RiverCare

Your Catchment
What is a catchment?
“ A catchment is an area of land from
which surface water flows into
streams, rivers and wetlands”.
In simple terms it means that a catchment is
all the hills, mountains, slopes, flood-plains,
fields, playgrounds, residential areas, towns
and cities that rainwater flows through before
reaching a river or stream. Catchments may
differ in size. Large catchments can be made
up of many smaller catchments called sub-
catchments.
How do catchments affect
streams and rivers?
To interpret the test results more efficiently,
you need to have some idea of the natural
changes that occur in a stream or river as it
passes through a catchment. Once these nat-
ural changes have been identified, you can
then focus on changes that have occurred due
to human activities.
The following sections provide some informa-
tion on the natural changes that occur as a
stream or river flows from its point of origin,
passes through the catchment, and finally

Fact Sheet 1
Why are catchments important? enters the sea.

A variety of activities are going on in the

catchment. Activities such as farming, log-
ging, industries, construction of new houses,
roads and bridges on land affect the water
quality of the river or stream which runs
through the catchment. Pollutants such as
fertilizer, pesticides, industrial wastes, and
sewage find their way into the rivers and
streams and cause pollution. Whatever
happens in the catchment has a direct impact
on the water quality of the adjacent rivers and
streams.

Figure 1a: An example of a catchment. Figure 1b: The Qawa river catchment.
UPPER CATCHMENT “Head Waters”
Up in the mountains, streams are usually
fast flowing. This means that they have the
energy to carry large amounts of rock and
gravel that has been eroded from the
stream-bed and banks. In forested areas,
the streams are frequently shaded from the
Sun’s warming rays by overhanging tree
branches. The water is cool and does not
vary in temperature much. Aquatic insects
(macro-invertebrates) adapted to cooler
water may be found in abundance here.
Some examples of macro-invertebrates
found in these waters are: stonefly larvae
and mayfly larvae. Up in the hills, streams
fed mainly by runoff from the land tend to
show greater differences in temperature
daily. In these streams, sunlight and air
temperature have a big influence on the
water temperature. The type of stream-bed
(or substrate) is determined by the velocity
(how fast the water is flowing) and by the
geology of the area (the type of rock pres-
ent). In the fast flowing, upper catchment
waters, the bed is usually composed of
rocks, gravel, pebbles and in some places,
boulders as well. Rocks and boulders offer
numerous habitats for the aquatic insects
and thus here in the natural environment
macro-invertebrates are in abundance. The
head waters of a stream or river are very
important to the health of the entire
river/stream system. These waters are the
source of food that is carried downstream.
Over-hanging vegetation in forested areas
provide much of the food (leaves, twigs,
branches, fruits etc.) required by the aquat-
ic organisms. This coarse material is con-
verted to finer material by the action of
physical processes (grinding), bacteria and
macro-invertebrate “shredders”. In head
waters where overlying vegetation is not
present, attached algae and rooted aquatic
plants provide most of the available food.
MIDDLE CATCHMENT
In the middle part of the river or stream the
accompanying catchment area is generally
flatter than the upper catchment. Thus the
flow of water is slower. There is a combina-
tion of erosion on the outer edge of the bend
where the water flows more rapidly, and
deposition on the inner end of the bend
where the water flows more slowly. Flooding
occurs in periods of very high rainfall and
some sediment is deposited on the bank or
the flood plain. In these middle parts of the
river, the vegetation is no longer able to
shade the entire water surface. Here the
Sun is able to warm the water, causing a
slight increase in temperature during the
day and a decrease in temperature during
the night. The stream water slows in places
causing a warming of water due to more
absorption of the Sun’s rays. Here, aquatic
organisms that can adapt to the diurnal
changes in water temperature will be pres-
ent in greater numbers, although other
macro-invertebrates will also be present.
Attached algae become more abundant and
grazer (plant eating) and collector macro-
invertebrates dominate this part of the river
or stream.
LOWER CATCHMENT
As the stream or river flows closer to the sea
it tends to flow more slowly and usually
becomes deeper and more turbid thus
limiting the sunlight penetration. Some root-
ed aquatic plants such as Water Hyacinth
will grow on the sides and some attached
algae will also be present if rocks and other
suitable substrates are present on the
water’s edge. Because of its slow flowing
nature, the stream or river at this part
deposits a large amount of sediment that it
has been carrying right from the head
waters. Collector invertebrates dominate
this section of the river. The stream bed
becomes silty (or muddy) from all the accu-
mulated sediment from the head waters. In
this part of the river or stream, there is less
dissolved oxygen and only those inverte-
brates that can tolerate low oxygen levels
will be found in abundance.

