Energy Policy 30 (2002) 12251230

The diversity of hydropower projects

! a,*, Joseph C. Milewskib Dominique Egre
a

! Consultants Inc., 926 Saint-Maurice Street, Suite 302, Montre !al (Que !bec), Canada, H3C 1L7 Dominique Egre b Inter-American Development Bank, 1300 New York Ave. NW, Stop W0500, Washington, DC 20577, USA

Abstract Hydropower is based on a simple process, taking advantage of the kinetic energy freed by falling water. In practice, this process is applied in many different ways depending on the electrical services sought and the specic site conditions. Accordingly, there is a wide variety of hydroelectric projects, each providing different types of services and generating environmental and social impacts of different nature and magnitude. This article illustrates the necessity to evaluate each hydroelectric project in relation to the services it provides and to compare electricity supply projects on the basis of equivalent services provided to society. The impoundment and presence of a reservoir stand out as the most signicant sources of impacts. However, a reservoir also provides the highest level of electricity supply services: it is the most efcient means of storing large amounts of energy and a hydroelectric plant has the capacity of releasing this energy in quantities that can be adjusted instantly to electricity demand. Furthermore, a reservoir allows for many other uses besides energy storage such as the cost-effective development of run-of-river plants downstream with little environmental impacts. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hydropower; Environment; Impacts

1. Introduction Many hydropower plants built at the beginning of the 20th century are still operating today. The turbines installed at that time are still running at very high efciencies of 8090%. Indeed, hydropower is based on a simple process, taking advantage of the kinetic energy freed by falling water. In all hydroelectric generating stations, the rushing water drives a turbine, which converts the waters motion into mechanical and electrical energy. This simple process makes it the most efcient, reliable and versatile source of electricity. In practice, this process is applied in many different ways depending on the electrical services sought and the specic site conditions. Accordingly, there are a wide variety of hydroelectric projects, each providing different types of services and generating environmental and social impacts of different nature and magnitude. The following summary review illustrates the necessity to evaluate each hydroelectric project in relation to the services it offers and to compare electricity supply projects on the basis of equivalent services provided to
*Corresponding author. ! ), josephE-mail addresses: egrehoward@sympatico.ca (D. Egre m@iadb.org (J.C. Milewski).

society. The article rst describes the role of hydropower in electricity supply. It then describes various types of hydropower projects, with the specic electricity services they provide and how they differ in terms of environmental impacts.

2. Hydropower and electricity supply Although electricity demand varies signicantly during any given day and throughout the year, electricity cannot be stored, unlike energy sources such as wood, petrol, or gas. Electricity is thus characterized by the fact that any change in demand for power must instantly be matched by an equivalent adjustment in power generation. If demand increases and supply is not able to increase accordingly, then the voltage or pressure of the electric current drops, which can generate brownouts, stress on electric systems and power outages. This can result in major impacts on economic activities, basic services such as health, education, and security. In order to face the wide range of power demand, utilities combine diverse power plants whose services differ in terms of continuity of services. Some electricity generating plants are better suited to be operated as base

0301-4215/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 0 1 - 4 2 1 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 8 3 - 6

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plants, others as peaking plants. For example, nuclear power plants run optimally at a stable output, making them essentially base load generators. Hydropower plants in contrast may, depending on their design, provide electricity for base or for peak demand or both. This exibility in energy supply is one of the specic technical advantages of hydropower. Hydropower, then, may fulll different electricity services: (1) Base load and peak load generation: In regions where hydropower is very abundant, it satises both base and peak loads. The base load is produced by large or numerous reservoir-type projects, which store sufcient energy to cover several seasons of consumption and periods of dry weather, possibly combined, if available, with run-of-river plants (hydroplants which use the water ows in a river but which do not have a reservoir). The electricity needed to meet peak load is generated by installing extra water turbines at some power plants. This additional capacitythat functions only a few hundred to a thousand hours per yearprovides extra power when needed. (2) Peak load generation: In regions where hydropower is not so abundant, hydroelectric plants are used mostly for peak load, allowing for the best use to be made from other less exible electricity sources such as nuclear, coal, or oil based power plants. This second strategy is far more common than the rst, due to the limitation in available water resources in most parts of the world. This strategy also points at another inherent technical advantage of hydropower: the capacity to generate electricity practically instantly,

in 1 min or less, from the moment the order has been given to start production. Hydroelectricity is, from a technical point of view, very complementary to other sources of primary generation, supplying electricity on demand. In addition, due to the simplicity of designno combustion, no steam cycle, no radiation protection maintenance of hydropower plants is simplied and reliability is high.

3. Types of hydroelectric projects Hydropower projects can be classied in a number of ways, which are not mutually exclusive:
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by head (difference in height of the water level above and below the dam) (high or low), setting the type of hydraulic turbine to be used; by storage capacity (run-of-river or reservoir projects); by purpose (single or multipurpose); by size (large, small, micro), and so on.

