1AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Self: Biological Influences Structure of the Neuron Basic & most important element of nervous

ous system Specialized for carrying message from 1 place to another In charge of producing all the things we domovements, thoughts, emotions, memories 10 billion to 1000 billion neurons in our brain alone Size: 0.004 mm to 0.1 mm diameter Length: from < 1 mm to > 1 m Holds secret of how brain works & thus the nature of consciousness Cell body Provide fuel, manufactures chemicals, maintains working order Nucleus: controls cells metabolic function & maintenance If enough stimulation is received, message is passed to axon Axon Carries info away from soma towards other neurons/muscles & gland cells At its end, divides into no. of tiny branchesaxon terminals

Dendrites Extensions of the cell body, receive msgs from other neurons (electrical impulses), send to soma Dendrites undergo dramatic growth result in > brain size Varies in structure depending on the kind of sensory information they are capable of receiving (e.g. light, sound, touch, pressure, heat/cold, taste/smell) Myelin sheath Helps insulate & speed neural impulses Loss may lead to disruptions in the flow of info Synapse Junction where info is transmitted from 1 neuron to another Slight gap between terminal buttons & cell body/dendrites Filled with fluid known as cytoplasm Synaptic knobs Form junctions with other cells & release neurotransmitters Neural impulses Neurons are like batteries, they are wet Filled with 1 type of fluid inside, bath with different types of fluid outside These fluids have different chemical, including ions Ions can carry (+/-) electrical charge Resting potential (stable, negative charge when the cell is inactive) More (-) ions are inside the neuron than outside

2AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Inside Na(+) Approximately -70mV Many ions are able to move freely through the cell membrane, but some ions like sodium ions (Na+) cannot, therefore membrane is Semipermeable While resting, axon polarized, change of ions + to inside axon, depolarization Action potential Very brief shift in a neurons electrical charge that travels along an axon An electrochemical impulse that travel from cell body down to end of axon Sudden, massive change in ion charge in the neuron Ions flow across cell membrane, depolarization All-or-none law A neuron either fires or it does not Always produces an impulse of the same strength Intensity determined by frequency of action potentials Neurotransmitters Specific NTs function at specific kinds of synapses Binding process is like lock and key Why are there many different NTs, each of which works only at certain synapses? - Variety and specificity reduces crosstalk between densely packed neurons, making nervous systems comm more precise

Dopamine (DA) Functions: movement, attention, learning, reinforcing effects of drugs > Parkinsons disease (tremors, rigid movements, poor balance) -No genetic origins, but mutation of a particular gene located on chromosome 4 will produce this disorder < 2nd group of dopamine: pleasure & reward systems (may involve in schizophrenia & ADHD) Serotonin Found throughout the brain (used by systems of neurons) Believed to regulate emotional arousal (anxiety, depression) & sleep Deficiencies linked to anxiety, mood disorders & insomnia Elevated levels linked to other mood disorders <Depression >Sleepiness Acetylcholine (ACh) Only transmitter between motor neurons and voluntary muscles Released at the neuromuscular junction (btwn motor neuron & muscle cell) Cause the bodys large muscle to contract Play a role in regulating wakefulness, dreaming & memory, attention, arousal <Alzheimers (memory loss & cognitive impairment), is the result of deterioration of ACh-producing neurons

3AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Botulinum toxin can inhibit this action >Tremors Norepinephrine Helps body deal with danger/threat Memory, learning, emotions < Depression > Schizophrenia