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 RiverCare

Mapping
What is mapping?
Mapping is a very important exercise that
should be completed before you begin assess-
ment of stream water quality at your selected
site. Mapping involves drawing a detailed
sketch of your site area showing all important
features that affect the stream habitat or
water quality of the site that you have select-
ed. A “bird’s-eye” view sketch is often the
best way to start mapping your site. If you
can find a good map of the area, then that's
even better. A birds-eye or aerial sketch of the
stream and surrounding land area will give
you information on the pattern of the river,
How to select your sampling site?
To select your sampling site, keep the follow-
ing points in mind:
1. Access - the site should have easy
access to the water. The bank should not
be too steep and there should be good
footing on the bank. If possible choose a
site with an existing track going from
bank to the water’s edge. Also the site
should be close to a street or road so that
students do not have to travel far on foot
to get to the water.

associated land-use patterns and some of the
influences acting upon the site environment.
Why mapping?
A mapping exercise will give you precise infor-
mation about what is happening at your site.
The map, which will result from this exercise,
will have the following information marked on
it:
1. Land use patterns - how the
surrounding land area is being used.
2. Industries and factories - the location
of factories and industries which may be
polluting the water.
3. Environmental problems - location of
erosion areas, littering, deforestation,
weeds, channeling etc.
4. Other landmarks - buildings, roads,
fences, bridges, drains, schools, fields,
play ground etc.
5. Your sampling site - location of your
sampling site(s).
Fact Sheet 2
2. Safety - the site should be safe for chil-
dren i.e. make sure there are no broken
bottles, tins, other metallic objects or
other hazards like falling tree branches
etc. If the water is known to be highly
polluted or unhygienic, extra caution is
necessary i.e. using gloves and wader
boots. A first aid kit should be available at
all sampling field excursions.
3. Depth and flow - choose a site where
the water is not deep (usually the water
level should be below knee height at all
times) or very fast flowing.
4. Permission - sometimes, the sampling
site may be on private or Crown proper-
ty. In this case it is important to get per-
mission from the owner before carrying
out assessment. This could be done by a
phone call or an introductory letter
explaining the RiverCare project and why
you would like to test the water quality on
that property.

All of the above information is very important

for monitoring water quality in your area and
taking action. Mapping is also important to
plan out your sampling site i.e. which location
will be best for sampling. Information on how
to select a sampling site is given in the Fact
Sheet #3. More and more information will be
added on to the map as the assessment con-
tinues. This initial map of the area will assist
in tracking positive (good) and negative (bad)
changes that occur in the site area. This map
will also serve as a reference map for plan-
ning and taking action.
How to do mapping? 3. Add a scale and an arrow pointing in the
North direction.

1. Draw a sketch of the area that you have

4. Mark the exact location of your sam-
selected for your sampling. Begin by
pling site. Where possible, give meas-
drawing an outline of the stream site as
urements such as width of stream,
well as 50 metres upstream and down-
depth of water etc.
stream. The map you get should show
100 metres of the stream with the sam-
pling station in the middle of the map.
5. Add further details such as land use
pattern, buildings, sources of pollution,
roads, fences, bridges, dams, drains,
2. Mark all features of the stream on the
large native trees, areas of ground-
map e.g. pool, riffle, bank width.
cover (shade), areas of water plants,
other objects and distinguishing
features.

Figure 2: An example of a map resulting from the mapping exercise.

(courtesy of Sydney Water Corporation, 1998.)

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 RiverCare

Site Selection Criteria

Site selection is a very important part of the RiverCare project. If the site is not prop-
erly selected, the success of the project will be compromised. The site selected should
be easily accessible to students, and be free of any potential health or safety hazards.
Below are some criteria for selecting the best site for your RiverCare Group.

Is the site suitable for field testing?

• An open flat area to lay out equipment e.g. AM12 test kit and RiverCare kit.

• Shade trees.

• Easy and safe access to the water’s edge.

• Shallow water for biological assessment.

