http://www.final-yearprojects.co.

cc/ OBJECTIVE
COUNTER DISPLAY CODES (FND, L.E.D.LCD) TRANSFORMER CAPACITOR DIODE RESISTANCE TRANSISTOR SEMICONDUCTOR INTEGRATED CIRCUIT PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB) ELECTRIC CURRENT DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT POWER SUPPLY METHOD DC MOTOR

http://www.final-yearprojects.co.cc/

COUNTER

COUNTER
PROJECT SPECIALS
This project is multipurpose and used in many other projects. IC 4033 has been used in this project. With the help of this project you can very easily count and see up to 99 in this FND counter. This project is a novelty in the electronic world. LDR has been used in this project. When light falls on a LDR it changes its internal resistance (more or less) according to amount of light falling it.

TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION AND WORKING

The IC 4033 is decade counter and 7 segment Decoder. Working of this project is very simple. We get triangular pulse from pin no 1 of IC 4033, when light falls on the LDR. The pin no 5 carries output and pin no 15 is the reset pin. One no is increased on output display when positive going pulse is received on pin 1 of IC 4033. on getting second pulse on more no. is added. When 0 to 9 cycle is completed then 1 positive going pulse is received on pin 5. This positive going pulse increases 1 no on ICs tens. Like this it goes up to the no. 99. further increase of positive pulse gibe 00 on the display. If no. of IC 4033 is made 3 in the project, then display of no will be 999. the reset pin if not used in the circuit. To reset the circuit pin no 15 is earthed through a 10K resistance and on button is

pressed on positive supply point. When the light falls on LDR its resistance gets reduced and voltage becomes LOW on the pin no 1. if light is interrupted for a moment on LDR, then resistance of LDR becomes high and due to this input pin no 1 becomes HIGH. Again its becomes LOW, if light falls over the LDR. Like this 1 pulse is produced in each case and 1 no. increase on the display.

PRECAUTIONS WHILE ASSENBLING THE PROJECT

Use IC base for CMOS IC. Never solder this IC on directly on PCB. Anti-static charge spoils the IC. So do not touch with hands. Human body gets charge with electrical current due to anti-static charge. Never solder IC and FND directly on PCB. There is possibility of parts getting spoiled due to leakage current from the soldering iron.

LIST OF COMPONENTS
PCB=1 RESISTANCE R1=14 R2=1 R3=1 SEMICONDUCTOR IC4033-2 FND [COMMON CATHODE] PUSH TO SWITCH=1

OTHERS
CABINET=1 DC SUPPLY 9V=1

DISPLAY CODES (FND, L.E.D., LCD)

DISPLAY CODES (FND,L.E.D., LCD)

In digital system, the output or the result is displayed as digits on a display unit. These numbers are displayed, on a cathode ray tube, pocket calculator, digital voltmeters, digital watches and many other devices by a code known as seven segment display code. Mostly pocket calculators or computers use BCD number system. First this code is converted into seven segment code with the help of a logic circuit and then used for display. Fig. 2.7 shows the display of decimal numbers in seven segment display. Fig. 2.8 shows the different seven segments. S0,S1,S2,S3,S4,S5,S6 in decimal representation. These segment can have any value from 0 or 1 indicating either the segment is present or absent. The state of various 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Decimal digits in seven-segment code

Segment for decimal numbers from 0 through 9 are given in table 2.8 for seven segment code. Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and liquid crystal diodes (LCDs) are common light sources in a seven segment read out and are discussed in the next section. The encoder and driver circuits are discussed in 4th chapter. Seven segment display code Segments decimal digit 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 S6 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 S5 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 S4 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 S3 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 S2 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 S1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 S0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Light emitting diodes abbreviated as LED are diodes which emits light when forward-biased. The radiated emotions may be visible (red, green, yellow or orange) or

invisible (infra-red) depending upon the elements used in fabricating the diode. When a diode (such as GaAsP and GaP discrete light emitting diodes) is forward biased, free electron cross over the junction and are trapped in the holes. While this recombination takes place, the free electron jumps from their high energy level to a lower one and as a result some energy is radiated out in the from of light (in case of LED). This radiated energy goes off in the form of heat energy in case of rectifier diode. By using elements such as Gallium, Arsenic and phosphorus the colour of the radiated energy can be red, green, yellow, orange and infrared. Such LEDs are used in digital instruments, calculators and watches etc. The infra-red LEDs are used in burglar alarm and other devices requiring invisible light. LED (solid state GaAs and GaP) provide a complete line of numeric and alphanumeric displays, electrically compatible with LSI microprocessors. The advantage of LEDs are their long life (1000,000 hours) availability in different colours, they are mini-sized allowing front panel density and easy panel mounting with high luminous intensity at low cost. These are vibration and shockresistant and present wide viewing angles for alphanumeric displays. LEDs can be directly driven from diode-transistor logic and transistor logic. The LED display are available in plastic-encapsulated or hermetic packages with a luminous intensity of 0.7 to 1.8 milli canadala (mcd) at a forward voltage of 1.6V and 20mA. The response time of these LEDs is around 15 ns.