Endorphins Morphine (painkilling drug derived from the opium plant) exerts its effects by binding to specialised receptors in the brain Body should have endogenous (internally produced) morphine-like substances Internally produced chemicals that resemble opiates in structure and effects Regulate feelings and perception of pain Released while exercising Released when stressed, in positive mood Runners high rush of endorphins Recreational drugs The use of psychoactive drugs for recreational purposes rather than for work, medical Depressants downers ; calm the activity of nervous system Slow body functions Decrease behavioural activity & level of awareness Alcohol Affects CNS, esp. brain; Metabolize in liver Lowers our inhibitions, reduce our ability to stop & think about what we are doing & the effect of our behaviour towards others Impairs motor coordination; cognitive abilities; decision making; speech; impairs memory (forgot what happen last night) Reduce feelings of self-consciousness & promotes relaxation Disinhibition theory: alcohol release behaviour normally inhibited in society (eg. Aggression & sex), as it depressed the brain Our anxiety about the social consequences of behaviour vanish after alcohol drinks Too much may cause coma & death (25 beers in an hour die) BAC rising: friendly, self-confident; falling: anger, fatigue Heavy drinking associated with: accidental death, injury, assault, unwanted sex, drunk driving, suicide, academic problems Experimental studies: alcohol retards sexual arousal; drinkers beliefs enhance sexual experience Fetal alcohol syndrome: drinking during pregnancy (physical underdevelopment, retarded)

4AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Stimulants uppers Excites the CNS Arouse body functions: alertness, elevated mood Caffeine & nicotine Increase heart & breathing rates Decrease appetite as blood sugar rises, energy & self-confidence get a boost Caffeine: coffee, tea, cocoa, soft drinks Elevates mood; improves task performance by reducing fatigue But also depends on the setting & personality of user Withdrawal symptoms: headache, fatigue; some reported depression, decrease alertness, activity & energy Nicotine: tobacco, cigarettes lungs, reaches the brain within 7 seconds Tolerance develop quickly (1 per day to 1 pack per day within few weeks) Psychological effects: ability to cope stress, calming effect Depressed appetite for sweet foods Craving can be psychological, social, environmental factors Amphetamines (speed) More powerful stimulants Speed up body functions Intense flash/rush immediately after injection, last for few minutes Feel high, sleepless Euphoria, high physical & mental energy (Aggression, extreme elation, loss of appetite) Perceptions of power & sociability Withdrawal symptoms :Headache, tiredness, irritability Can be addictive

Hallucinogens Change our perceptions Give us sensory images without input from senses Marijuana Mild hallucinogen Most common way: smoke through cigarettes Produce sense of relaxation & well-being Some alter sensory experiences & perception of time Not physically addictive, but will experience uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms (psychologically: sleep disturbance, nausea, restlessness) May have similar inhibition effects like alcohol, but also increase sensitivity to sound, smell, taste, color LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) Alter perceptual experience; only large doses cause vivid hallucinations

5AUSMAT Psychology 2012 In 60s, distributed to psychologists/psychiatrists, break down ego & facilitate psychotherapy; to experience schizophrenia Experiences cross-over different senses hearing colours, seeing sounds Not physical addictive, but easily psychological dependent Depends on users mood & expectation: can be intense pleasant images to absolute terror & panic (bad trip), may harm themselves/others Flashbacks could happen weeks, even years afterwards, can be triggered by entering a dark environment Ecstasy (MDMA) methylenedioxymethamphetamine Both stimulant & hallucinogen; Triggers the release of dopamine & serotonin Blocks serotonin reabsorption, prolong good feelings Prolonged use leads to damage to serotonin-producing neurons Reported feeling heightened emotions & feeling of connectedness with those around them, lowered defensiveness, increase comm ability Risk: immediate effect is dehydration, if it happens when user is dancing for long period of time, result in overheating, increase blood pressure & even death Long term effects: permanently depressed mood, memory loss, easily distracted & difficulties in complex tasks Medical (-) side: heart attacks, stroke, kidney failure, muscle breakdown (toxic) Psychoactive drugs Chemicals that change conscious awareness or perception Anti-anxiety drugs (Valium) Anti-anxiety drugs/depressants Minor tranquilizers Work to reduce activity of CNS Create feelings of calmness & relieve muscle tension Used with behavioural therapies, help ppl learn to cope with situation that cause extreme anxiety & panic attacks Psychological dependence Antidepressant drugs (Prozac, Nardil) Increasing the availability of norepinephrine/serotonin (nor-pine-ep-frin) (si-re-to-nin) Eg. Prozac is the brand name for Fluoextine (Flu-oxi-tin) Inhibiting enzyme that breaks down neurotransmitters, or block reabsorption of norepinephrine/serotonin Side effects: weight gain, dizziness Nardil -Inhibitor of the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO). By inhibiting MAO, prevents breakdown of serotonin, melatonin, norepinephrine, epnephrine, dopamine Antipsychotic drugs (Haldol) Depress responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli Reduce paranoia symptoms Treatment of schizo ppl (hallucinations, paranoia, delusions, withdrawal, apathy)

6AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Exercise (Myers, 2004) Improvement in physical health -Strengthen the heart, increasing blood flow & lower blood pressure & blood pressure reaction to stress Increase the production of mood-boosting neurotransmitters -Norepinephrine, serotonin, endorphins Positive effects of exercise Strengthen the heart, increasing blood flow & lower blood pressure & blood pressure reaction to stress Reduce the risks of heart attacks Adding 2 years to life expectancy Increase the production of mood-boosting neurotransmitters (eg. Norepinephrine, serotonin, endorphins)

McCann & Holmes (1984)

16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Before After

Depression Score

No Treatment Relaxation Aerobic Exercise

Mildly depressed female college students 1st group: relaxation 2nd group: aerobic exercise 3rd group: control No difference btwn the group before treatment 10 weeks later, reevaluated depression Because exercise is so effective in altering mood, often used as adjunct/alternative to drug therapy for depression & anxiety Exercise is as effective as drugs, better at stopping symptoms from reoccurring

Field & colleagues (2001) Students who engaged in high levels of exercise were: Less depressed

7AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Better relationship with parents Less drug use Better academic grades Anatomy & physiology Anatomy -The structure of body parts -Structure of brain & nervous system -Cut, stain, label, map the structures Physiology -How it works -Mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions -Study relationships btwn structure & functions, but rely on neuroanatomist Neuroanatomy Study anatomical organization of the brain 3 principal axes to describe human body -Rostral to caudal: Nose to tail -Dorsal to ventral: Back to front (stomach) -Medial to lateral: Side to side Ipsilateralthe same side Contralateralthe opposite side Anteriorfront Posteriorback

Nervous System Central (CNS) Peripheral (PNS)

Brain

Spinal Cord

Autonomic

Somatic

Sympathetic

Parasympathetic

8AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Central nervous system (CNS) Spinal cordlargest conduit for info going to & from the brain Center for all complex commands, decisions & evaluations that determine behaviour If connection btwn brain & spinal cord lost, spinal reflexes still present Reflex allows you to bypass the brain; interneuron btwn sensory & motor neurons allow the brain to send signals to prevent reflex response A stimulus from environment will cause automatic response, although the person may not be able to feel it Peripheral nervous system (PNS) This network of neurons all over the body receives info from outside world (through senses) & from muscles & glands within the body This info is sent to CNS Also sends info from CNS back to muscles & glands, for the body to function & behave 31 pairs of spinal nerves & 12 pairs of cranial nerves Most nerves combine both sensory & motor functions Cranial nerves carry sensory input from skin/motor output to muscles of the head/face & sensory info for vision, hearing, smell & balance Somatic nervous system -nerves going to muscles; coordinating body movements, receiving external stimuli, regulates activities under conscious control Autonomic nervous system -nerves connected to the heart, glands, & digestive & reproductive organs; autonomic activities Sympathetic -response to danger/stress, excites the body, increase blood pressure, heartbeat Parasympathetic -makes body calm, normal day-to-day living Spinal cord nerves Grey matter surrounded by white matter From each side of grey matter, 2 dorsal root & 2 ventral root Ventral horncontains motor neurons that affect muscles (motor) Dorsal hornreceives info regarding touch & sensation (sensory) Dorsal root gangliona bump on a dorsal root that contains cell bodies of neurons Grey matter Route sensory/motor stimulus to interneurons White Matter Z(myelin sheath)

Brain Mainly discovered through studies of brain damage/injuries Psychologists able to explain/predict some part of behaviours controlled by brain

9AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Hindbrain Primary responsibility: housekeeping, keep body working properly Control vital activities, no conscious control Base of the brain near the back of the skull Including brainstem (medulla & pons), cerebellum Control automatic behaviours & survival responses

Brainstem Control vital activities Damage often fatal (eg. Robert Kennedy, JFKs bro, assassinated case, damage his medulla, led to death) Pons Parasympatheticrespiration, waking, sleeping, dreaming Involved in balance, hearing & some parasympathetic functions Medulla Essentially an extension of the spinal cord, thus many nerve fibres pass through it carrying info to & from brain Deal with autonomic functions -Eg. Breathing, swallowing, muscle tone, muscle coordination Cerebellum Little brain in Latin Coordinating voluntary movements, balance, posture Balance: falling-down drunk is partly due to alcohol-induced depression of neural activity in cerebellum Smooth muscle coordination: e.g. playing piano Damage: lack of muscle tone, stumbling & poor coordination Corpus Callosum Cerebral cortex

Pons

Thalamus

Cerebellum

Hypothalamus Medulla Mild brain

Midbrain

10AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Sits on top of brainstem under cerebral hemispheres Like the brains sensory switchboard Reflex centre for dealing with hearing, seeing, tasting & touching Orient eyes & body movements to visual & auditory stimuli Helps to control important postural systems, particular those associated with senses E.g. controls automatic movement of eyes that keeps them fixed on an object as head moves Control automatic movements of head that orient the ears to sources of sound Forebrain Most highly developed & largest part of brain Plays major role in how we think, feel & behave Including thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, corpus callosum Thalamus Central switching station Primarily routes sensory msgs to appropriate areas of brain Filtering & preliminary processing sensory information Damage may result in deafness, blindness, misinterpret/not receive vital sensory info (eg. schizophrenia) Hypothalamus Master control centre Small but vitally important part of brain Very involved with motives & emotions Plays key role in regulating temp, sleep, hunger, thirst, sexual drive, maintaining normal pace of blood pressure & heartbeat Thus, is most directly linked to ANS It also involves in pleasure & reward centres Rats continuously press lever to receive electrical stimulation in certain parts of hypothalamus Also regulate fight-flight process Corpus callosum A thick band of fibres that allows messages to be sent from one hemisphere to the other L hemisphere get sensory info from R body If connection is cut, then R hand doesnt know what L hand is doing Hemisphere Brain specialization is not all or nothing, its a matter of degree Right hemisphere Good at music & arts, doing jigsaws, spatial (follow maps, recognise faces) Nonverbal activities Recognition of faces, patterns & melodies, spatial, drawing, processing information

11AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Left hemisphere Good at language & maths, reason & interpret info Rhythm, movements like talking & walking

Language functions Speaking Reading Writing Understanding language

Nonverbal abilities Music & art Perceptual Spatial abilities Emotional expressions Face recognition Patterns & melodies Synthetic Figures things out by combining to form whole

Analytical Figures things out step-bystep

Control right side of the body

Control left side of the body

Cerebral cortex Largest structure in forebrain Grey mattergrey appearance becoz presence of the cell bodies of neurons (can be seen clearly in MRI) Area inch below is called white matter becoz of axons of neurons (myelin sheath) Phrenology paved the way to study cerebral cortex What makes human brain differentproportion of brain is larger & contains 75% of neurons in CNS Wrinkles of the cortexIQ; animals have smooth cortexlower IQ & superior sensory sensitivity & speed Cortex is divided into 2 hemispheres, connected by corpus callosum Controlling conscious experience & IQ Has 4 sections/lobes Frontal lobe Involved in planning, organizing, thinking, decision making, memory, voluntary motor movements & speech speech production, higher mental ability & movement control