The following sections aim to briey outline the energy services and the sources of environmental impacts produced by various types of projects. The proposed classication system therefore focuses on storage capacity, which mostly determines the extent of environmental impacts, as demonstrated in Table 1. Hence, we propose that hydroelectric projects be categorized as follows:
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reservoir-type projects with signicant storage capacity; run-of-river projects with little or no storage capacity;

Table 1 Types of hydroelectric projects Type of project Reservoir type Services provided Energy and power Main impact sources Changes of habitat and social impacts due to reservoir Modication of river ows Limited ooding River ows unchanged Impacts related to upper storage pool

Run-of-river

Base load with limited exibility

Pumped-storage

Power only Net consumer of energy Energy only

Cross-watershed diversion

Reduction of ow downstream of diversion Increase of ow in receiving stream Reduction of ow downstream of diversion Few additional impacts Impacts mainly due to reservoir Need to evaluate cumulative impacts of other water uses

In-stream diversion Upgrading Multipurpose

Energy and power Extends project life, sometimes with increased output Hydropower and other water uses

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pumped-storage projects; river diversion projects; Small, mini and microprojects.

3.2. Run-of-river projects This type of hydropower generation utilizes the ow of water within the natural range of the river. Therefore no or little reservoir impoundment takes place. They can be designed with small head, generally on large rivers with gentle gradients, or with high head, generally on small rivers with steep gradients. Run-of-river projects can use all the river ow or only a fraction of it. In the former case, as river ow changes throughout the year, inows into the plant change as well. Consequently, the amount of power produced by this type of run-of-river projects may vary considerably throughout the year since it depends on the river discharge. However, unless the period of higher ows coincide with peak demand, expanding the plants capacity is generally not cost-effective. Most run-ofriver plants are therefore conceived so as to provide the same power output all year long for the base demand, using only a fraction of the total river ow. A common strategy to optimize the energy output of hydropower plants on a river is to build a large storage reservoir in the upper catchment, which will even out ows for several run-of-river or smaller reservoir plants downstream. In all run-of-river projects, the absence of any sizable reservoir helps limit considerably both the social and the environmental impacts, as the river is not transformed into a lake. Furthermore, the ow pattern of the river remains essentially unchanged, which reduces downstream impacts of the project. 3.3. Pumped-storage projects Pumped-storage plants pump water into an upper storage basin during off-peak hours by using surplus electricity from base load power plants. They subsequently reverse ow to generate electricity during the daily peak load period. They are considered to be one of the most efcient technologies available for energy storage. The concept of pumping water back to the upper reservoir during off-peak hours means that these plants are net energy consumers: it takes more power to pump water up to the top reservoir than is produced by the plant when the water rushes down to the lower reservoir. Generally, from 65% to 75% of the electricity required by the pumping is recovered during the generation phase. Developing pumped-storage plants is cost effective when other plants in the grid produce mainly base energy with little exibility, such as coal power plants and/or nuclear stations. In such cases the cost of peak electricity can be twice as much or more than the cost of off-peak electricity. A small upper pool (often a few square kilometers or less in size) which empties very quickly on short

Since the upgrading of existing hydropower schemes has environmental consequences and may modify the energy service provided by the plant, this issue is also discussed. Finally, multipurpose projects, designed with several water uses in mind, are also addressed. 3.1. Reservoir-type projects Reservoir projects involve impounding water behind a dam to enable ow regulation throughout the year (on a daily or monthly basis) or even exceptionally on a multi-annual basis for very large reservoirs. The reservoir also provides a reserve of energy to satisfy electricity demand during dry seasons and/or periods of peak demand. Reservoir schemes offer a much broader range of potential energy benets than pure run-of-river schemes. The storage of energy is a fundamental asset of these projects as the production of the power plant can be adjusted to uctuations of power demand, both for base as well as for peak load. Furthermore, regulating a river allows for the development of multiple run-of-river power plants downstream, in effect re-using the same water to produce additional electricity, thereby reducing environmental and social impacts relative to power production. Regarding size, reservoirs vary in area by several orders of magnitude, depending on the height of the dam, local topography and the desired energy service expected. Some reservoirs cover a few square kilometers, others 5000 km2 or more (ICOLD, 1998). The latter provide the largest storage volumes and therefore energy security, but also, generally, the largest environmental impacts and certainly the most controversy. The environmental impacts of reservoir type projects are best documented, and originate from:
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the construction activities involved in building the dam, dikes, embankments and power plant; the presence of infrastructure (access roads, power lines, substations, etc.); the changes in river ow patterns; the creation of a reservoir, possibly generating major ecological changes from terrestrial and river environments to a lake-type environment, but also land use transformations, such as resettlement of communities and of production activities.

