FORMULAS: 3.

44

Power = V * I Watt hour (energy) = Power * Time. Wh = (V * I) * T Inductive Reactance (XL) = 2FrL Capacitive Reactance (XC) = 1 / (2FrC). C is the capacitance. Its the ability to store a charge. Do not confuse the ability to store a charge with the size of the capacitor. The C in the formula is NOT the size of the capacitor. A smaller capacitor with smaller dielectric has a stronger ability to store charges. From the above formula we can see the capacitive reactance decreases towards zero as the frequency increases acting like a short circuit. Likewise, as the frequency approaches zero or DC, reactance increases to infinity, acting like an open circuit which is why capacitors block DC. Large frequencies are passed by large capacitors. Small frequencies are passed by small capacitors When reactances are similar (either XC or XL but not both):

o Series reactance Xtotal: = X1 + X2 o Parallel reactance Xtotal:

When reactances are dissimilar (XC and XL found in same circuit):

o Series reactance Xtotal: = XL - XC o Parallel reactance Xtotal: = XL*(-XC)

XL - XC

Impedance (Z) Series: Impedance (Z) Parallel:

Resonance frequency: Phase angle (for impedance) series:

Phase angle (for impedance) parallel:

Decibel power formula: dB = 10log10 P2/P1, P2/P1 = antilog (dB/10) Decibel voltage formula: dB = 20log10 V2/V1, V2/V1 = antilog (dB/20) Voltage gain of amplifier = Vout / Vin

DEFINITIONS:

Resistance: It is the opposition to current flow. The moving electrons collide with the atoms making up the conductor and lose some of their energy by causing the atoms to vibrate, which is observed externally as heat. The longer a conductors physical path, the higher the resistance of that conductor. Current through a resistance causes the conductor to become heated; the higher the resistance and the larger the current, the greater the amount of heat developed. Bias (Q-point): Biasing is the creation of an ideal operating point for devices such as the transistor and diode. The Q-point is chosen for better gains and linearity. Biasing is done when using the transistor for amplification. It keeps the voltage and current as linear as possible. You dont need biasing when using the transistor as an on off switch. Linear: Another word for linear is proportional. Raising or lowering the voltage will result in a proportional change in current. The output is proportional to the input. Capacitance (C): The ability to store energy in an electrostatic field. If the positive and negative charges are not free to move, as in an insulator, they store the fields energy as potential energy. If the charges are free to move, the fields stored energy is converted to kinetic energy of motion Coupling capacitors: are used to pass AC and block DC. Coupling means connect, decoupling is disconnect. Decoupling (bypass) capacitors: are used to block AC and pass DC. These decoupling capacitors are usually placed between the DC supply and the ground or directly across another component.

C1 is the coupling capacitor blocking DC and C2 is the bypass capacitor blocking AC.

Inductance (L): The ability to store electrical energy in a magnetic field. Period (T): The duration of one ac voltage or current cycle, measured in seconds Duty Cycle: The number of highs compared to number of lows. The on time compared to off time. Dont confuse energy and power. o Energy is the total capacity to do work. o Power is the amount of electron energy used (transmitted) over time. Its the rate at which work is done. Power Dissipation: is the amount of energy lost as heat. Its how much power a component can absorb before overheating. When you see the word dissipation, think of the word lost or released. Entropy: measures the energy disorganization of a system. High entropy means the system is highly disorganized. Low entropy means there is low disorganization. Heat: is the transfer of energy from a hot to cold object Clipping: (aka clamping) is the process of limiting the positive and negative peaks of a signal. Clipping circuits can be used to protect sensitive inputs from excessive voltages. Clipping distorts the signal, changing it so that the original signal waveform is lost. Clipping is also used in rectifiers.

Relays: These are switches controlled by an electrical signal. Relays let a low current circuit control a higher current circuit. Software: instructions that tell the hardware exactly what to do. A program tells the computer how to accept input, manipulate the input, and spit it back out again in some form that humans find useful. Amplification: increases the amplitude of a signal. Attenuation: reduces the amplitude of a signal. Thermal runaway: This happens when current noticeably increases temperature. The increased temperature will decrease resistance. This may cause a further increase in current resulting in an additional temperature increase. This sequence of events can continue until the semiconductor destroys itself, Phase: is the location (position) within an AC cycle expressed in degrees or radians. Events to the right take place later; events to the left occur earlier. A complete description of an ac voltage or current waveform involves a reference to three properties: frequency, amplitude and phase. Slew rate: Applied to an amplifier, the slew rate describes the maximum rate at which a signal can change levels and still be accurately amplified in a particular device. Transducer: transforms one form of energy into another form of energy. For radios, the electrical energy of the circuit is converted to sonic energy (sound). Speakers and microphones are transducers. Bandwidth & selectivity: Bandwidth is the range of frequencies allowed to pass. The ability to discriminate between the frequencies is known as selectivity. Lower resistance allows narrower bandwidth, which is the same as saying the circuit has better selectivity. Resistance, then, is an unwanted quantity that cannot be eliminated but can be kept to a minimum. Pass band: The range between the cutoff frequencies is the filters pass band. Modulation: placing a low frequency signal onto a high frequency signal for transmission. Carrier: the high frequency signal responsible for moving the low frequency information. The intelligence is the modulating signal. The carrier is the modulated signal. Intelligence signal: the information you want to transmit (usually low frequency). Demodulation: removing the low frequency information from the high frequency signal. Decibels are used in specifying input and output signal levels. Decibels: dBm is the dB level using a 1mW reference. dBw is the dB level using a 1 watt reference. Static is the noise that appears on the receiver. Octave: an octave is a doubling or halving of frequency. Fidelity is the quality of the transmission (sound). Harmonics are higher frequency multiples of the base waveform. Quality of a component is the ratio of energy stored to energy lost (dissipation means the opposite). Higher Q indicates a lower rate of energy loss. Q = (reactance / resistance). Resonance is when inductive and capacitive reactance are equal (XL = XC). Think of resonance as ideal circuit flow. Its the neutral position of the circuit where neither the inductor or capacitor reactance are king. The XL = XC and are in harmony. At resonance frequency, the impedance of the circuit is equal to the circuits resistance. Impedance (Z): is the total opposition to AC flow. When a circuit contains both resistance and reactance, the combined opposition to current is called impedance. Poles are the number of RC or LC sections in a filter. Roll-off is the attenuation of the bandwidth. Stray capacitance (aka leakage current) is the undesired capacitance between two points. Any close areas of the circuit with different electronic potentials can result in stray capacitance. It interferes with normal current flow. Oscillators are circuits that generate their own self-sustaining AC frequency signal.

