many hydraulic devices are based.
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Hydraulic jack
F1 = pA1
F2 = pA 2
A2 F2 = F1 A1
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For compressible fluid, =(P,T) , how to determine the pressure variation? The density must be expressed as a function of one of the other variable in the equation. For example: Determine the pressure variation in the ideal gas.
dp = g = dz
dp gp p = RT = dz RT
p2
p1
p2 dp g = ln = p p1 R
z1 dz
z2
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T=T0=constant
g ( z 2 z1 ) p 2 = p1 exp RT o
pg pg dp = gdz = dz = dz RT R (Ta mz )
z dp gdz = pa p 0 R (Ta z) p
T=Ta-z
p g z ln = ln(1 ) pa R Ta z g / R T g / R p = pa (1 ) = pa ( ) Ta Ta
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Standard Atmosphere1/3
p2
p1
p2 g dp = ln = p p1 R
z1 dz
z2
The pressure vs. altitude over the specific conditions (temperature, reference pressure) for which the pressure is to be determined. The information is not available. The standard atmosphere has been determined that can be used in the design of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft, and in comparing their performance under standard conditions.
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Standard Atmosphere2/3
192019621976
Standard atmosphere was first developed in the 1920s. The currently accepted Standard atmosphere is based on a report published in 1962 and updated in 1976. The so-called U.S. standard atmosphere is an idealized representation of middle-latitude, year-around mean conditions of the earths atmosphere.
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Standard Atmosphere3/3
For example, in the troposphere, the temperature variation is of the form T = Ta z where Ta is the temperature at sea level (z=0) and is the lapse rate (the rate of change of temperature with elevation).
z p = pa 1 Ta
g / R
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Barometers
Mercury Barometer is used to measure atmosphere pressure: Patmh +Pvapor Pvapor0.000023 lb / in2@68oF specific weight of mercury
The height of a mercury column is converted to atmosphere pressure by using
p atm p vapor = gh
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p atm = p vapor + h
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p = h + p 0
p0 is the local barometric expressed in a consistent of units .
Hg = 133 kN / m 3
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Manometry
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes. Pressure measuring devices based on this technique are called manometers. The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but there are many other configuration possible, depending on the particular application. BPiezometer Tube. BU-Tube manometer. BInclined-Tube manometer.
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Piezometer Tube
The fundamental equation is P = P0 + h >> PA = 1 h1
PA : gage pressure ( P0=0) 1 :the specific weight of the liquid in the container h1: measured from the meniscus at the upper surface to point(1) A
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Only suitable if the pressure in the container is greater than atmospheric pressure, and the pressure to be measured must be relatively small so the required height of the column is reasonable. The fluid in the container must be a liquid rather than a gas.
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p1 = p air + oil ( h1 + h 2 ) = p 2
As we move from level (2) to the open end, the pressure must decrease by Hgh3, and at the open end the pressure is zero. Thus, the manometer equation can be expressed as
p1 = p 2 = Hg h 3
p air + oil ( h1 + h 2 ) Hg h 3 = 0
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pgage
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p A 1h1 2 h 2 + 1 ( h1 + h 2 ) = p B p A p B = h 2 ( 2 1 )
(Ans)
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Inclined-Tube Manometer
To measure small pressure change, an inclined-tube manometer is frequently used: PA +1h1 2 l 2sin 3h3 = PB PA PB =2 l 2sin +3h3 1h1 NOTE If pipe A and B contain a gas then3h31h10 >> l 2 = ( PA PB ) /2 sin
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Aneroid Barometer
The Aneroid barometer is used for measuring atmospheric pressure. The Aneroid barometer contains a hallow, closed, elastic elements which is evacuated so that the pressure inside the element is near absolute zero. As the external atmospheric pressure changes, the element deflects, and this motion can be translated into the movement of an attached dial.
motion of attached dial
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When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the hydrostatic pressure distribution of the fluid. The determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic structures.
Hoover dam
Pressure distribution and resultant hydrostatic force on the bottom of an open tank. Pressure distribution on the ends of an open tank.
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Specifying the magnitude of the force. Specifying the direction of the force. Specifying the line of action of the force. To determine completely the resultant force acting on a submerged force.
hydrostatic pressure distribution of the fluid
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On a Submerged Surfaces
The hydrostatic force on any element of the surface acts normal to the surface dF = pdA. The resultant force
p= h
FR = hdA = y sin dA
A A
FR = sin ydA
A
ydA = y C A
Resultant Force
The magnitude of the resultant force is equal to pressure acting at the centroid of the area multiplied by the total area.
FR = Ay c sin = h c A
yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of the area A. hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area.
ycAy hcA
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FR = Ayc sin = h c A
The resultant force does not pass through the centroid but is always below it.
yR
y 2dA
yc A
Ix I xc = = + yc yc A yc A
Ix is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia for the area). By parallel axis theorem I = I + Ay 2 x xc c
The second moment of the area w.r.t an axis passing through its 65 centroid and parallel to the x-axis. x
The mass moment of inertia of any object about an axis through its center of mass is the minimum moment of inertia for an axis in that direction in space. The mass moment of inertia about any axis parallel to that axis through the center of mass is given by
I parallel
aixs
= I cm + Md
center of mass
The mass moment of inertia about a parallel axis is the center of mass moment plus the moment of inertia of the entire object treated as a point mass at the center of mass. M
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The magnitude of the resultant fluid force is equal to the pressure acting at the centroid of the area multiplied by the total area.