Displays capable of producting the alphanumeric characters, using the 5*7 dot arrays of GaAsP LED, are now a days available in the market. These display have built in decoder drive. These arrays X-Y addressable to allow a simple addressing decoding and driving scheme between the display module and the external logic.

Liquid crystal displays(LCD)

LCDs as used in watches are twisted nematic, field effect devices. Liquid crystals are sandwiched between front and back planes in thin glass to make a plastic or glass case. Following are some characteristic features of liquid crystal display. (1) To align liquid crystal molecules, transparent conductor patterns are coated inside glass planes with a special chemical film. (2) Liquid crystals have the property intermediate to liquids and solid with a finite range of tempreture. (3) They require low voltage and current, thus can be driven directly by low current CMOS circuits. They have a light-sensing capability to increase the intensity of display in bright ambient light, while reducing it in the dim light. The typical power consumption is 1 W and are most suitable for applications where power considerations are critical. Liquid crystal without plastic polarizers are available. Dynamic-scattering display are also available. These liquid crystals consist of two glass plates with liquid

crystal in between. Normally, the back plate coated with a thin, transparent layer of conductive material. The from plate has a photo etched conductive coating, such as seven segment pattern. When no power is applied to the plates, the molecules of the liquid crystal align themselves either parallel to the glass plates or perpendicular and appear transparent. But when a voltage is applied it causes the molecules to scatter and the liquid crystal then reflects ambient light and appears milky white. A dynamic scattering display like this produces light characters on a dark black ground.+

TRANSFORMER

TRANSFORMER
TRANSFORMER is a device that increases or decreases the voltage of alternating current. Is electric current that regularly reverses its direction. Transformers provide a simply, inexpensive way to change such voltage. They enable electric power companies to transmit alternating current easily and efficiently. They also ensure the proper voltage for the circuit of home appliances and other electric equipment. Most transformer consist of two coils of insulated wire. One coil, known as the primary winding, is connected to the source of the voltage that is to be changed. This other coil, called the secondary winding , supplies the output voltage to the describe circuit. In most transformers, the primary and secondary windings are wound around a hollow core made of thin iron or steel sheets. Most core have the shape of a ring or a square. The two coils are not connected to each other. Transformer work by electromagnetic induction. When the input voltage is applied to the primary winding, it generates alternating current in the coil. As the current flows, it sets up a changing magnetic field in the transformer. When this changing magnetic field passes through the secondary winding, it produces alternating voltage in the coil. If the secondary winding is connected to

a circuit, the output voltage causes alternating current to flow through the circuit.

The ratio between a transformers output voltage equal the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary winding to the number of turns in the secondary winding to the number in the primary winding. If V represents the voltage and N stand for the number of turns, then the ratio <IT>v<EIT>output/input =<IT>N<EIT> secondary/primary. The output voltage will be greater then the input voltage in a transformer whose secondary winding has more turns then the primary winding. Such a transformer is called a step up transformer. If the secondary

coil has fewer turn then the primary, the output voltage will be less then the input voltage. This type of transformer is called a step-down transformer. In power plants, step-up transformers increase the voltage of the alternating current produced by generators. High voltages make it possible to transmit the current over long distance with only a small loss in power. When the current reaches the area where it will be used, step-down transformers and powdered iron core transformers are designed to handle highfrequency alternating currents. Instrument transformers are used in measuring extremely large alternating voltages and currents. Variable transformers vary the amount of output voltage delivered to a circuit.

CAPACITOR

CAPACITOR
Capacitor is a device that storage electric energy in the form of electric charge. Capacitor have many use in electric and electronic circuit. For example, they can smooth the flow of an alternating current. They also block the flow of a direct current. In combination with other devices, capacitor can be used to tune radios and television sets to different station. The capacitor used in todays integrated electronic circuit are so tiny they can be seen only under a microscope. These circuits are used in calculators, digital watches, microcomputer, and many other kinds devices.