RC time constants set the frequency by how fast or slow the capacitor discharges through its nearby resistor. Piezoelectricity is a way to convert a physical stimulus into an electric signal. You can create an electric potential by putting pressure on materials such as a crystal. Voltage regulator: It maintains a steady DC voltage output. Hysteresis: Is the ability of an object to return to its original state after undergoing a change. A good example is a magnetized paperclip. Another example is a squished foam pillow. VAR: Volt Ampere Reactive is the real dissipated power in a reactive circuit. Superposition is the process of adding numerous individual signals into a single signal. The new signal combined by superposition can be separated back into its original signals. hFE is the output current divided by input current. Transconductance: the amount of output current created by input voltage in a transistor. Its the opposite of resistance which is V/I = R, I/V = transconductance. Forward transconductance is the voltage needed to start current flow in the transistor. Limiter: A limiter is used when you want to deliberately clip a signal. The amplifier is operated with so much gain. This causes the output to be clipped at the limits of its power supply voltage. Limiters are used in FM receivers to amplify the signal until all amplitude variations in the signal are removed and the only part of the original signal remaining is the frequency. Cascaded: When two analog circuits are cascaded, the output signal of one stage becomes the input signal to the next stage. Coupling is the actual transfer of signals between the circuits. Common: Its when the input and output part of a circuit use the same connection. Ground is a good example. Another example is an amplifier circuit (think common emitter).

CONCEPTS:
The basic differences between light waves (electromagnetic) and sound waves: o Sound requires a solid, liquid, or gas medium to travel distances. Light doesn't need a medium. It travels through empty space. The denser the medium, the greater the speed of sound. The opposite is true of light. Light travels approximately one-third slower in water than in air. Sound travels through all substances, but light cannot pass through opaque materials. o Light travels very fast, Sounds is slow. o Sound is a longitudinal wave, light is transverse. In a longitudinal wave, the motion of the medium is parallel to the direction of the wave. This means that the particles move left and right which in turn makes the other particles start to oscillate. Sound waves are longitudinal waves. A transverse wave is a wave in which the motion of the medium is a right angle to the direction of the wave. o A change in frequency of sound waves causes an audible sensationa difference in pitch. A change in the frequency of a light wave causes a visual sensationa difference in color. An antenna (or a light bulb) converts electricity into electromagnetic radiation. In devices such as motors and transmitters, the objective is to convert the supplied energy (or power) into some form other than heat. Power converted to heat is considered to be a loss because it is not useful power. Impedance matching is a way to maximize the transfer of power between various circuit stages. Its a way to deliver large amounts of energy. Think of the amplifier feeding an antenna. Negative temperature coefficient (higher temperature causes lower resistance). Positive temp coefficient (higher temp causes higher resistance) Noise and bandwidth are the major limitations in communication systems. The greater the bandwidth, the greater the info that can be transferred. The goal is to transmit the most information from the smallest range of frequencies because the frequency spectrum is limited.

The square wave consists of many harmonic frequencies. The wave becomes more square shaped as you increase the amount of frequencies bandwidth. The sine wave has only one frequency. The square wave has numerous frequencies (harmonics) RMS values are based on a single peak, not peak to peak. Always divide peak to peak by two before calculating RMS. Ask yourself two fundamental questions when analyzing circuits. 1. How does the circuit affect the signal? 2. How does it affect surrounding circuits. Capacitors and Inductors: o Capacitors: store energy in their electric field between the plates and lose energy due to leakage between the plates. ICE o Inductors: store energy in their surrounding magnetic field and lose (dissipate) energy in their winding resistance. ELI o Capacitance is the ability of the capacitor to form an electrostatic field (store a charge). o Reactance is AC resistance. o Small capacitors in parallel can handle heat better than a single larger capacitor with the same value. The total surface area available for heat dissipation will be increased. The general idea is to divide the heating among as many components as possible. o Always remember the formula, Capacitance Reactance (XC) = 1 / (2FrC). More voltage is dropped across small capacitors (meaning higher capacitance) because of their stronger electrostatic fields. The small dielectric has stronger bonds holding the electrons from passing. o Reactance (AC resistance) and capacitor size are inversely related. A small capacitor (and stray capacitance) will have a large reactance. Therefore, high frequencies will be blocked by small capacitors because they have a larger reactance (resistance). Even the small capacitances formed by the coils of an inductor can be a problem. At low frequencies, small capacitors (and stray capacitance) will have a negligible effect. o Always remember the formula, Inductive Reactance (XL) = 2FrL. Reactance (AC resistance) and inductor size are directly related. A large inductor will have a large reactance. Therefore, high frequencies will be blocked by large inductors because they have a larger reactance (resistance). o The voltage induced in an inductor is proportional to the amount of coil turns. o A change in frequency does not affect resistance. It affects capacitance and inductance. o When you hear the terms lead circuit and lag circuit, visualize the relationship of frequency (current) to voltage on bandwidth curves below. The lead circuit represents the capacitor. Current leads voltage in a lead circuit with capacitor. The lag circuit represents the inductor. Current lags voltage in a lag circuit (Voltage leads current in a lag circuit) with inductor. o Capacitors in parallel are added (think of CPA). Inductors in series are added. o The lower a capacitor temperature coefficient (TC), the less its value changes with temperature. o Permeability measures how easy it is for the material inside to the inductor to form a magnetic field. It compares the core material (such as iron) of an inductor to air. o ESR electrostatic resistance: It has a huge impact on the charging and discharging of capacitors (think about that TV example). When the temp is low, ESR increases. When temp is high, ESR decreases. Think of it as capacitor loss. The charge is either to strong or not strong enough. It screws up the timing. o When reactances are in series: A positive result means the circuit is inductive. A negative result is capacitive. When reactances are in series, the current must be the same across the inductor and capacitor. This constant current means the reactance is directly proportional to voltage (think V=IR). The voltage across each circuit element