FR = Ay c sin = h c A
yR =
y 2dA
yc A
Ix I = xc + y c yc A yc A
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xR
FR = Ay c sin = h c A
= I xyc yc A + xc
xydA yc A
I xy yc A
Ixy is the product of inertia w.r.t the x and y. By parallel axis theorem I xy = I xyc + Ax c y c Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area and formed by a translation of the x-y coordinate system. If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to either the x or y axes, Ixyc=0. xy
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The resultant fluid force does not pass through the centroid of the area.
Figure 2.18
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FR = Ay c sin = h c A
The vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area is 10m
I xyc xR = + xc yc A
yR
y 2dA
yc A
Ix I xc = = + yc yc A yc A
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yR =
( / 4)(2m)4
R 4 I xc = 4
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y R y c = 0.0866m
The force acts through a point along its diameter A-A at a distance of 0.0866m below the shaft.
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=0
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I xc yR = + yc yc A
I xc (3ft )(3ft ) 3 81 4 = = ft 36 36
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I xyc xR = + xc yc A
I xyc (3ft )(3ft ) 2 81 4 = (3ft ) = ft 72 72
FR = F1 + F2
h1 + h2 y1 = 2
FR y A = F1y1 + F2 y 2
2( h2 h1 ) y2 = + h1 3 77
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The resultant fluid force on the surface is that due only to the gage pressure contribution of the liquid in contact with the surface the atmospheric pressure does not contribute to this resultant.
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F1 = (ps + h1)A = [50 103 N/m2 + (0.90)(9.81 103 N/m3 )(2 m)](0.36m2 ) = 24.4 10 N
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FR y 0 = F1 (0.3m) + F2 (0.2m)
(24.4 103 N)(0.3m) + (0.954 103 N)(0.2m) yO = 25.4 103 N = 0.296m
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On a Curved Surfaces1/2
Many surfaces of interest (such as those associated with dams, pipes, and tanks) are nonplanar. The domed bottom of the beverage bottle shows a typical curved surface example.
Pop bottle
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On a Curved Surfaces2/2
Consider the curved section FH = F2 FV = F1 + W BC of the open tank. 2 2 F = F + F V R H F1 and F2 can be determined from the relationships for planar surfaces. The weight W is simply the specific weight of the fluid times the enclosed volume and acts through the center of gravity (CG) of the mass of W fluid contained within the volume.
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The weight, W, is
FH = F1 = 281lb
Fv = W = 441lb
FR = ( FH ) + ( FV ) = 523lb
2 2
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BUOYANCY 1/2
Buoyancy: The net vertical force acting on any body which is immersed in a liquid, or floating on its surface due to liquid pressure. FB Consider a body of arbitrary shape, having a volume V, that is immersed in a fluid, We enclose the body in a parallelepiped and draw a freebody diagram of parallelpiped with body removed as shown in (b).
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BUOYANCY
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FB = F2 F1 W F2 F1 = ( h 2 h1 ) A
FB W
FB = ( h 2 h1 ) A [( h 2 h1 ) A V ]
FB is the force the body is exerting on the fluid. W is the weight of the shaded fluid volume (parallelepiped minus body). A is the horizontal area of the upper (or lower) surface of the parallelepiped.
A
For a submerged body, the buoyancy force of the fluid is equal to the weight of displaced fluid F = gV
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Buoyancy
Atmospheric buoyancy
A Cartesian diver or Cartesian devil is a classic science experiment, named for Ren Descartes, which demonstrates the principle of buoyancy (Archimedes principle) and the ideal gas law.
Cartesian Diver
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Archimedes Principle
For a submerged body, the buoyancy force of the fluid is equal to the weight of displaced fluid and is directly vertically upward.
FB = gV = V
The relation reportedly was used by Archimedes in 220 B.C. to determine the gold content in the crown of King Hiero II.
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The point through which the buoyant force acts is called the center of buoyancy. C.G: The body force due to gravity on an object act through its center of gravity (C.G.).
Body force
The buoyancy force passes through the centroid of the displaced volume.
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Hydrometer
Hydrometer
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T = FB W
FB = V
With = 10.1 kN/m3 and V = d3/6
Stability
Stability? Stable? Unstable? A body is said to be in a stable equilibrium position if, when displaced, it returns to its equilibrium position. Conversely, it is an unstable equilibrium position if, when displaced (even slightly), it moves to a new equilibrium position.
CG
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barge
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r r p k = a
Rigid body
Based on rectangular coordinates with the positive z axis being vertically upward.
p = a x x p = a y y p = + a z z
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Linear Motion
The change in pressure between two closely spaced points located at y, z, and y+dy , z+dz
p p dp = dy + dz y z
p p p = a x = 0 = a y = ( g + a z ) x y z
dp=0
ay dz = dy g + az
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ay dz = dy g
Since az = 0. Thus for some arbitrary ay, the change in depth, z1
ay z1 = 0.75ft g or ay z 1 = (0.75ft ) g
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p = h
Where h is the depth of fuel above the transducer.
ay p = (0.65)(62.4lb / ft )[0.5ft (0.75ft )(a y / g)] = 20.3 30.4 g The limiting value for (ay)max =0
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Angular Motion1/3
In terms of cylindrical coordinates, the pressure gradient can be expressed
p = p p 1 p er + e + ez r r z p p 2 =0 = r r p = z
r a r = rw 2e
a = 0
az = 0
p p dp = dr + dz = r2dr dz r z
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Angular Motion2/3
The differential pressure is
p p 2 dp = dr + dz = r dr dz r z
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2 r 2 h= + h0 2g
This cylindrical shell is taken at some arbitrary radius, r, and its volume is
dV = 2rhdr
R 0
V = 2
2 4 2 r 2 R 2 r + = + h dr R h0 0 2g 4g
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or
2 R 2 H h0 = 4g
The change in depth could indeed be used to determine the rotational speed, although the relationship between the change in depth and speed is not a linear one.
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