How a capacitor works:A capacitor consists of two metal plates with an insulating material called a dielectric between them. In most cases, wires connect the capacitor to a source of electricity, such as a battery. When an electric charge flows through the wires from one plate of the capacitor to other, both plates become charged-one with appositive charge and the other with a negative charge. The two plates then have a potential difference in energy, called a voltage between them. The plates will release their charge if their wires are disconnected from the source and touched together. The ability of a capacitor to store energy is called its capacitance. A capacitor with large plates and a thin

dielectric has a higher capacitance than one with small plates and a thick dielectric. Capacitance also depends on how will the dielectric acts as an insulator.

Kinds of capacitor:Capacitors are made from many materials and in a variety of shapes and sizes. Capacitors are classified by the insulating material they use as a dielectric. The materials commonly used include ceramics, glass, mica, plastics and paper soaked in oil. For example one type of capacitor consist of a thin layer if plastic sandwiched between two long strips of aluminum foil. The plastic is the dielectric. The plastic and foil are rolled up to save space. Some capacitors are designed for special purposes. Electrolytic capacitors are often used in industry.

Especially by electricity generating companies. Between the plates of these capacitors is a sheet of thin paper has been dipped in an electrolyte (solution that conducts electricity).The electrolyte causes a dielectric barrier to form on the surface of one of the plates. Oil capacitors are chiefly used in devices that require high voltage. They have mineral oil as the dielectric between rows of plates. Tuning capacitors are used to tune radios and televisions to the desired stations. A type of tuning capacitors found in radios used air as a dielectric between two sets of plates. One sets of plates can slide between the plates of the other sets, changing the air apace between the plates and thus the capacitors. Farad is a unit used to measure electrical capacitance. It named after the English Physicist michael faraday, and its symbol is F. The electric charge in capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference (voltage) applied to it. If one coulomb of charge gives a capacitor a potential difference of one volt, the capacitance is one farad. In electronics, the microfarad and the pico farad are coulomb is a unit in the metric system measuring electric charge. It is the quantity of electricity that flows through a conductor in one second when the current is one ampere. An electric current carrying one coulomb per second is called a current of one ampere. The name coulomb was given to the unit to honour the French physicist charles Augustin De coulomb.

DIODE

DIODE
Electron tube, evacuated glass or metal envelope containing two electrodes, a cathode and an anode. It is used as a rectifier and as a detector in electronic circuits such as radio and television receivers. When a positive voltage is applied to the anode (or plate), electrons emitted from the heated cathode flow to the plate and return to the cathode through an external load. If a negative voltage is applied to the plate, electrons cannot escape from the cathode and no plate current flows. Thus a diode permits electrons to flow from the cathode to plate, but not from plate to cathode. If an alternating voltage is applied to the plate, current flows only during the time when the plate is positive. The alternating voltage is said to be rectified, or converted to dc (direct current).

In the indirectly heated cathode type of tube shown in the illustration, the electron emitter consist of a metallic cylinder, usually nickel, coated with an electron emitter, such as a mixture of barium and strontium oxide. The heat is provided by a coil of wire (heater) located inside the sleeve but insulated from it. In the directly heated cathode (right), the heater wire itself serves as the source of electrons and is referred to as the filament. Solid-state rectifiers, which have largely replaced the vacuum type, are also frequency referred to as diodes.

(LED)
In electronics, a semiconductor diode that emits infrared or visible light (electro luminescence) when charge with an electric current. Visible LEDs are used in many electronic devices as indicator lamps and, when arrange in a matrix, as alphanumeric displays. Infrared LEDs are applied in optoelectronics, such as in auto focus cameras and television remote controls, and as light sources in some long range optical-fiber communication systems. LEDs are formed by the so-called 3-5 compound semiconductors relate to gallium arsenate. Compared to a laser diode, an LED also consumes little power but has a simpler configuration and wider bandwidth.

Semiconductor device two- terminal junction devices schottky diode

Such a diode is one that has a metal-semiconductor contact (e.g. aluminum layer in intimate contact with an n-type silicon substrate). It is named for the German physicist Walter H. Schottky, who in 1938 explained the rectifying behavior of this kind of contact. The Schottky diode is electrically similar to a p-n junction, through the current flow in the diode is due primarily to majority carrier having an inherently fast response. It is used extensively for high frequency, low-noise mixer and switching circuits. Metalsemiconductor contacts can also be no rectifying; i.e. the contact has a negligible resistance regardless of the polarity of the applied voltage. Such a contact is called an ohmic contact. All semiconductor devices as well as integrated circuits need ohmic contacts to make connections to other devices in an electronic system. The p-I-n diode A p-i-n diode is a p-n junction with an impurity profile tailored so that an intrinsic layer, the i region, is sandwiched between a p layer and as n layer. The p-i-n diode has found wide application in microwave circuits. It can be used as a microwave switch with essentially constant depletion-layer capacitance (equal to that of a parallel-plate capacitor having a distance between the plates equal to the i-region thickness) and high powerhandling capability.