differs in phase. The voltage EL leads the current by 90, and the voltage EC lags the current by 90. The circuit becomes more inductive with higher frequency. o When reactances are in parallel: When reactances are in parallel, the voltage must be the same across the inductor and capacitor. This constant voltage means the reactance is indirectly proportional to current (think V/R=I). The current across each circuit element differs in phase. The current IL lags the voltage by 90, and the current IC leads the voltage by 90. The circuit becomes more capacitive with higher frequency . Frequency Response: o Frequency response is how a circuit modifies the frequency of a signal. o The purpose of resonant circuits is to select a specific frequency and reject all others. o At resonance frequency the impedance of the circuit is equal to resistance because XL = XC. The circuit is in harmony. The circuit is purely resistive. o At low frequencies (think current) the opposition to the current is low for XL and high for XC. Low frequency means more current will pass XL and less will pass XC. o At high frequencies the opposition to current is high for XL and low for XC. High frequency means less current will pass XL and more current will pass the XC. o Below is a graphical view of ideal circuits and how their outputs respond to low and high frequency. In circuit (C), the inductor blocks high frequency and passes low frequency. In an ideal circuit, all high frequency would be blocked. But that isnt practical. The capacitor diverts the unblocked sneaky high frequencies to ground. In circuit (D), the capacitor blocks low frequency and passes high frequency. In an ideal circuit, all the low frequency is blocked. But that isnt practical. The inductor diverts the unblocked sneaky low frequencies to ground.

o Series resonance circuits: The current across XL and XC is the same in a series resonant
circuit. The voltage across XL and XC changes and is out of phase. When resonance is reached,

the voltages across XL and XC become equal and cancel each other out. An almost zero voltage and reactance value causes the current to increase dramatically. Series Bandstop circuit: At resonance frequency the voltage output across the load is low. Series Bandpass circuit: At resonance frequency, the voltage output across the load is high. o Parallel resonance circuits: The voltage across XL and XC is the same in a parallel resonant circuit. The current across XL and XC changes and is out of phase. When resonance is reached, the currents across XL and XC become equal and zero each other out. An almost zero current and reactance value causes the impedance to increase dramatically. And thats why the parallel resonant circuit is interpreted opposite of the series version. The parallel resonance circuits are interpreted 100% opposite of their series versions. Parallel Bandstop circuit: At resonance frequency the voltage output across the load is low. Parallel Bandpass circuit: At resonance frequency the voltage output across the load is high. o Tank Circuit: When working with a tank circuit, visualize energy swapping places between the capacitor and inductor. Current from the discharging capacitor creates a magnetic field within the inductor. When the capacitor is completely discharged the magnetic field of the inductor is maximized with a voltage equal to the capacitor. As the magnetic field of the inductor weakens, the current is allowed to pass through, and it begins to charge the opposite side of the capacitor back to its original voltage. The cycle will then repeat itself in the opposite direction.

Transformers: o Voltage formula: Vs = Vp (Ns / Np) o Current formula: Cp = Cs (Ns / Np) o Impedance Formula: Zp = Zs ( Np / Ns)^2 o Step up transformer is when the secondary voltage is greater than primary. o By choosing the proper turns ratio, the impedance of a fixed load can be transformed to any desired value. o Many devices or circuits require a specific of load impedance for optimum operation. When the impedance of the load is different from the impedance of the source circuit, you need to use an impedance matching transformer to change the load into an impedance of the desired value. This will ensure maximum power transfer. o Leakage inductance (aka leakage flux): Its when some of the transformers magnetic flux from one winding does not cut across the other winding. It causes the appearance of an independent winding to have inductance in series with the mutually-coupled transformer windings. It results in the inefficient transfer of power. It decreases the current in the primary resulting in more current in the secondary (more voltage in primary and less in secondary). The leakage increases with frequency. o Autotransformers (AKA variacs): Variacs are used to vary AC voltages. Think of it as a tapped inductor. While a potentiometer uses a resistance as the divided impedance, the variac instead uses an inductance. Variacs are often used to step up or step down voltages. They can allow equipment designed for 100 or 120 volts to be used with a 230 volt supply (as in using US electrical equipment in with higher European voltages). The diagram below is a variac. The primary winding is fixed from N to L. The secondary winding can be varied from N to L3. When the arm of the secondary winding is aligned at L, the voltage is the same across both windings. When the arm of the secondary moves above L1, the voltage in the second winding is stepped up.

Photoresistors:

Photoresistors convert light energy into electrical energy. It is a light dependent resistor that loses resistance when exposed to high levels of ultraviolet light.

Photdiodes: (diagram below) o The capacitance of the photodiode must be kept small to prevent high resistance to current flow. It would take more light energy to overcome a larger photodiode capacitance. o In the first illustration when there is no light, the reverse bias draws electrons and holes out of their p-n junction homes, creating a depleted region with an electrostatic field. This stops current from passing through the diode. There are no electrons or holes in the conducting part of the circuit. o In the second illustration, the energy created from the photons of light hitting the diode allows the electrons and holes to overcome the resistance created by the electrostatic field. This creates a current through the conduction bands.

o A photodiode is often used to detect infrared light signals from remote control devices Photovoltaic cell: (diagram below) o First step, with no sunlight the cell acts like a regular diode forming a depletion region with electrostatic field between the N and P type. There is no current flow. o Second step, When sunlight strikes the n-type region, the photons collide with the electrons knocking the electrons out of their comfort zone. This gives the electrons enough energy to overcome the electrostatic field (resistance) and push into the p-type material. Any movement of electrical charge produces an electric current.

LED: o Whereas photodiodes absorb light energy to produce current in a circuit, LEDs use the current to produce light energy. o Think of the energy levels in an electron shell. When a higher level electron falls towards the nucleus (negative attracting to positive), there is photon energy released. o The same concept is used in LEDs. The positive and the negatives temporarily combine releasing photon energy. The amount of photon energy released determines the color (frequency) you see. This also occurs in regular diodes, but the regular diodes dont have the outer glass magnifying the light. Optoisolator: o An optoisolator consists of an LED optically coupled to a phototransistor.