12AUSMAT Psychology 2012 DamagedAffects speech, personality change dramatically, reasoning & problem solving Involved in the control of voluntary movements of body Motor area: near the middle of the top of the head, damage can result in paralysis/loss of motor control Plays a role in regulation of emotion & socially inappropriate behaviours Temporal lobe Involves in auditory perception, language comprehension Located very near to ears Broca production of language (damage: speech is difficult to initiate, non-fluent, labored, halting. Writing difficult as well) Wernicke understanding of written and spoken language (loss of ability to understand language, word salad) Damagedlanguage ability -Damage results in language abilities (can speak fluently but cannot understand what others are speaking) -They can read, but do not understand what they read -Though they can make normal speech sounds, what they say typically makes little sense Occipital lobe Receives and processes visual information Though located farthest from the eyes, its the visual area Plays important role in processing sensory info from the eyes Separate areas work together to specify properties eg. Shape, color, motions Damagepartial/complete blindness, though eyes function normally Detect idv components of a scene (eg. Color, movements & forms) Parietal lobe Important to sense of touch & temperature, tell us where our hands & feet are & what they are doing Receives sensory information from body Involved in spatial location, attention, movement control Damaged: Reduction in bodily feelings Association cortex Other parts of cerebral than lobes, called association cortex Not sensory in the customary sense, but are involved in advanced stages of sensory info processing Learn about functions through brain injury patients Combine info from other senses Involves in interpreting, integrating, acting on information processed by other parts of brain Damaged: Affects language (Eg. Poor pronunciation, slurred speech) Lobe Cortex

13AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Frontal lobe motor cortex Temporal lobe auditory cortex Occipital lobe visual cortex Parietal lobe sensory cortex

Physiological psychology Studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behaviour through direct manipulation of the brains of animals Focus on dev of theories that explain brain-behaviour relationships rather than dev research that has translational (applied) value Links the knowledge about the structure of brain to behaviour Learn by accidents, disease, injury Experimental study in animals Neuropsychological testing Aims to understand any problem with the brain & how it affects behaviour & personality Investigate functional impairments Neuropsychologist:-Studies the structure & function of brain related to specific psychological processes -Observe how they speak, think, memory -Create rehabilitation program to suit management of the problem & patients circumstances -Rehabilitation rather than cure is the usual option for BI Clinical techniques Initially can only study the brain after ppl deceased Ablation Destruction or surgical removal of part of the brain Usually conducted visually, using suction to remove the tissue Eg. Alzheimers Early researchers also rely on case studies, observations of living ppl May result in changes in: -personality, -behaviour, or -intelligence Lesions Destruction or surgical removal of part of the brain May result in changes in: -personality, -behaviour, or -intelligence Electrical stimulation Insert small electrical wires to destroy tissue deeper in brain

14AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Weak stimulation activate areas of the brain 1958, Penfield mapped the surface of brain & found different areas have different functions Brain images EEG (Electroencephalograph) Measures brain waves, electrical activity in brain Use electrodes attached to a persons scalp Different patterns indicate problems (eg. Epilepsy, tumours) or beh (sleeping, hypnosis) CAT (Computerised Axial Tomography) Uses X-ray to produce 2D image of the brain CAT scans 180 degrees, measurement every one degree Detect tumours, strokes, thus changes in behv & personality Least expensive, thus widely used in research Eg. Dried up (atrophied) areas of brain that due to Alzheimers disease MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Uses magnetic field to produce 3D image of the brain Create 3D pics, slice can be displayed Aid in finding out reasons for changed behaviour & personality Functional MRI (fMRI) Measures brain activity when neurons are consuming oxygen Most recent form of MRI, faster When part of brain is activated, contains oxygen-rich blood (can be measured through MR), HI O2 HI haemoglobin, contain iron Haemoglobin oxygen transport metalloprotein, oxygen binding capacity, transport O2 from lungs to the rest of the body BOLD (Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent signal) Hi BOLDIncreased O2 level Useful to learn visual processing, reading, cog activities PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Radioactive form of glucose ~ injected to the bloodstream Trace glucose consumption of the brain Radioactive tracer that decays by emitting a positron is injected into the bloodstream Sugar is weakly radioactive & PET shows which part of brain use more energy PC generate pics based on metabolic info Human & animal research Only about 8% of psychological research is done with animals Many physiological work is done on animals due to ethics (controlling life, long period of study, risks)

15AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Pet owning causes much more suffering among animals than scientific research -Pet owners dont require permission to house their pets; inspections to ensure house is clean & sanitary, enough space to exercise -Only 0.3% animals used for research, yet 63% pages talked about it Benefits of animal research Similarities between animal brain & human brain Ethical issues Drawbacks of animal research Human brain has advanced corticalisation More areas of specialisation Cortical localisation Human Research Case studiessometimes nearby brain area takes over the functions of a damaged area, which may mask behavioural consequences of the injury Study brain activities while people are engaged in normal living activities Use human case studies Drawback: cannot be generalised Illustrations, cannot be used to test hypotheses

Brain-injured people Accidents, strokes Phineas Gage case(1848) J.Z. (1992), 33 y.o. Found out from Phineas Gage case (1848) Before: polite & hardworking, foreman for railroad Packing blasting powder into a hole in the rock with a long tamping rod when the explosion happened Rod shot completely through his left frontal lobe Regain consciousness immediately, able to talk & walk with aid of his men No impairments: speech, motor skills, learning, memory, IQ After: irritable, publicly profane, maths reasoning, problems with language (reading, writing, speaking) Another case 150 yrs later, described by psychologists Meyers (1992) 33 yr old J.Z. had surgery removed tumor from the same area like Gage Before: honest, stable, reliable worker & husband After: irritable, dishonest, irresponsible, grandiose Split-brain studies People who had surgery to reduce severe epileptic seizures Split-brain research

16AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Gages case damage to L hemisphere led to the belief the silent R hemisphere, lacking special functions But this change due to split-brain research To control neurological diseases, cut the corpus callosum to prevent seizures from spreading is necessary, last option Epileptic seizures a disorder of the nervous system, Mild, episodic loss of attention/sleepiness Severe, involuntary muscle contraction with loss of consciousness After that 2 hemisphere have much less capacity to exchange info Experiments are performed on these patients to gain knowledge Might be difficult to notice differences in daily living Psychologists: Seated in front of screen, stare at a spot in the middle Projector flashed word on 1 side of screen, thus only seen by L/R visual field of eye Word presented in R, info send to L hemisphere (language control areas), no problem Word presented in L, patient not able to response when asked what was presented Does not mean R brain did not receive/understand the word pencil It only means patient cannot verbalize what he sees Patient can easily picked a pencil out of other objects, only if he uses L hand, which received msg from R cerebral cortex

Learning The process by which practice or experience results in a relatively permanent change in behavior

17AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Learning usually refers to classroom activities, but psychologists are most interested in the broader perspective of learning The process by which practice or experience results in a relatively permanent change in behaviour Not temp & by experiences not bio cause, eg. drugs Change in behaviour is not always immediately obvious It doesnt restrict to intentionally produced changes in behaviour/even to desirable changes in behaviour E.g. Hate tuna sandwiches becoz you got sick after eating one

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Do research on digestions in dogs, implanted tubes in cheeks to study reflexive secretion of saliva while eating Salivating started when attendant entered room with food, before food placed in mouth Noticed when dog see food, they salivate Dogs associate the sight of food with salivate Dog see food, dog salivate Dog hear bell, dog see food, dog salivate Dog hear bell, dog salivate Discover something important in learningconditioning Inherited reflex (salivation) triggered by stimulus that has nothing to do with the reflex (bell)

Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus Stimulus that can elicit inborn response without any learning (eg. food) Unconditioned Response

18AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Unlearned, inborn reaction to the unconditioned stimulus (eg. Salivation) Conditioned Stimulus Originally did not elicit the response, but it acquired the ability to elicit response because it was paired with the US (eg. Bell) Conditioned Response When a response is elicited by the conditioned stimulus, its referred as CR (eg. Salivation due to bell) Association Key element in classical conditioning E.g. visit seashore with a friend, visiting seashore by yourself may trigger memories of the friend Timing Timing btwn association of 2 stimuli is highly important Longer time intervals, less effective

Before Conditioning Bell (NS) No Respond

Food (US)