Rectifier
This type of p-n junction diode is specifically designed to rectify an alternating current-i.e., to give a low resistance flows in one direction and a very high resistance in the other direction. Such diodes are generally designed for use as power-rectifying devices that operate at frequencies from 50 hertz to 50 kilohertz. The majority of rectifiers have power-dissipation capabilities from 0.1 to 10 watts and a reverse breakdown voltage from 50 to more than 5,000 volts. (a high-voltage rectifier is made from two or more p-n junctions connected in series.)

Zener diode
This voltage regulator is p-n junction diode that has a precisely tailored impurity distribution to provide a welldefined breakdown voltage. It can be designed to have a breakdown voltage over a wide range from 0.1 volt to thousands of volts. The zener diode is operated in the reverse direction to serve as a constant voltage source, as a reference voltage for a regulated power supply, and as a protective device against voltage and current transients.

Varactor diode
A varactor (variable reactor) is a devices whose reactance can be varied in a controlled manner with a bias voltage. It is a p-n junction with a special impurity profile,

and its capacitance variation is very sensitive to reversebias voltage. Varactors are widely used in parametric amplification, harmonic generation, maxing, detection, and voltage-variable tuning applications.

Tunnel diode
A tunnel diode consists of a single p-n junction in which both the p and n sides are heavily doped with impurities. The depletion layer is very narrow (about 100 angstroms). Under forward biases, the electrons can tunnel or pass directly through the junction, producing a negative resistance effect (i.e. the current decreases with increasing voltage). Because of its short tunneling time across the junction and its inherent low noise (random fluctuations either of current passing through a devices or of voltage developed across it), the tunnel diode is used in special low-power microwave applications, such as a local oscillator and a frequency-locking circuit.

Silicon
Exceedingly hard, synthetically produced crystalline compound of silicon and carbon. Its chemical formula is SiC. Since the late 19th century silicon carbide has been as important material for sandpapers, grinding wheels, and cutting tools. More recently, it has found application in refractory linings and heating elements for industrial furnaces, in wear resistant parts for pumps and rocket

engines, and in semi conducting substrates for light-emtting diodes.

Magnetron
Diode vacuum tube consisting of a cylindrical (straight wire) cathode and a coaxial anode, between which a dc (direct current) potential creates an electric field. A magnetic field is applied longitudinally by an external magnet. Connected to a resonant line, it can act as an oscillator. Magnetrons are capable of generating extremely high frequencies and also short bursts of very high power. They are an important source of power in radar system and in microwave ovens.

RESISTANCE

RESISTANCE
Resistance opposes the flow of electrically and consumes power from the circuit by changing electric energy into heat. Electricians measure resistance in unit called ohms. Ohms law is expressed in the equation E = IR. This law states that the voltage (E) equals the current (I) multiplied by the resistance (R),through which the current flows. For example, if a current of 3 amperes passes through a resistance of 2 ohms, the voltage is 3 amperes X 2 ohms = 6 volts. In a series circuit, the total resistance equals the sum of the resistance of each device in the circuit. The addition of devices to a series circuit increases the resistance and thus decreases the total current. But in a parallel circuit, adding provided additional paths for the current and decreases the total resistance.

Connected to a variable resistor that can be adjusted to a known resistance. A devices called a galvanometer, which measures current, is connected to the top and bottom corners of the diamond to bridge the two halves of the circuit. The other corners are connected to a battery, which produces a current through the resistors. The variable resistor is adjusted until the voltage at the top and bottom corners of the circuit are equal. At this point, the galvanometer shows no current flows, and the circuit is said to be balanced. The unknown resistance can then be determined by multiplying the ration of the two known resistances by the variable resistance.

TRANSISTOR

TRANSISTOR
Transistor is a tiny device that controls the flow of electric current in radios, television sets, computers, and almost every other kind of electronic equipment. Transistors vary in size from about a thousandth of a millimeter to a few centimeters across. Transistors replaced electronic component called vacuum tubes almost completely in the 1960s because they have a number of advantage over vacuum tubes. For example, transistors are smaller, lighter, less expensive to operate, and more reliable than vacuum tubes. Transistors are the main component built in to computer chips, devices that carry out computer programs and other data. Some chips no larger than a fingernail contain millions of transistors. Large , individual transistors are called discrete transistors. Because of their size, these units can handle many times the power of transistors in chips. Uses if discrete transistors include providing the power for the speakers of high-fidelity sound system, the transmitters of the citizens band radios, and the motors of small applications; turning light on and off; and controlling energy flow through electric power lines.