It uses light to send signals between parts of a circuit. This allows parts of the circuit to communicate without an electrical connection. The advantage of this isolation is that it prevents voltage spikes from affecting multiple circuits. o The light emitter and detector are tailored to match one another, having matching wavelengths so that the maximum coupling is achieved. o They can be used as power supply switches, to providing signal between the low voltage side and the high voltage side. Zener Diodes: o

o o

A Zener Diode lets current flow in the forward direction just like a regular diode. It also allows the flow of current in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage. We are trying to find the voltage needed to push through the resistance of the diodes. Always ask yourself what is the voltage before the diodes. Then you can add them up for the full voltage drop.

For the image below: During the positive cycle, the voltage just before the first diode is 10. The voltage just before the second diode is 0.70. Add them together for a total of 10.70. During the negative cycle the voltage before the first diode is 0.70. The voltage before the second diode is 10. The total voltage is 10.70.

For the image below: The only difference with the previous circuit is the negative output

wont equal the positive output. During the positive cycle, the voltage just before the first diode is 10. The voltage just before the second diode is 0.70. Add them together for a total of 10.70. During the negative cycle the voltage before the first diode is 0.70. The voltage before the second diode is 5. The total voltage is 5.70.

Diodes have a variety of functions They perform rectification; allowing current flow in one direction only In battery-powered devices a forward-biased series diode is often used to protect the circuitry from the user inadvertently inserting the batteries backwards. Likewise, when a circuit is powered from an external dc source, a diode is often placed in series with the power connector in the device to prevent incorrectly wired power supplies from destroying the equipment. Diodes can be used to clip signals. If the signal is biased properly it can be clipped at any level (just like the above example).

Varactor Diodes (aka voltage controlled capacitors):

o o o

Its a reverse biased device often used in filters and oscillators for tuning circuits. The width of the depletion region is used to control the capacitance. As the reverse voltage on a diode increases, the width of the depletion region increases, decreasing its capacitance.

Transistors: o The amount of power dissipated (power lost) in a transistor can be found when you multiply the current going through it by the voltage dropped between the emitter and collector terminals. This gives you the amount of wattage that the transistor is 'wasting' and has to dissipate in the form of heat. If the transistor is off (not conducting), while there is voltage, there is no current so the dissipation is 0. If the transistor were turned on all the way, the losses would be minimal. A typical silicon transistor that is turned on all the way will drop about 0.7 volts. Multiply this by the amount of amperage to determine the dissipation. o Power transistors are simply transistors that can handle larger currents and voltages without overheating. They must have low output resistances so that they can deliver large currents to the load, and good junction insulation to withstand high voltages. They must also be able to dissipate heat very quickly so they do not overheat. o Bipolar transistor:

Bipolar transistors are current operated. They are current regulators. A small base voltage is used to control the current through the collector. Technically, the current isnt amplified. Its simply being switched on and off like a kitchen faucet sink. With a sink, it takes a small amount of energy (you lifting the faucet) to create a large flow of water. The positive DC source from the collector biases the base. Its increasing the amount of P in the base. This extra P at the base will attract more N from the emitter. This allows the positive DC source to collect more N. The result is a much higher current.

Cutoff is when there is no collector current. There is not enough base current to activate the transistor. The voltage across VCE is high because the resistance of the transistor is high. Think VCE as open. This will produce maximum voltage drop between collector and emitter for maximum Voutput, equal to the full voltage of the battery. Saturation is when the collector current is at a maximum. The base current increases to a value which no longer causes a change in collector current. The voltage across VCE is low because the resistance across the transistor is low. Think VCE as shorted.

o Common Emitter transistor: The graph shows the inverse relationship of the common emitter input to output. As the
input base current increases (red), voltage output decreases (blue) .

o Common Collector and Common Base transistor:

The graph shows the direct relationship of the common collector input and output. As the base current increases (red), voltage output increases (blue) .

o Darlington Pair:
Darlingtons act exactly like a single transistor. They are often used when input current available to switch on a transistor is very low.

o Cascode:
A transistor with high input impedance acts like the insulation of a capacitor. The capacitance must be considered across a transistor with high input impedance because it acts like the insulation of a normal capacitor. The capacitance will restrict current flow. Its the same as increasing the resistance across the transistor. This will reduce the output signal across the load. In order to compensate for this reduced signal, we need to attach a common base amplifier with a low input impedance to the output of the first stage amplifier.

o JFET transistor:
FETs are voltage operated. Refer to the N channel for analysis below.

It is a unipolar device because the current through an FET channel only has to pass through a single type of semiconductor material. Think of reverse bias as a tug of war. For the N-channel, the negative side of the source pulls on the positive side of the component. For the P-channel, the positive side of the source pulls on the negative side of the component. The channels are blocked. NO CURRENT CROSSES THE CHANNEL. Instead, the depletion region in the middle of the component increases. A growing depletion region will block the FET channel. JFETs are transistors that use negative voltage to control their channels. The more negative the gate voltage, the narrower the channel. Narrow channels restrict current flow. The more positive the gate voltage, the wider the channel. Wide channels permit greater current flow. See graph below. FETs also have really high input impedance. This reduces loading effects with any circuit attached to its input.

o MOSFET transistor:

The main difference between a MOSFET and JFET. The MOSFET can be operated with a gate voltage greater than zero without worrying about forward bias into the channel. View the N-channel for interpretations below.

An electric field is formed by the gate voltage. This affects the current flow in the channel by either depleting or enhancing the number of current carriers available. The depletion mode MOSFET (normally on) uses reverse bias on the gate to cause a depletion of current carriers in the channel. The JFET also operates in this manner. It conducts current when the gate equals zero. The enhancement mode MOSFET (normally off) uses forward bias to enhance the current carriers in the channel. It does not conduct current when the gate equals zero. A MOSFET can operate in either mode depending whether the gate is reversed or forward biased. In the N-channel enhancement-mode, positive gate voltages (VGS > 0) repel holes from the channel toward the substrate, thereby widening the channel and decreasing channel resistance. Conversely, VGS < 0 causes holes to be attracted from the substrate, narrowing the channel and increasing the channel resistance.