The magnitude of impacts is a function of site characteristics and the size of the project. These specic elements are discussed in other articles of this journal.

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intervalsonce or twice a weekcharacterizes pumpedstorage plants. The drawdown in the upper reservoir is therefore very signicant. These pools are often manmade and do not develop into a stable aquatic environment. Pumped-storage plants sometimes can use a river, a lake or an existing reservoir as the lower reservoir. In other cases, a new lower reservoir must be created whose characteristics (i.e. drawdown, size) depend on the sites topographic and hydraulic conditions. The environmental issues associated with pumpedstorage plants are mostly related to the siting of the upper pool, the powerhouse location (underground or above ground) and the nature of the lower reservoir ecosystem. These issues are essentially site-specic and can be addressed during the design phase of the project. 3.4. River diversion projects River diversion projects consist of: (1) In-stream diversion: A river may be dammed and diverted through tunnels into the mountain side to discharge further downstream back in its riverbed. (2) Cross-watershed diversion: This strategy will increase the ow of the receiving river where the power plant is located, and decrease the downstream ow of the diverted river. With regards to in-stream diversions, the result is to increase the head of the power plant, thereby increasing available power and energy. For cross-watershed diversions, the result is an increase in energy, this time by increasing the ow of the receiving stream where the power plant is located. The specic environmental impact of diversion projects is a severe or total reduction of ow immediately downstream of the diversion. This in turn may affect downstream shore erosion, water temperature and water quality. The magnitude of such impacts is a function of ecosystems affected, particularly in terms of aquatic biology, and the length of the river section with diminished ow. In cross-watershed diversions, an additional impact has to do with the increased ow in the receiving river. There is also a risk of spreading unwanted species, sh or plants, between catchments. Ultimately, a new ecological equilibrium appears, with colonization of the river edge by plants, shrubs and terrestrial fauna in diminished ow rivers, and an increase in water habitats in increased ow rivers. The most effective mitigation measure, which is now quite common, is to ensure a minimum ecological ow downstream of a diversion, in order to maintain a river habitat and existing land uses downstream (shing, navigation, urban and industrial water supply, etc.). It should be pointed out that the ow of most natural

rivers varies signicantly from season to season, and some rivers dry up completely during parts of the year. The ecosystem of each river has adjusted over time to the ow pattern of the river. The design of an ecological ow in a diverted river may be based on the habitats of the most valued aquatic species in the river, in order to minimize the losses of spawning grounds, for example. In a river with reduced ow, small weirs can be built to ensure a water level similar to pre-diversion conditions.

3.5. Small, mini and micro-projects The denitions of small, mini and micro-hydropower projects are relative and vary depending on the circumstances of each country. Therefore, no denitions exist which are generally accepted all over the world. Here, small, mini and micro-hydropower are dened, respectively, as output o10, 1 and 0.1 MW. Compared to large projects, small-scale plants benet in terms of ease of introduction, as the period for planning and construction is shorter, investment is smaller and only small areas need to be acquired. A frequently used and accepted rule of thumb is that environmental impacts are roughly proportional to area inundated. It is generally assumed that the environmental impacts of small, mini or micro-hydro projects are limited, given the scale of the projects, the limited intervention in terms of construction, and usually the small water bodies that are affected by the projects. There are also benets related to reduced safety risks associated with small dams, and lesser population displacement or land use issues. For example, this has led the states of Maine and New Jersey to consider small hydro, which is dened, respectively, as plants of 30 and 100 MW or less as renewable and large hydro as a nonrenewable energy resource. The large dam versus small dam debate is still unfolding. This debate has signicant energy policy consequences (as mentioned above) and could also have serious implications for future hydropower projects. From an environmental standpoint, the distinction between renewable small dams and non-renewable large dams is somewhat arbitrary. It is not size that denes whether a project is renewable and sustainable or not, but the specic characteristics of the project and its location. Furthermore, when one compares small hydro with large hydropower on the basis of equivalent electricity production, the environmental advantage of small over large hydro becomes much less obvious. What is less damaging for the environment? One very large power plant, on one river, with an installed capacity of 2000 MW, or 400 small hydropower plants of 5 MW on a 100 rivers? Could the overall impact of a single 2000 MW project be less than the cumulative impact of

!, J.C. Milewski / Energy Policy 30 (2002) 12251230 D. Egre Table 2 Average size of hydro reservoir per unit of capacity Size of plants (MW) 300018,200 20002999 10001999 500999 250499 100249 299 Number of plants in category 19 16 36 25 37 33 33 Average size of reservoir per unit of power (ha/MW) 32 40 36 80 69 96 249

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than new projects. The options for extending plant life range from continued maintenance through various stages of upgrading, which may involve refurbishment, modernization or uprating.
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Source: Goodland (1995).