Fact Sheet 3
• Accessible all year round.

• Easy and safe access to the mid-flowing water - should not be too deep - not above
knee height.

• Stable bank.

• No health or physical hazards.

Criteria for selecting site for monitoring of point-source pollution

For drains, sewer overflows, livestock waste runoff, mining operations and construction
sites the following sampling criteria should be followed:

1. Sample 50 metres upstream of identified pollution source

2. Sample 50 metres downstream of the pollution source

3. Sample more sites downstream to see how far the effects of the pollution goes
Criteria for selecting sites for monitoring of non-point source
pollution
For farmland, logging operations, residential areas and industrial areas, the following
sampling criteria should be followed:

1. sample well upstream and as close to the natural condition as possible.

2. sample within the affected area.

3. sample just downstream to the affected area.

4. more samples downstream to the affected area.

Some definitions
Non-point source pollution Point source pollution
A source of pollution that cannot be
A source of pollution that can be
pin-pointed to a particular place as it comes
pin-pointed to a particular site.
from many individual places or a widespread
area. Example: urban and agricultural runoff. Example: a sewer pipe leakage.

Runoff
Water that flows across land area and does
not soak into the ground but flows on the
land surface until it finally enters the
stream.

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 RiverCare
Habitat Assessment
Why habitat assessment?
One of the aims of doing biological and
habitat assessment is to build a picture of the
water body over time so that when changes
occur, the effects can be easily monitored.
In addition, habitat assessment will increase
your understanding of the water body and
help you set effective goals and plan effective
actions for improving the quality of the water.
Stream habitats
The stream habitat can be divided into two
areas:
1. Aquatic zone: includes all the habitat
found in the water
2. Riparian zone: includes all the habitat
around the water
Both these zones are directly related to each
other. Whatever happens in one zone will
have a direct impact on the other. These
impacts can be both good (supportive) and
bad (destructive).
(courtesy of Sydney Water Corporation, 1998.)
Top of bank: a critical area, acts as a filter for sediments and pollutants, as plants absorb the
nutrients and trap the sediment.
Face of bank: good vegetation cover is essential to prevent soil erosion here.
Sand bar zone: of silt deposition, could be taken over by weeds.
Toe of bank: Critical area for stream bank stability, an area of high erosion risk unless good
vegetation cover is available.
Landform, land use, vegetation, rock, soil and
structure of the riverbank have an impact on
the water and aquatic habitats.
Depth and quality of water, flow rate and
flooding affect the river banks and riparian
vegetation.
Aquatic zone: aquatic habitats can be divid-
ed into the following: riffles, runs and pools.
Riffles are shallow, rock or gravelly sections of
the river with fast flowing and "broken" water.
Pools are deeper areas with slow flowing water,
smooth water surface and a "soft" riverbed.
Runs are a transition between riffles and pools -
Fact Sheet 4
deeper than riffles and faster than pools. Moving
water environments can differ a lot. Small
creeks have cooler, shallower water while rivers
may have deeper, warmer water.
Riparian zone: a riparian (or riverbank) zone
is the area of land extending from the edge of the
water to some distance behind the riverbank. The
width of the riparian zone may vary from 5-100
metres in some cases. The riparian zone includes
all the grass, shrubs, plants and trees growing on
and around the riverbank. This is called riparian
vegetation.
Figure 3: The different features of
a stream environment.
Figure 4: The riffle, pool and run areas of a stream. Riffles: rocks, stones, wood and other
debris create a shallow area where the
water rushes quickly over, forming gentle
riffles.

Pools: upstream of a riffle there is usually a

quiet area which forms a pool. These are
deeper areas with relatively slow moving
water - good habitat for fish and other
aquatic organisms.

Streams that have a number of pools and

riffles are capable of supporting more
organisms and more different types of
organisms.

Larger rivers may not have riffles but there

are usually deeper areas near the bends
which form a pool.

(courtesy of Sydney Water Corporation, 1998.)

Why is water flow important?

Flow rate affects water temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity and pollution levels. Stream
flow is altered through the construction of dams, channels, and other artificial water struc-
tures such as bridges etc. These structures reduce the flow of water and affect the natural
flow of water to which the surrounding environment has become adapted to.