The above graphs are the output curves of a typical N channel MOSFET. The first graph is enhancement mode. The second is depletion mode. The relatively flat regions in the MOSFET output curves are often used to provide a constant current source. For a fixed gate voltage VGS, the drain current is constant. CMOS (complementary MOSFETs) example below: Its a pair of MOSFETs in series. The upper is an N-channel device, and the lower is a P-channel device. When one transistor is on, the other is off. There is minimal current (power dissipated) from VDD to ground.

The diagram below is a simple circuit for controlling a DC actuator (e.g. motor, solenoid) with a MOSFET. This allows a microcontroller to drive actuators that need much more power than what the microcontroller itself can provide

Thyristors: (aka silicon controlled rectifier).

o o o o o o o o

A thyristor symbol looks like a diode with a gate. The gate is a trigger (switch) turning the thyristor on. Where a transistor generally deals with tiny electronic currents (milliamps), a thyristor can handle real electric power currents (several hundred volts and 510 amps is typical). Until one of the transistors is given some base current nothing can happen even if a Anode-toCathode voltage is present. A Thyristor is like a transistor. When a small current flows into the gate, this allows a larger current to flow from anode to cathode. Even when the current into the gate stops, the thyristor continues allowing current to flow from anode to cathode. It latches on. If the anode voltage value is below the holding level, the thyristor will not switch on even if it receives a gate pulse. Thyristors can operate at higher voltages and currents than transistors. Another major difference, a thyristor only requires a pulse to change the mode to conducting whereas a transistor needs a continuous supply of the controlling current. Circuit example for thyristor: (see diagram below) Because of their high current-handling capability, SCRs are used as crowbars in power supply circuits, to short the output to ground and blow a fuse when an overvoltage condition exists. The 12 volts input is stepped down to 5 volts by the regulator. If the regulator goes faulty, 12 volts could be applied to the load, damaging it. If the regulator output goes above 5.1 volts, then the zener diode conducts. Current flowing through the resistor provides a voltage across it, which triggers the gate of the thyristor. The large current through the thyristor blows the fuse and protects the load.

The capacitor prevents unwanted triggering of the thyristor.

Circuit example 2 for thyristor: S is the trigger. Think of it as an emergency pushbutton on/off switch at a factory. When switch S is open, the circuit doesnt conduct. There is no current passing through SCR1 or SCR2. When switch S is closed, the positive cycle of the AC supply will forward bias D1and the voltage at the gate will activate SCR 1. It will turn-off when the current moves through the zero value of the AC cycle.

During the negative portion of the AC cycle, SCR 1 is turned-off. Diode D2 will forward bias. The voltage at the gate will activate SCR 2. fire since the voltage polarity is already reversed and it gets the proper gate current. The circuit can be broken by opening the switch S. Opening of gate circuit poses no problem, as current through this switch is small. As no further gate signal will be applied to the SCRs when switch S is open, the SCRs will not be triggered and the load current will be zero. The maximum time delay for breaking the circuit is one half-cycle. Thus several hundred amperes of load current can be switched on/off simply by handling gate current of few mA by an ordinary switch. The circuit below is also called static because it does not have any moving parts.

Circuit example 2 for thyristor: The circuit below detects when light is present in a room. With no light, the phototransistor does not conduct. When light is present, the photo-transistor conducts and the bell is activated. Turning off the light will not stop the alarm. The alarm is turned off via S1.

Triacs:

o The triac is a bi-directional device. They are thyristors which act in two directions. The concept
is identical, only it covers both directions of the AC cycle.

o o

Visualize the triac as a pair of parallel but opposite thyristors with the two gates connected together and the anode of one device connected to the cathode of the other Triacs do not always activate at the same time because there are slight internal differences between each half.

Diacs:

o o

A diac is two diodes in parallel. A diac is placed in series with the triac gate. It prevents each side of the triac from activating at different times. This keeps the AC signal in phase.

o o

The inclusion of a diac lets the triac switch more evenly for each half of the AC cycle. The diac prevents gate current flow until a breakdown (trigger) voltage is reached in either direction. Think of a simple diode. A breakdown voltage must be reached before the diode conducts. Once the breakdown voltage is passed, the current across the diode will remain consistent until it falls below the breakdown voltage into its original high resistance nonconducting state.

Fuses: o When checking a fuse, do a continuity check across the pins. o The most important fuse rating is the nominal current rating. This is the current it will carry indefinitely without blowing. The next important rating is the timing characteristic, or how quickly the fuse blows during a current overload. Some fuses (slow-blow) are designed to carry an overload for a short period of time. They are used in starting motors and power supply circuits that have a large inrush when first started. Another important fuse rating is the voltage rating. It shows the amount of voltage an open fuse can withstand without arcing. NEVER REPLACE A FUSE ONE THAT HAS A HIGHER CURRENT RATING. Instead, choose a fuse with the same current rating but with a high voltage rating to prevent arcing. Voltage Spiking: (see diagrams below) o The first diagram is an example of a spiking circuit. o When the relay control circuit on/off switch is closed, the transistor becomes forward biased opening up a new path for current. o When the voltage across the inductor builds up to source voltage, it lets a steady current push through. o When the switch is opened, the transistor shuts off. This prevents current from passing across the collector and emitter of the transistor. o The current at the collector combines with the stored energy within the inductor to create a voltage spike that is larger than the source voltage. o A diode in parallel with the inductor prevents voltage spiking. It becomes forward biased, allowing the excess voltage to return to the beginning of the inductor. o The current continually flows around the diode and inductor until the excess voltage dissipates.

Ghost Voltage: (see diagram below) o Stray or ghost voltages occur from capacitive coupling between energized circuits and nonenergized, non connected adjacent wiring. Because of this coupling effect and the multimeters high impedance, its not always possible to determine if the circuit under test is energized or deenergized, and this creates confusion for the person performing the test.

This is one of the few times you should use a low impedance measuring device to verify the wire is truly not energized. With a high impedance measuring device, the voltage potential before the device will be large. The opposite is true with a low impedance measuring device. The voltage potential BEFORE the device should be low, un-energized.