400 small hydropower projects of 5 MW, because of the number of rivers and tributaries which will be affected? In addition, geometry demonstrates that a small object has more surface area in proportion to its volume than a large object; and the difference is quite signicant: when doubling the sides of a cube, its surface area is four times larger but its volume is eight times larger. This implies that to obtain the same water storage volume, the land mass inundated by 400 small hydropower plants of 5 MW would probably be several times larger than the land mass inundated by a single 2000 MW plant. This means several times the impacts on habitats to provide the same storage volume of a single very large reservoir. Table 2 gives an indication of the land area inundated for different sizes of hydropower plants, sampled worldwide, per unit of capacity. In summary, although it is obvious that a smaller human intervention on a specic habitat has fewer impacts than a very large intervention on the same habitat, one should compare hydropower projects based on the energy and power produced, that is to say, on the service provided to society. From this standpoint, the cumulative impacts of a multitude of small hydro projects might be larger than those of a single project, given the diversity of ecosystems that may be affected and the much larger cumulative surface area to be inundated for equivalent storage volume with small projects. Beyond the small versus large dam debate, specic site conditions and energy supply requirements are what determine the nature and amplitude of environmental impacts. 3.6. Upgrading projects As hydropower projects are designed for a relatively long life span, there is signicant interest by power utilities in maintaining the outputs of their older hydroelectric stations since they are a source of cheap, exible and often ecologically sound power. Indeed, upgrading capitalizes on existing facilities, costing less

Refurbishment: is generally aimed at returning the plant to close to its initial state and performance with a view to reducing ongoing maintenance costs and extending plant life by a specied period, typically 2550 years. Modernization: aims furthermore to improve plant availability through the use of more modern materials and technologies. This may provide greater operational efciency and therefore increased productivity. Uprating: aims at expanding the plants hydraulic capacity as well as the nominal power output measured in terms of megawatts (MW) installed.

Optimizing the capacity of existing facilities generates much less environmental impacts than building a new project, mainly because the infrastructure is already present and available. The nature of environmental impacts related to upgrading activities is generally concentrated in space and in time as there is a strong economic incentive to minimize the length of any planned outages. When the context requires a signicant addition of power output, uprating projects may be combined with a river diversion development. From an environmental perspective, this solution may be more desirable than building a new hydropower scheme elsewhere. 3.7. Multipurpose projects As hydropower does not consume the water that drives the turbines, this renewable resource is available for various other uses essential for human subsistence. In fact, a signicant proportion of hydropower projects are designed for multiple purposes. According to Lecornu (1998) about a third of all hydropower projects take on various other functions aside from generating electricity. They can prevent or mitigate oods and droughts, they may provide irrigation, supply water for domestic, municipal and industrial use, as well as improve conditions for navigation, shing, tourism or leisure activities. These different water uses impose conicting demands on water utilization and require trade-offs. These trade-offs are discussed in another article of this journal. One aspect often overlooked when addressing hydropower and the multiple uses of water is that the power plant, as a revenue generator, in some cases pays for the facilities required to develop other water uses. The primary environmental characteristics of multiple use projects is the requirement to consider not only the environmental impacts of the hydropower project but

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also the cumulative impacts of all the other intended water uses. Multipurpose developments makes planning and operating of hydropower more complex as it requires adequate coordination efforts with the various user groups and a sustainable water resource allocation. In fact, increased planning efforts may avoid a lot of problems caused by future unregulated uses of water. An integrated Water Resource Management Plan for the whole watershed must therefore be considered whenever multipurpose projects are foreseen.

The impoundment and presence of a reservoir stand out as the most signicant sources of impacts. However, a reservoir also provides the highest level of electricity supply services: it is the most efcient means of storing large amounts of energy and a hydroelectric plant has the capacity of releasing this energy in quantities that can be adjusted instantly to electricity demand. Furthermore, a reservoir allows for many other uses besides energy storage such as the cost-effective development of run-of-river plants downstream with little environmental impacts.

4. Conclusion This summary review illustrates the necessity to evaluate each hydroelectric project in relation to the services it offers and to compare electricity supply projects on the basis of equivalent services provided to society. Hydropower covers a wide variety of projects of different sizes, functions and designs. This in turn leads to widely different impacts on and benets for the natural and social environments. References
Goodland, R., 1995. How to distinguish better hydros from worse: the environmental sustainability challenge for the hydro industry, The World Bank. ICOLD, 1998. World register of Dams. Lecornu, J., 1998. Dams and water management paper presented to ! rence Internationale Eau et De ! veloppement Durable, the Confe Paris. http://genepi.louis-jean.com/cigb/article-barrages-an.html.