WHAT TRANSISTORS DO A transistor has two basic function : (1) to switch electric on and off and (2) to amplify (strengthen) electric current. A weak voltage called the input signal controls both switching and amplification. Transistors in computers perform rapid switching operations manipulate electric charges that represent information as the 0s and 1s of the binary system. As the transistors move the charge about, electronic circuit carry out calculations, solve problems in logic, from words and picture on monitors, control printers, and problems all the other operations that we have come to associate with computers. Their ability to amplify signals makes transistors essential parts of radios and television sets. The broadcast waves that travel through the air generate weak current amplify these signals. Other components-including additional transistors use resulting strong current to produce sounds and pictures. TRANSISTOR MATERIAL

A transistor operates by controlling electric current across two p-n junctions. These junctions are places in a single semiconductor crystal where two kinds of material meet. The regions on two sides of a junction are doped (modified) in different ways. A semiconductor is a substance that conducts (carries) current better than does an insulator, such as wood or glass, but not as well as a conductor, such as silver or copper. Silicon is the most common semiconductor used for transistors. A minimum voltage must be applied across a semiconductor before any current will flow. In a conductor, any voltage-no matter how small- will cause current to flow. In an insulator, the voltage required to start to start a current would be so strong that the material would be destroyed when current flow did strat.

SEMICONDUCTOR

SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductor is a material that conducts electricity better than insulators like glass, but not as well as conductors like copper. Such material have made possible modern computers and other important electronic devices. The transistors used in tiny pocket radios are semiconductor devices. So are the solar cells that provide electric power in artificial satellites. Silicon is the somt widely used semiconductor material. Other semiconductor materials include cuprous oxide, germanium, gallium arsenate, gallium phosphide, indium arsenate, lead sulphide, selenium, and silicon carbide. Electronic device made semiconductor materials can perform many functions, including those of vacuum and gas-filled tubes. However, semiconductor devices have a number of advantages over these tubes. Semiconductor devices use much less power than tubes, they last longer, and they can be built much smaller. One example of a tiny semiconductor device is the silicon chip used in computers and calculators. These devices are also called microchips and can contain up to several millions of diodes or transistors on a single chip.

Like tubes, semiconductor devices can rectify (change alternating current to direct current). They can also amplify weak electric signals. Radios, televisions sets, and other electronic devices depend on rectifiers, amplifiers, ane oscillatora. Some semiconductor devices can make light, and others can detect light. Moss television camera tubes are semiconductor devices.

Basic principles
In ordinary copper wire, the copper atoms have electrons that are free to move from atom to atom. Such a flow of electrons makes up an electric current. In an ideal state, semiconductor materials would be insulators because they would have no free electrons. But if very small amounts of certain impurities such as antimony, arsenic, or phosphorus are present, s few free electrons as produced that can move and form an electric current. These semiconductors are known as n-type semiconductors. Another type of semiconductor, called p-type, is formed by adding small quantities of other impurities such as aluminum, boron, or gallium. These impurities take electrons away form a few atoms of the semiconductor. This lack of an electron in an atom is called a hole. A hole can pass from one atom another. A flow of such holes passing from atom to atom also forms an electric current. The abbreviation n means negative, referring to the negative charge of the electrons in n-type materials. Similarly, p means positive, referring to the positive charge associated with in p-type materials.

Semiconductor material must be exceptionally pure to work properly. Scientists have developed special techniques to obtain pure crystals of semiconductor material and to add right amounts of impurities. Semiconductor devices include semiconductor diodes, semiconductor lamp, semiconductor lasers, semiconductor radiation detectors, solar cells, and transistors. These devices are formed by making certain regions in a semiconductor either p or n type. Semiconductor diodes allow current to flow in only one direction, and are used as rectifiers. They have a piece of gallium arsenate, germanium, or silicon with an n-type region and p-type region. The area where the two regions touch is called a p-n junction. When the p-type region has a positive charge and the n-type region has a negative charge, the p-type attracts from the n-type, and the n-types attracts holes from p-type. Thus, electric current flows across the pn junction. If the p-type region is made negative and the ntype region is positive, almost no current will flow across the junction. The p-type then repels electrons in the n-type, and the n-type repels holes in the p-type. Other semiconductor diodes, such as the Esaki or tunnel, Gunn, IMPATT, and LSA diodes can oscillate. The generate high frequency radio waves that are used for communications, radar, or other purpose. Semiconductor lamps include tiny gallium phosphide diodes that produce light with little electric power. These lamps are used in many electronic devices. Semiconductor lasers produce