Moderate Flow: High Flow:

The best water quality usually occurs under
moderate flow conditions where there is suf-
ficient flow to ensure:
• Good oxygenation.
• Dilution and flushing of pollutants.
• Limited build-up of algae.
Low Flow:
In some places along the stream, the water
flow is very high. Due to this there is:
• Increased sediment load.
• Increased turbidity.
• Increased nutrients, especially nitrates
and phosphates.
• Less aquatic organisms as they can not
survive under conditions of high flow
and are usually washed away.

The stream becomes semi-stagnant under But it also results in:

conditions of low flow. This usually results
in: Increased dissolved oxygen and greater
flushing and dilution of pollutants.
• Low dissolved oxygen.
• Reduced dilution and flushing of
pollutants.
• Increased algal growth.
• Increased salinity (in some cases).
• Larger temperature variation.

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 RiverCare

Physical Assessment
What is physical assessment?
Physical assessment is measuring some of the physical properties of river water. Physical
properties of river water are good indicators of whether the river is polluted or not. Physical
properties of water which can be measured are: pH, temperature, stream flow (velocity),
dissolved oxygen and clarity.

Why do we measure physical factors?

The organisms that live in river water are affected by these physical factors, as much as they
are affected by pollutant levels. Most of these organisms are sensitive to even slight changes in
the physical factors of the river.

How to measure stream pH?

Fact Sheet 5
pH is the measure of how acidic or alkaline the stream water is. Natural freshwater is slightly
acidic with its pH sometimes ranging from 6-8. A pH outside this range means there is a problem.

To test for pH the following steps should be followed (You will need a beaker, pH strips and the
pH colour index):

1. Clean a small beaker by rinsing with the stream water.

2. Collect a sample of the stream water in the clean beaker.
3. Place a strip of pH paper in the water.
4. Leave the beaker for 5 minutes in a shady place.
5. Compare the colour of the pH paper with the pH paper colour index.
6. Record the pH on the data sheet.

How to measure stream temperature?

To measure the temperature, follow the simple steps below (you will need a thermometer and
the data sheet):

1. Place the bottom end of the thermometer in the water.

2. Swirl the thermometer for a few seconds.
3. Hold the thermometer in place for 2 minutes.
4. Record the temperature on the data sheet.
5. For best results, take temperature readings at different sections of the river and average the
readings.
How to measure stream velocity?
Stream Velocity, or the rate of flow of water, is an important physical factor in streams and
rivers. The rate at which water flows in a stream or river determines the amount of oxygen
and food that is available to the organisms, which live in the water. If the flow is too fast
(rapids), organisms will not be able to stay for long, i.e. they will be washed away. If the flow
is too slow, there will be less oxygen and food available to the organisms living in the water.

To measure the stream velocity, follow these simple steps. You will need a 10 metre long
string, an orange, a stop watch, pencil and data sheet.

Steps:

1. Hold a string along the river (pointing downstream).

2. Drop an orange at the upper end of the string and start the stop-watch as soon as it is
dropped.
3. Stop the watch as soon as the orange passes the lower end of the string and record the
time taken.
4. Take 3 readings and average the results.

Figure 5: How to measure stream velocity.

(courtesy of Sydney Water Corporation, 1998.)

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 RiverCare

The Test Kit

The AM12 test kit / RiverCare test kit
The AM12 test kit / RiverCare Test Kit is a simple tool for measuring river water quality. It is very
simple to use and it gives reliable data about the amount of various substances that are in the
water. It has been designed to be used in the field and the results are obtained on the spot. You
can use the AM12 test kit / RiverCare Test Kit to test a number of compounds and chemicals that
may be present in polluted river water. By analyzing these results you can determine whether
the river is polluted or not and you can also determine the types of pollutants present and their
sources.

What compounds and chemicals can be tested by the AM12 test kit /
RiverCare test kit?
The AM12 kit has 12 smaller test kits inside - each for a different test factor. These test factors
are:

Fact Sheet 6
1. Copper 2. pH

3. Alkalinity 4. Iron

5. Chromium 6. Hardness

7. Chloride 8. Chlorine

9. Phosphate 10. Nitrate

11. Ammonia

12. Dissolved Oxygen / Biological Oxygen Demand

How to use the AM12 test kit/ RiverCare test kit?