Relays:

o These are switches controlled by an electrical signal. Relays let a low current circuit control a
o higher current circuit. 5 Pin Relay, mini cube: See diagram below

4 Pin Relay, mini cube: See diagram below

Continuity Check of a Relay: With the voltage turned OFF, an ohm value of approximately 50 to 120 should be found between two pins. This is the control circuit with the inductor. If the control pins show 0 ohms, the inductor is damaged and should be replaced. The remaining pins should read OL (infinite) if its a normally open relay. This means the resistance is high because the relay is open. If those remaining pins read 0 ohms, this the relay is closed. Its a normally closed relay (or a broken open relay).

Practical testing part 1: Once the pins have been identified, its time to energize and de-energize the control circuit (pin 1 and 3 below). First we need to supply energy to pin 1 while grounding pin 3 of the control circuit. A click should be heard. Place the ohm measuring leads across pin 2 and pin 4. If its a normally open relay, the meter will read nearly 0 ohms. Next, we need to de-energize the control circuit. This will open pin 2 and pin 3. The meter should read OL (open circuit).

Practical testing part 2: Once the pins have been identified, its time to energize and de-energize the control circuit (pin 1 and 3 below). First we need to supply energy to pin 1 while grounding pin 3 of the control circuit. A click should be heard. Now we need to supply 12 volts of energy to pin 2 of the load circuit. Place the red lead of the multimeter at pin 4 with the black lead grounded. It should read 12 volts in a normally open relay. When the control circuit is de-energized, the multimeter should return to zero volts in a normally open relay.

Reed relays:

Reed relays have no armature and are sealed in a glass tube surrounded by coils. The contacts are made of magnetic material. The glass tubing protects them from corrosion. They switch much faster than relays with armatures and have longer lifespans. Solid state relays (SSR): It has no moving parts. The thyristor is an example of an SSR. Many SSRs use optical coupling. The control signal is coupled to the load circuit in a way which isolates the two circuits electrically. The control voltage energizes an LED which illuminates and

switches on a photo-sensitive diode (photo-voltaic); the diode current turns on a MOSFET to switch the load. The optical coupling allows the control circuit to be electrically isolated from the load.

Op Amplfiers:

The op amp is a low-current, high-voltage gain device. The ideal op amp has high input impedance, low output impedance, and large voltage gains. o An op amp only responds to differences in voltages at its inputs. Common mode rejection will block signals with the same frequency. o Remember the voltage divider rule. We want all the signal source voltage to reach the op amp. A high op amp input impedance prevents the source from dropping excess voltage across its own internal resistance. Low op amp output impedance allows most of the voltage gains to reach whatever device the op amp is connected to (such as a speaker or microphone). This means there is no excessive voltage drop between the amp and speaker. o An amplifier can only produce output voltages (and currents) that are within the range of its power supply. Unwanted voltage transients results in clipping and a nonlinear output. o

o Offset voltage and Error voltage):

When the op amp input is zero you expect the output to also be zero. When the output isnt zero, you get an error voltage This error voltage is caused by slight differences in the design of the input terminals as well as small amounts of passing current. The offset voltage counteracts this internal mismatch. When you see the word offset, think of the term ERROR CORRECTION. Even though op amps have very high input impedance, a small amount of current still flows through it. This creates small unwanted voltage fluctuations which will distort the op amp output.

The input is the power available from the source. The op amp cant increase the signal beyond the source power or clipping occurs. The feedback circuit limits (prevents) the voltage from being clipped. When the feedback circuit is delayed or open, the op amp will continue increasing the voltage gain resulting in clipping.

o Impedance Matching:

The above diagram is an example of impedance matching when combining two amplifiers. Zout(A) and Zin(B) form a voltage divider where Zout(A) has a low impedance and Zin(B) has a really high impedance. They are in series, not parallel.

Oscillators: o Oscillators are circuits that generate their own self-sustaining AC frequency signal. They need a form of automatic gain control (AGC) after the amplifier. If not, voltage gains will continuously increase each time the signal passes through the amplifier. This will cause saturation and a distorted signal with the peaks snipped off.

Piezoelectricity o Piezoelectricity is a way to convert a physical stimulus into an electric signal. You create electric potentials by putting pressure on materials such as crystals. The crystal originally has symmetrical interlocking positive and negative charges. When pressure such as a small current or mechanical force is applied, it causes the crystal to vibrate. A voltage develops at the frequency of vibration. The greatest vibration occurs at the crystals natural resonant frequency. The crystals equivalent circuit is a RLC circuit that can operate in either series or parallel resonance. 555 timer summary: (see circuit below) o 555 timers are built from a few parts: two comparators, a flip flop, a discharge transistor, and a resistive voltage divider. The external components (R1, R2, Cext) form the timing circuit that sets the frequency of oscillation. The comparators control the state of the flip flop. When the trigger voltage drops below 1/3rd VCC, the flip flop sets and the output jumps to a high level. When the external capacitor (Cext) exceeds 2/3 rd VCC, the upper comparator resets the flip flop. This switches the output back to its low level. When the device output is low, the discharge transistor (Qd) is turned on. This opens a path for rapid discharge of the external timing capacitor. 555 timer operation (see circuit below): o Initially, when the power is turned on, the capacitor (Cext) is uncharged, and thus the trigger voltage (pin 2) is at 0 volts. Remember, 0 volts is considered the low (off) state. This causes the output of the lower comparator to be high and the output of the upper comparator to be low. Always interpret the flip flop output from the triggers point of view. When the trigger is 0, the flip flop is also 0. This means the transistor is off and the capacitor not discharging. o Now, the Cext capacitor begins charging. When Cext reaches 1/3 rd VCC (high), the lower comparator switches to a low output. When Cext reaches 2/3rds VCC the upper comparator switches to its high state. This resets the capacitor and turns on the transistor. The capacitor will discharge through the transistor causing the upper comparator to go low. o When the capacitor falls below 1/3rd VCC, the trigger will return to zero. This causes the output of the lower comparator to be high. When the trigger is 0, the flip flop is also 0. This means the transistor is off and the capacitor stops discharging. o This cycle results in a square wave form.