narrows beams of intense light. They are efficient lasers, but their light covers a wider frequency range than the light from other lasers. Semiconductor radiation detectors indicate the presence and intensity of gamma rays and X rays. These devices are widely used in scientific research. Solar cells change sunlight into electricity. They are made of slabs of silicon with p-n junction near the surface. Light knocks electrons out of the atoms, producing electrons and holes that flow to make an electric current. Transistors are used to amplify electrical signals, act as oscillators, or make that perform arithmetic and logic operations. Some transistors have more than on p-n junction.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
Integrated circuit is a tiny devices that controls electric signals in such electronic equipment as computers and television sets. Many integrated circuits contain thousands of electronic parts on a paper thin chip of silicon. These parts include capacitors, diodes, resistors, and transistors. The silicon chip may measure less than 4 millimeters square. An integrated circuit does many of the takes performed by a conventional circuit, which consist of separate connected together. Integrated circuits are much smaller than conventional circuits, cost less to build and operate, and work faster and more reliably. Scientists developed integrated circuits during the early 1996s for guided missiles and satellites. These circuits enabled them to design more advanced computers than could be built with conventional circuits. Structure Most integrated circuits are based on a silicon chip. Silicon is a semiconductor, a material that can be doped

(treated) to control electric signals. Manufacture use such substances as aluminum or boron as impurities to dope silicon. Chemical process add the impurities to specific areas of the chip. The kind and arrangement of the impurities determine how each area controls signals. Most areas serve as transistors. Other function mainly as capacitors, diodes, or resistors.

Integrated circuit are often classified according to the number to transistors they contain. These classification range from small scale integration (SSI), indicating 10 to 100 transistors, to very large scale integration (VLSI), indicating more than 100,000 transistors. Microprocessors and memory chips are example of VLSI circuits. Personal computers manufactured in the early 1980s contained memory chips with enough transistors a piece each chip to store about 16,000 bits (units) of information. Since then, manufacturers have steadily increased the number of

transistors on each new circuit. In 1990, manufacturers began producting chips that can store 4 million bits. The compact structure of an integrated circuit gives it many advantage over a conventional circuit. For example, an integrated circuit work faster, because electric signals travel shorter distances between parts of the circuit. Integrated circuits also make electronic equipment more reliable and easier to service. The circuits have fewer connections that might fail. If a part does fail, the entire circuit is simply replaced. How integrated circuits are made The manufacture of an integrated circuit begins with a wafer of silicon that has been doped with one of several types of impurities. The wafer measures from 2.5 to 15 centimeters in diameter. A photographic process reduces a layout (a large master design for the circuit) to microscopic size. Technicians use these microscopic design, called masks, to make hundreds of integrated circuit chips on one wafer. A high temperature process called diffusion bakes more impurities in to certain areas of the wafer. After the wafer has completed, it is divided into individual chips and wire connections are added to each one. The finished chips are mounted in ceramic, meta, or plastic containers for installation in various kinds of electronic equipment.

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB)

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB)

A printed circuit board addreviated as PCB, is a piece of bakelite insulating board. It defines all details of the circuit & partly also the final equipment. One side or both side of PCB is covered by the copper or silver layer. The metallic conductive path serves as a conducting path for the electronic components, which are mounted on the other side of PCB. Printed board are exclusively used for assembling electronic circuit due to its advantages, which are given below1. Easy adaptability to manufacture & modular design. 2. Provide uniformity in production. 3. Lower cost. 4. Virtually eliminate wiring errors & complexity. 5. Minimize assembly & inspection time. Types of PCBs Some popular PCB type are usually used in electronic applications, which are mentioned below-

Single sided PCB: The single sided PCBs are mostly used where manufacturing cot have to be kept of minimum. To jump over conductor tracks, components have to be utilized if this is not feasible, jumper wires are restricted economic reason. Flexible PCB: Flexible PCBs mainly used in military & aero space applications but now they are incorporated in many other fields like computers, industry etc. This may have the function of board ness or similar to a single PCB or a combination of both. Metal core PCB: In metal core boards, the typical resin or fuller laminate of ordinary PCB is replaced by sheets or metal covered with insulating material. Material of PCB: The number of different printed board material in common use in finite, the problem of material selection & quality control are always arises. A laminate can be obtained by pressing layers of fillers material impregnated wit resin under heat & pressure.