Salivation (UR)

Before Conditioning Bell (NS) Food (US)

Salivation (UR) Bell (CS) After Conditioning Salivation (CR)

19AUSMAT Psychology 2012

Operant Conditioning Behaviour is followed by a reward or punishment Perform behaviour to gain a reward or avoid a punishment Eg. If you come to college & park at for President only & car was towed away everyday, you would probably stop parking there Eg. If you were to sit in a new seat in class & interesting ppl started to talk to you, you would probably start sitting there everyday To some extent, the freq ppl do things increase/decrease depending on the consequences of their actions Thorndike Leader in animal behaviour study in US, dev of intelligence test in human Puzzle Box Law of Effect Proposed that animals learn responses which have rewarding consequences & drop responses that are punishing Animals learn responses which have rewarding consequences Animals drop responses that have punishing consequences

Reinforcement A stimulus or event that follows a behaviour and makes that behaviour more likely to occur again (+) reinforcement -Gives something rewarding after the behaviour has occurred, behaviour more likely to occur again -Eg. Giving the boy a sweet every time he answers correctly -Timing: (+) reinforcer must be given within a short time following the response, or learning processll be slow; greater delay, slower learning

20AUSMAT Psychology 2012 -Consistency: (+) reinforcement must be given consistently at the beginning of the learning process, after that its not always necessary/desirable (-) reinforcement -Removes something unpleasant, behaviour more likely to occur again -Eg. Taking an aspirin to relieve a headache Punishment A stimulus or event that follows a behaviour and makes that behaviour less likely to occur again Effective punishment Occur as soon as possible after the behaviour Sufficient Consistent B. F. Skinner (1904 1990) -To understand behaviour, it must be observable Observational Learning Albert Bandura (1925 - ) -Modeling Started off as behaviourists but too simple for his aggression studies, modeling demonstrate the role of cognition in learning Learning based on observation of the behaviour of another, appropriate behaviours in a given situation Eg. Pattern of speech, dressing style, how we bring up children Cognitive learning takes place through watching, before any chance of occurring of the behaviour/ reinforcement Dont imitate all the behaviours, but only those that are reinforced than punished (also ppl whore authority, attractive, likable, successful) -Reciprocal Determinism (shared) A person's behaviour both influences the environment and is influenced by the environment -Eg. The child doesn't like going to school therefore he/she acts out in class (person) This results in teachers & classmates disliking having the child around (environment) The child admits he/she hates school and other peers don't like him, thus he acts out (cycle) Behaviour Modification Application of classical & operant conditioning techniques to human behaviour & learning Uses reinforcement (sometimes punishment) to modify/change unwanted behaviours & strengthen desirable ones Aim to alter indvs environment & how indv interacts with environment But not interested in why the person fears Sometimes called behaviour therapy Used to treat psychological problems (eg. Fears/phobias)

21AUSMAT Psychology 2012 Token economies Artificial system of rewards & reinforcement where symbolic markers are used to reward behaviour (eg. stars, fake money) These markers can be exchanged for something more tangible (eg. Goods & privileges) Often used in classrooms, psychiatric hospitals, prisons to alter undesirable behaviours Better than reinforcement becoz ppl never get full (eg. choice of DVD, new tshirts), thus behaviours are likely to continue Criticism: when used in hospitals & prison, will improvement in behaviour be maintained after they leave? Tokens need to be replaced with other social reinforcers & this is often not successful Systematic Desensitization A type of behaviour therapy to help effectively overcome phobias and anxiety disorders Application of classical conditioning to fears/phobias Fears/phobias are regarded as undesirable behaviours, thus need to replace with productive & desirable behaviours Systematic desensitization is also called graded exposure Graded Exposure The extent of the problem (eg. Small? Big? All? Live spiders?) Specific event that triggers & how much it interferes with daily living relaxation skills to control fear & anxiety responses to specific phobias Overcome situations in an established hierarchy (least to most) of fears The goal is that an individual will learn to cope and overcome the fear in each step of the hierarchy Add with relaxation + cognitive arguments