Voltage regulators: (see circuits below) o Line regulators maintain a constant DC voltage output despite voltage input changes. Load regulators maintain a constant DC voltage output despite load changes. o ***When analyzing all the op-amps in voltage regulators, always look at the value of the input terminals. Whichever one is slightly higher determines whether the op-amp output increases or decreases. When the positive terminal is higher, the op-amp output increases. When the negative terminal is higher, the op-amp output decreases*** o Series circuit analysis when the voltage tries to decrease (no overload protection): The transistor is in series with the load The voltage R2 / R3 voltage divider forms a negative feedback circuit with the op amp. When the output tries to decrease (because of a decrease in Vin or an increase in IL caused by a decrease of RL), the R2 / R3 divider provides a proportional voltage decrease to the op amps inverting input. Since the reference voltage (zener diode) holds the non-inverting input at nearly constant reference voltage, a small difference voltage (error voltage) is developed across the op amps input. This difference voltage is amplified, increasing the op amps output voltage. This increase is applied to the transistors base. It causes the emitter voltage (Vout) to increase until the voltage to the inverting input equals the reference voltage (zener diode). The power transistor (Q1) is usually used with a heat sink because it must handle the entire load current. o Series circuit analysis when voltage tries to increase (no overload protection): The transistor is in series with the load. The voltage R2 / R3 voltage divider forms a negative feedback circuit with the op amp. When the output tries to increase (because of a increase in Vin or a decrease in IL caused by an increase of RL), the R2 / R3 divider provides a proportional voltage increase to the op amps inverting input. Since the reference voltage (zener diode) holds the non-inverting input at nearly constant reference voltage, a small difference voltage (error voltage) is developed across the op amps inputs. The difference voltage is amplified across the negative inverting side. The op amp output voltage will decrease. This decrease is applied to the transistors base, shutting it down. It causes the emitter voltage (Vout) to decrease until the voltage to the inverting input equals the reference voltage (zener diode).

Series overload protection example 1: see circuit below The transistor is in series with the load The transistor will overheat if an excessive amount of load current is drawn. The solution is a current-limiting circuit shown below. Remember, when IL increases, that means RL is low (or maybe shorted). This means less voltage will drop over RL and more will drop over R4. It also means there is more voltage at the node before R4. When IL reaches a maximum value, the voltage at the node before R4 will be large enough to forward bias the base-emitter of Q2. Some of the op amp output current is now diverted through Q2. This reduces the excessive Q1 base current so that IL is limited. Since the base to emitter voltage of Q2 cannot exceed 0.7 volts, the voltage drop R4 is held to this value. VR4 = VBE This current wastes (dissipates) to much power across R4 To make this less confusing, think of Q2 and R4 in parallel. The 0.7 volts dropped across Q2 must also be dropped across R4. When Q2 is biased into conduction, the circuit literally limits the load current to V=IR, 0.7V=I*(R4). Even if the load is shorted, the current will be limited to that formula.

Series overload protection example 2: see circuit below The transistor is in series with the load. This circuit is similar to the previous circuit except the addition of R5 and R6. Remember, when IL increases, that means RL is low (or maybe shorted). This means less voltage will drop over RL and more will drop over R4. It also means there is more voltage at the node before R4. When IL reaches a maximum value, the voltage at the node before R4 will also be large. The voltage will be large enough to overcome R5 and VBE, resulting in the forward bias of the Q2 base-emitter. VR4 = VR5 + VBE. Some of the op amp output current is now diverted through Q2. This reduces the excessive Q1 base current so that IL is limited. Compared to the previous circuit, this one has less of a restriction on the current. This results in less power dissipation (wasted).

Parallel overload protection example: The transistor is parallel with the load. When the output voltage tries to decrease due to a change in input voltage or load current (caused by lower load resistance, higher current), the decrease passes through R3 and R4 to the op amps non-inverting input.

Always pay attention to the higher input value of the op-amp. In this case its the negative terminal. This one is trickier than the previous circuits. Since the negative terminal is higher than the positive terminal, the op-amp voltage output decreases. This low voltage output of the op-amp cuts off the base of Q1. The transistor shuts off. When the current is lower, the load resistance is higher, resulting in a higher voltage passing through the resistor. Thus, the original decrease in voltage is compensated for.

Switching Regulators: The previous regulators were conducting all the time with the amount of conduction varied by changes in the output voltage or current. The switching regulator is much more efficient because its not always conducting. The transistor doesnt dissipate as much power in switching regulators. This makes it ideal for high power applications or where efficiency is extremely important. Switching Regulator Step Down type: see circuit below The step down output voltage is always less than the input voltage. Transistor Q1 is used to switch the input voltage at a duty cycle based on load changes. The transistor acts like a comparator in these switching regulators. Its either on (saturated) or off (cutoff). Therefore the amount of power lost is very low in comparison to the previous circuits. The LC filter is then used to average the switched voltage. The capacitor charges more than it discharges during the on-time of the transistor and discharges more than it charges during the off-time. When the on-time is increased relative to the off-time, the capacitor charges more than it discharges, thus increasing the output voltage. When the on-time is decreased relative to the off-time, the capacitor discharges to ground, thus decreasing the output voltage. The inductor smooths away the fluctuations of output action caused by charging and discharging. Remember, it opposes changes in current flow. The capacitor charging and discharging is an example of changing current flow being opposed. Summary: When Vout tries to decrease (load current increasing), the transistor on-time

is increased, causing an additional charge on the capacitor to counter the Vout decrease. When Vout tries to increase, the transistor on-time is decreased, causing the capacitor to discharge more than it charges. This counters the Vout increase .

Switching regulator step up: see circuit below The key to understanding this is to pay attention to the inductor and capacitor polarities when the transistor is on or off. As Vout tries to decrease, the negative input terminal of the op amp becomes higher than the positive terminal. This reduces the op amp voltage output. A lower op amp voltage output shuts off the transistor. The inductor has a reversed polarity (negative to positive) during this time. The polarity of the inductor is exactly the same as the capacitors polarity, meaning the capacitor will charge. When the transistor is off, the inductor voltage avoids traveling the path to ground. Instead, it adds to the capacitor voltage with the same polarity. This increases Vout. Summary: If Vout Load tries to decrease, the on-time of the transistor will decrease, resulting in an increase in the amount the capacitor will charge . If Vout tries to increase, the on-time of the transistor will increase, resulting in a decrease in the capacitor charging.