The basic required material of copper-laid boards arefillers, resin & copper foils. Fillers: Fillers are variety of a paper, glass in various forms such as cloth and continuous filament are used as reinforcing agent. The paper used are Kraft, alpha cellulose rag paper provides as electrically better lamination than the alpha cellulose paper. Resin: The fillers are embedded in a matrix of a resin when laminated. Matrix materials are phenol formaled Hyde resins. Epoxy much costlier. Polyesters have good electrical & mechanical properties. They also have a low chemical resistance. Copper coil: Copper coil forms the surface of copper clad laminate is manufactured by the process of electrode position. A thin film of copper metal is deposited on to a slowly rotating corrosion resistance metal cylinder. Whose lower portion is immersed in a copper rich electrolytic both. The rolls of foils, as removed from the plating machine, are called raw foil. It increases is the potential bank strength of that surface of the foil that is bounded. Design of PCB:

The design of PCB can be considered as well as a first Mayer steps in the production of PCBs. The designing of PCB consists of the layout by the preparation of artwork. The fabrications of PCB layout consist of following steps: 1. Layout planning 2. Drawing of layout one PCB i.e. printing 3. Etching 1. layout planning: to design a PCB layout means essentially to solve two tests one in to design the interconnection for the component other is to simultaneously minimize the magnitude & influence of the other parasitic effect connected with the realization of such interconnection. To prepare PCB, layout should be viewed from the component side. The circuit diagram should be clear and divided into t functional subunit. Each of these sub unit functional subunits. Each of these sub units should be released on defined portion of the PCB. The board, outlines connectors are mixed followed by stretching of the component outline with connecting line. Due to the continuous erasing, the grid paper gets damage & therefore a tracing paper is used. It makes all information drawn of the grade paper& tracking paper simultaneously.

ELECTRIC CURRENT DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

ELECTRIC CURRENT DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

Electric current Is the movement or flow of the electric charge? A charge can be either positive or negative. The protons that make up part of the nucleus of every atom have a positive electric charge. The electrons that surround the nucleus have a negative charge. An electric current can consist of positive, negative or both types of charges. The American statesman and scientist Benjamin Franklin originated the idea that electricity flows from positive to negative. But other scientist later proved that electricity actually flows in the opposite direction from negative to positive. Franklins idea also fails to describe the way electricity flows through metals. Each atom of the metal

wire has at least one electron that is not held so closely by the nucleus as the others are. Such loosely held electrons can move freely through the metal. But the nucleus cannot move through the wire. Thus, current flowing through a metal wire consists of free electrons. Conductors and insulators Electric current flows most easily through substances called conductors. The number of free electrons in a substance determines how well it conducts electricity. Such metals as aluminum, copper, silver and gold are good conductors because they have at least one free electron per atom. Some materials, such as lead and tin, are poorer conductors than others metals, because they have less then one free electron per atom. Poor conductors resist the flow of electricity more than good conductors do. Resistance changes electric energy into heat. Engineers use units called ohms to measure resistance. Substances with no free electrons, such as glass, mica and rubber do not normally conduct electricity. They are called insulators. Some substances, including germanium and silicon are neither good conductors nor insulators. They are called semiconductors. To produce an electric current, some type no electric energy must be converted into an electromotive force (emf). For example, a battery creates an emf by changing chemical energy into potential difference (difference in potential energy) between its ends that causes electrons to

flow in a conductor. EMF is measured in units called volts. An emf of one volt, when connected to a conductor with a resistance of one ohm, causes. 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons to flow past a point in the conductor in one second. This amount of electricity is called one ampere of current. Direct and alternating current An electric current is either direct or alternating, depending on its source. Direct current (DC) always flows in the same direction. It is produced by batteries and DC generators. Alternating current (AC) regularly reverse its direction of flow. It is produced by AC generators and is used in most homes. Each time AC completes two changes of direction, it goes through one cycle. The number of cycles per second is called the frequency of the AC. Frequency is measured in units called hertz. Power is generated at 50 hertz in some countries and 60 hertz in others. Direct current operates car electric systems, locomotives, and some types of motors used in industry. Radios, television sets, and other electronic devices use AC, but they also need DC to operate their internal circuits. Devices called rectifiers easily change AC into DC. Alternating current has several advantages over DC. Its major advantage is that power stations can transmit it

easily and efficiently. Electric current loses the least amount of energy when traveling at high voltages. But these high voltages are not safe to use in homes. Devices called transformers can easily increase or decrease AC voltage. DC voltage cannot be changed easily and efficiently.

POWER SUPPLY METHOD

Power supply method

Rectification section: In any type of electronic circuit, DC power is needed. The supply which is obtained from secondary winding of the transformer is AC. In order to convert this AC supply in DC, rectifier circuit is used. In this way, the section which converts AC supply in to DC supply is known as rectification section. The components used in this section are known as rectifier or diode. In this diodes are used in all the rectifier circuits as the basic components. The specialty of the diode is that is always conductors in one direction. Rectifier circuits can be divided into two parts: 1. 2. Half wave rectification, and Full wave rectification.