Each of the individual test kits has two cards (some kits may have more) - One card has the test
procedure on one side and the colour code on the other side. The other card has information on
the factor being tested on one side and the chemical reaction involved on the other side. Below
are the flash cards for phosphate.
Figure 6a: Flash Card 1 Instructions + Colour Code.

Front

Back

Figure 6b: Flash Card 2 Test Factor Information.

Front

Back

Important:
The AM12 test kit / RiverCare test kit does not give a definite concentration of test factors, it
just gives an indication. Therefore a "snapshot" result (i.e. one off test) is not very reliable
for making conclusions on the level of pollution of a certain water body. A series of tests done
over a period of time is generally effective in drawing conclusions and is highly recommend-
ed. This is called monitoring. Refer to Fact Sheet 11 for information on designing a monitor-
ing plan.

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 RiverCare

Role Play - Factory Construction Conflict

Procedure
Step 1. Divide your students into seven teams: Factory Officials, Local People, Marine
Biologists, Health Inspectors, Rice Farmers Co-operative, Government Officials, and
Environmentalists-SPACHEE Representatives. Each team will make a paper label of the
team name.

Step 2. A big international company is planning to construct a large food processing factory
beside the river near your village. Such development will affect the lives of rice farm-
ers and villagers along the river that have been living there for generations. The gov-
ernment must decide what to do. Interested parties will present their cases at a public
hearing scheduled by government officials. They must prepare arguments to be pre-

Fact Sheet 7
sented at the hearing. Government officials will hear all arguments before making
decisions.

Step 3. Give each team a copy of its role card. Each team (with the exception of the govern-
ment officials) must prepare a three-minute oral briefing that summarizes the team's
opinion on why the factory should or should not be built. Persuade the government
officials that your team’s position is correct. Allow ten to fifteen minutes for the teams
to prepare for the hearing.

Step 4. The government officials should read their role card, appoint a member to chair the
hearing, another to time the testimonies, and a third to find out who the presenters are
from each team and the order of their presentation.

Step 5. The chairperson should present the officials’ decision to the teams after all their
presentations.

Step 6. Lead a group discussion on the officials’ decision. You might discuss:

• Other options to a food processing factory.

• How are such decisions actually made in your locality?

• Whether hearing others testimonies made you change your feelings on the subject.

Remind the students that changing their minds after a discussion or after reflection of
other people's views is not a sign of weakness but a sign of maturity.
Role Cards for factory construction conflict. (To be given to each group)

FACTORY REPRESENTATIVES LOCAL PEOPLE

You belong to an international food manufacturing com-
pany and with your new site your company will earn mil-
lions of dollars. Deliver a package that will please both
the government and the landowners. You need to draw
their attention on the benefits the landowners and the
government will gain from the construction of the facto-
ry at the proposed site. Disclose some monetary values
or special benefits that your company intends to circu-
late within the government. Problems you might
encounter include commercial rice farmers who use the
nearby river for irrigation and environmentalists who
would like to keep the present state of the village envi-
ronment.
For your entire life you have lived in this area. The fac-
tory would mean that your natural resource-subsistence
farming land and river would be destroyed. Rice is your
main food crop and you can't afford to give your small
pieces of family land to this massive factory
construction. Also your river will be liable to pollution and
this will destroy your fresh water food resource. The food
company has promised to upgrade the village school
and provide funds for a new church hall. 200 young peo-
ple will be provided with employment at the factory. You
will have to consider the positive against the negative.

RICE FARMERS CO-OPERATIVE MARINE BIOLOGISTS

Investors for your Rice Farmers Co-operative Project
are going to lose millions of dollars because your pro-
duction yield will be affected. Close to 10% of your rice
production land will be destroyed and water quality for
irrigation will also be affected. Your marketing value as a
rice producer will be greatly decreased and so investors
will stop investing in your rice producing company. This
means a gloomy future for you and bankruptcy for your
co-operative.
From the various monitoring tests you have made on
marine and fresh water ecosystems, it has shown a con-
siderable decrease in the population of fish, clams and
other shellfish in the area due to water pollution. A facto-
ry will certainly mean more pollution and so a decrease
in resources for future generations. Fish and shellfish
are sources of body protein. People will be vulnerable to
many diseases. Also the capacity to sustain families will
be affected eg.-parents having low incomes due to
unproductive resources and so communities will be left
with poverty-stricken families.