Integrated Circuit Regulators Three terminal device: input, output, ground. The last two digits of the part number designate the output voltage. Part 7805 is a +5.0 regulator. The 78xx series has positive inputs. The 79xx has negative inputs. Integrated Circuit Adjustable Regulator Af

Thermistor: o It is a temperature (heat) sensitive resistor. Resistance changes with temperature. o Temperature compensation: Temp compensation is accomplished in one of two ways. If we wish to keep a certain circuit quantity (resistance) constant, we can interconnect pairs of components that have equal but opposite TCs. For example, a resistor with a negative TC can be placed in series with a positive TC resistor to keep the total resistance constant. Conversely, if the important point is to keep the difference between two quantities constant, we can use components with the same TC so the pair change by the same amount with temperature. Thermoelectric Cooler:

The energy from the heat is transferred to the electrons and creates a current. The current flowing through the different metals (P and N type) creates a voltage potential. The DC source collects the heat (current) where it is transferred to the low resistance heat sink. o Wheatstone Bridge: o o o

When there is no voltage difference between the output terminals, the bridge is balanced. The resistance ratios are equal. Whenever there is a difference potential between them, a voltage is developed. =============================================================================== =============================================================================== =============================================================================== :

Troubleshooting Techniques::

The first goal is to eliminate as many areas of the circuitry from consideration as you can. Instead of chasing what might be wrong, first focus on what the problem cant be. Before you open the unit, give some thought to these issues. o 1st: Is the product dead. A lit LED, a display with somethingeven something scrambled and meaninglesson it, a hum, a hiss, some warmth, or any activity whatsoever, indicates that the circuitry is getting some power from the power supply. Dead means dead. Zip, nada, nothing, stone cold. If you do see signs of life, some power supply voltage could still be missing or far from its correct value, but the supply is less likely to be the problem. If the device is totally dead, check the fuse. A blown fuse pretty much always means a short somewhere inside, so dont expect much merely by changing the fuse.

o 2nd: If the product has a display, is there anything on it? Page 53 rd o 3 : o Actual troubleshooting: o 1st: Look and touch (visual inspection) with power off.
Avoid accidental ESD Check for burnt and loose components. Check for weak solder joints, especially around transistors or voltage regulators that create a lot of heat and can weaken solder joints over time. Look at fuses. 2nd: Hot and cold check (physical check) with power on. Feel around for components producing excessive heat. Also check for cold components. When power is the components should be producing some heat. Evaluate possible ESR capacitor losses (think about TV example). 3rd: Discrete Component testing Before replacing components, determine exactly what caused it to overheat in the first place. Capacitor: When discharging large capacitors, a good rule of thumb is to use 50 ohms per voltage the capacitor can handle. So if the capacitor can handle 300 volts, youd need a 1.5k resistor. The wattage rating of the resistor should be about 1 megawatt. For a CRT or microwave capacitor use the same large resistor clipped to chassis ground. You can test the leakage of a capacitor with a multimeter but not the capacitance. Short the capacitor leads so it has zero charge and resistance. Attach the multimeter using ohms. The capacitor should start with a very low resistance. The resistance will gradually increase as the voltage from the multimeter charges it. Shorted: the capacitor is shorted if you get a low value that doesnt reach max resistance. Opened: The capacitor is open if you measure a constant high value with no changing charge in either direction 4th: ICs testing 5th: Embedded software check 6th: Comparison method Malfunctions can be considered either as paths that shouldnt be there or a lack of paths that should. Visually check the circuit board. Check the wall outlet for 120 AC volts. Always insert probe into ground socket first (long side) Check the power supply output with a DMM and oscilloscope. Look for noise on output. Mark the positions of trimpots and trimcaps with a felt-tip marker before you turn them. Mechanical parts: If a device has moving parts and it turns on but doesnt work properly, look at

o o o
o o o o o o

those first before assuming the electronics are faulty. Connections: That category includes switches, relays, plugs, sockets, and ribbon cables and connectors. Check for corrosion and wear. o If you leave carbon-zinc or alkaline batteries installed long enough, they will leak. Not maybe, not sometimes, they will. Once they leak, youre in for a lot of work cleaning up the mess. The electrolyte is quite corrosive and will eat the units battery springs and contacts. Copper traces will be eaten through, solder pads corroded. o Just being near salt water will destroy electronics after awhile. Two-way radios, navigation systems, stereos and TVs kept on a boat or even in a seaside apartment get badly corroded inside, with rusted chassis; dull, damaged solder joints; and connectors that dont pass current. Safety Techniques: o Whenever you are working on equipment wired directly into the mains always check to ensure the mains supply is disconnected before working. o Plug in a wall wart (transformer) to step down voltage from the wall outlet when working on a circuit. o When dealing with high voltage: 1st: Disconnect the equipment 2nd: Make sure it cant be reconnected by anyone else. 3rd: Check and make sure no voltage is present. 4th: Earth ground the equipment 5th: Remove potential conductors. o A risk with mains voltage is that a live connection (loose wire) comes into contact with a metal case and then someone touches the case creating a path for the current to go through the person to earth. Use or create an earth ground point on the case (chassis). A ground point allows for a zero potential low resistance path to be established. It also acts as a dissipation path for voltage surges caused by circuit malfunctions or lightning strikes. Chassis ground points typically consist of a stud or lug on the metal casing or vehicle body to which the grounding or battery negative lead is attached. This is done by taking a wire from the earth terminal and connecting it to an exposed metal part of the case. Sometimes there is a special connector in the case for connecting the earth, but if not then it can be connected to a metal screw holding the parts of the case together. You should then perform appropriate testing to make sure that all the metal parts of the case are properly earthed. o When using AC coupling, always make sure to discharge the probe to the oscilloscopes ground attachment just in case there is a residual charge from testing previous DC components. Remember, DC will not pass through the capacitor on the scope when it is switched from DC to AC coupling Equipment: o Peak atlas component analyzer o