1. half wave rectification:

P-primary S-secondary In this circuit, a diode is connected at the secondary of the single winding transformer. When primary winding of the transformer gets the AC supply, than these voltage outs from secondary and comes on the negative end of the diode. This diode conducts only when positive half cycle of AC comes on its negative end, because this positive half cycle forward biases it (diode) and passes supply only during forward bias. During negative half cycle of AC, no current passes through diode because than diode is reverse biased. In this way, the DC which obtained at the two ends of load resistance, is in the from of half pulses, means a gap between the two positive pulses. Thus this type of DC is known as half wave DC and the circuit from which it is obtained is known as half wave rectifier circuit. http://www.final-yearprojects.co.cc/

If in this circuit the connected diodes are reversed than its half cycle of the AC supply this diode will get forward bias and thus negative half cycle will be found at output. In this way, by connecting a diode to one and end of the secondary winding half wave rectification can be obtained. 2. full wave rectification: in this half wave rectification, we get pulsating DC (DC in the from of pulses) at the output, and its frequency of the AC input. This type of DC cant be termed as good quality DC. For good quality DC it is vary necessary that there that must be no gap between the two half cycle, means there must be regular half pulses. In order to obtains such output special type of circuit is designed, which is knows as full wave rectifier. Full wave rectification is obtained from two types of circuits. (A) from two diodes circuits, and (B) from four diode circuit (bridge rectifier) A. full rectification using two diodes:-

In this rectifier circuit, two diodes are used and each one is connected on the two ends of secondary winding of double winding transformers (center tapped transformer) as shown in the fig.

According to the circuit, positive ends of both the diodes are connected with each other. Diode D1, conducts only when positive half cycle comes on its negative end. Similarly diode D2 conducts only when positive half cycle of AC comes on its negative end. On both of these diodes positive half cycle comes alternately, means when positive half cycle of AC comes on diode D1 than diode D2 gets half cycle and when diode D1 gets negative half cycle than diode D2 gets positive half cycle. In this way, diodes D1&D2 conducts alternately using every half cycle of AC. As a result of this DC is obtained at the output ends in which no gap remains left between the two continuous pulses. If in this circuit, connecting of both the diode are reversed than continuous negative pulses will be obtains from the common negative ends of diodes.

In this way, full wave rectification is obtained by connecting same polarity diode on both ends of the secondary of the double winding transformer. The frequency of the pulses found at the output is just double of the frequency of the input (50 c/s) means it is 100 c/s. B. FULL WAVE RECTIFICATION USING FOUR DIODES:

Full wave rectifier made by connecting four diodes on the secondary winding of the single winding transformer as

shown in the figure as known as bridge Rectifier. It is considered as best among all other rectifiers, so it is widely used.

DC MOTOR

DC MOTOR DC motor is operated with the help of battery or cell. These have constant have magnetic field due to which motor gives controlled speed. DC motor mainly consist of two parts first is immovable parts calls field and movable part is calls armature. Armature is made up of iron core. Armature consists of number of coils. Their ends are connected to the segment of commutator. Commutator is a copper ring which consists of three copper segments at similar distance in which three segment at similar distance in which three points remain outside or the three segments are made in such a way that they do not touch each other. The ends of winding of coils are connected to each of the segment and both ends of winding are connected to the PCB on the steel shaft of armature. This PCB is covered with than plastic washer. In order to control the speed of motor there are two centrifuge switches on PCB. There are two resistances parallel to this switch. During the working of the motor this switch close but if motor gets more voltage than it works on more than its speed. At that time contacts of centrifugal switch opens automatically and the current of the circuit will flow via resistance parallel to the centrifugal switch

due to which voltage of the motor decreases. In this way motor will run on its speed. When speed of the motor lowered contacts of this switch jointed again and the motor gets more voltage and this will control its speed. A screw on centrifugal switch adjust the speed of motor with the screw is loosed the speed of motor increases. For the working of motor, voltage is given to no the segment through carbon brush. In order to minimize the effect of sparking on amplifier circuit we can use resistance and condenser filter in the circuit of motor, so that sparing of motor will not affect amplifier. The cover of motor is round and its upper side consist of a brush through which steel shaft of armature comes out part under the cover of RC (resistance, condenser), filter circuit and carbon etc and a brush is present is which other end of steel shaft of armature is connected. Dont forget to visit:http://www.final-yearprojects.co.cc/