Level Flight Performance

Equations of Motion
Thrust and Power Required
Minimum Drag
MAE 155A
Oblique Wing Research Aircraft (NASA Image)
2
MAE 155A
Geodetic and Local Coordinates
North
East
Up
Z
X (Prime Meridian)
Y
(X, Y, Z) is an Earth-Centered,
Earth-Fixed Coodinate System
Latitude
Longitude

\
3
MAE 155A
Velocity Vector Orientation
The flight path angle
is positive when the
airplane is climbing.
The flight path heading
is positive clockwise
from true north.
Velocity
Vector
Down
North
North
East
Flight Path
Heading
Flight Path
Angle

Velocity
Vector
4
MAE 155A
Forces Acting on the Airplane
Lift
Up
Gravity
Velocity
Vector
Thrust
Drag
Lift
Up
Gravity
Velocity
Vector
Thrust
Drag
The bank angle is positive when the
lift vector is tilted to cause a right
turn (heading rate is positive).
The thrust vector is
aligned in the lift-drag
plane, but is rotated
above the velocity vector.
Thrust
Angle
Bank
Angle
j
c
5
MAE 155A
Non-Rotating Spherical Earth
dV
dt
=g
|
(
T cos cD
W
)
sin

d
dt
=
g
V
|
n+
(
T
W
)
sin c

cos j+
|
V
2
g R
1

cos

d
dt
=
g
V
|
n+
(
T
W
)
sinc

sin j
cos
+
V
2
g R
cos sin tan

dW
dt
=CT
d
dt
=
1
R
(
V cos cos+V
WN
)
d \
dt
=
1
Rcos
(
V cos sin +V
WE
)
dR
dt
=V sin +V
WU
g = gravity
T = thrust
D = drag
W = weight
C = thrust specific fuel consumption
V = airspeed
L = lift
P = power
n = L/W = load factor
R = radial distance from Earth center
= flight path
c=thrust angle
j=bank angle
= flight pathheading
=latitude
\=longitude
(V
WN
, V
WE
, V
WU
) = wind speed in (North, East, Up) direction
dW
dt
=C
P
j
or
j=propulsive efficiency
6
MAE 155A
Low Speed Aircraft
dV
dt
=g
|
(
T D
W
)
sin

d
dt
=
g
V
(
ncos jcos
)
d
dt
=
g
V
nsin j
cos
dW
dt
=CT
d
dt
=
1
R
(
V cos cos+V
WN
)
d \
dt
=
1
Rcos
(
V cos sin +V
WE
)
dh
dt
=V sin +V
WU
Assumptions:
h = altitude = R R
E
R
E
= Earth radius
V
2
g R
is small
c is small
dW
dt
=C
P
j
or
7
MAE 155A
Steady Level Flight
Steady (unaccelerated) level flight performance equations make the following
assumptions and simplifications:
0=
dV
dt
=g
|
(
TD
W
)
sin

0=
d
dt
=
g
V
(
ncos jcos
)
0=
d
dt
=
g
V
nsin j
cos
0=
dh
dt
=V sin
constant airspeed
constant flight path
constant heading
constant altitude
and zero winds
j=0
=0
n=
cos
cos j
=
L
W
=1
T =D+W sin =D
L=W
T =D
8
MAE 155A
Drag Polar
The drag and lift forces are typically normalized by dynamic pressure and (wing)
reference area.
The resulting coefficients are non-dimensional.
C
D
=C
D, 0
+K C
L
2
K
1
ne AR
C
D
=
D
q S
C
L
=
L
q S
The drag polar provides the basic aerodynamic information needed to predict level
flight performance.
q=
1
2
jV
2
AR=
b
2
S
q = dynamic pressure
V = airspeed
AR = aspect ratio
b = wingspan
S = reference area
j=atmospheric density
e = wing planform efficiency factor C
D,0
= zero-lift drag coefficient
9
MAE 155A
Thrust Required
Turbojet engines are usually rated in terms of thrust.
Thrust required refers to the engine thrust needed to maintain steady, level flight.
T
R
=D=q S C
D
C
D
=C
D, 0
+K C
L
2
T
R
=D=q S C
D ,0
+q S K C
L
2
W=L=q S C
L
T
R
=q S C
D, 0
+
K W
2
q S
q=
1
2
jV
2
T
R
=
1
2
jV
2
S C
D, 0
+
2 K W
2
jV
2
S
T
R
= thrust required
10
MAE 155A
Thrust Available
Thrust available from a turbojet engine is approximately constant relative to airspeed.
Available thrust generally varies with altitude:
T
R
V
Thrust required
at sea level
Thrust available
at sea level
Thrust required
at altitude
Thrust available
at altitude
Max airspeed
at sea level
Max airspeed
at altitude
T
A
T
SL
(
j
j
SL
)
T
A
= thrust available at altitude
T
SL
= thrust available at sea level
j=density at altitude
j
SL
=density at sealevel
11
MAE 155A
Minimum Thrust Required
What conditions lead to minimum drag (and therefore minimum thrust required)?
W=L=q S C
L
T =D=q S C
D
T
R
=
W
C
L
/ C
D
T
W
=
D
L
=
1
L/ D
=
1
C
L
/C
D
Minimum drag occurs when C
L
/C
D
is maximized.
C
L
C
D
=
C
L
C
D, 0
+K C
L
2

C
L
(
C
L
C
D
)
=
C
D, 0
K C
L
2
C
D, 0
+K C
L
2
=0
C
L
=
.
C
D, 0
K
C
L
C
D
=
1
2
.
C
D, 0
K
V =
.
2W
jS
.
K
C
D, 0
Minimum Drag
Minimum Drag Minimum Drag
12
MAE 155A
Power Required and Available
P
R
=V T
R
=V D=
1
2
jV
3
S C
D, 0
+
2 K W
2
jV S
P
R
V
Airspeed for
minimum power
Minimum
power required
C
L
=
.
3C
D, 0
K
Minimum
power required
occurs at:
Power available from
piston engines is
approximately constant
with airspeed but
varies with alttiude
P
A
P
SL
(
j
j
SL
)
Power available (piston)
Power available (jet)