SPACHEE REPRESENTATIVES
You are an environmental friendly non-governemt organization. You are very concerned about the health of the river and
surrounding vegetation if the factory is to be built. Highlight the vast mass destruction this factory will bring upon the beau-
tiful natural environment, the wildlife that will be endangered and the general beauty of the local flora and fauna. This natu-
ral beauty attracts hundreds and thousands of eco-tourists to our country through the tourism industry. Our country is rated
as one of the beautiful places on Earth.

GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS HEALTH INSPECTORS

You are the ones who have to decide whether to allow
the factory to be built. You must listen to all the teams‘
presentations. As the government for the whole nation,
one of your foreign policies allows for company invest-
ments in the country to draw foreign investors, which will
increase the government’s foreign reserve - leading to
increasing the country's wealth and modern society. The
factory will employ a little more than three thousand full
time workers and six hundred casual workers. This will
be a great solution to the high rate of unemployment in
the country as well.
Your main concern is the level of people's health in
relation to environmental influences. You do not want to
allow the people's health to be at risk. A factory in your
area would mean air pollution, noise pollution, water pol-
lution and fish poisoning. These are very high risks to
your health. All different kinds of health problems link to
poverty and other social issues. Local fresh food
resources like fish, prawns and Kai-(a shellfish) from
your river will be depleted due to pollution. This reduces
your consumption capacity of fresh protein leading to
sickness and diseases.

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 RiverCare
What Do Your Results Mean?
1. Temperature
Temperature is an important factor in determin-
ing the state of the stream or river. The normal
water temperature will generally be between
190C and 250C. Anything above this range
would indicate discharge of hot water into the
stream or river.
! Aquatic organisms have an optimal temper-
ature, which lies within the range above. If
the temperature falls below or rises above
the range, these aquatic organisms will not
survive and will either die or migrate
upstream.
! Temperature determines solubility of some
toxic compounds. If the temperature is
above the optimal range it means more
chemical compounds can be dissolved, i.e.
more chemical pollution.
! Temperature determines the amount of dis-
solved oxygen in water. The solubility of
oxygen decreases with an increase in tem-
perature, therefore if the temperature rises
above the optimal range, less oxygen will
dissolve in the water leading to oxygen
deficiency.
2. Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen is an important factor in fresh-
water bodies. All aquatic organisms depend on
oxygen to maintain their life processes. Oxygen
participates in many important biological and
chemical processes in water. It is continually
consumed through respiration by both plants
and animals. Dissolved oxygen (D.O.) is easily
depleted by respiration and decomposition
unless continually replenished by photosynthesis
or air. D.O. levels below 3ppm is stressful for
most aquatic organisms. Levels below 2ppm will
not support fish.
Levels of 5ppm or above are generally required
for optimal biological activity.
! A high D.O. concentration (>4ppm) will
indicate that the water is well oxygenated
and not too contaminated by organic wastes
such as sewage or nutrients such as phos-
phates and nitrates.
! A low D.O. concentration (0-4ppm) indi-
cates an oxygen deficiency in water. This
could mean contamination by organic
matter, sewage and/or plant nutrients such
as phosphates and nitrates.
3. Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Biochemical oxygen demand (B.O.D.) is a meas-
ure of the amount of dissolved oxygen used by
bacteria as it breaks down organic matter in the
water. In slow moving and polluted water, much
of the available dissolved oxygen is consumed
by the bacteria, robbing other organisms of the
dissolved oxygen they need to survive.
! 8ppm - means that the water is free from
organic wastes such as sewage and plant
nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates.
! 4ppm - means some degree of organic pol-
lution. The water is contaminated with
organic matter which are present in unnat-
ural amounts.
! 0ppm - High degree of organic pollution.
The water is highly contaminated with
organic matter including plant nutrients.
Fact Sheet 8
4. Phosphate
Phosphorous is a common plant nutrient nat-
urally found in water. It is present naturally in
the form of phosphate (PO4). The natural
concentrations of phosphate in a water body
will generally be < 0.03ppm. A phosphate
level above this concentration means contam-
ination. Most of the phosphates present in
water comes from detergents. Excessive
amounts of phosphate in water cause other
water quality problems such as reducing the
amount of dissolved oxygen.
! 0ppm - means no contamination.
! 1ppm - means some contamination i.e. dis-
charge of household wastewater into the
river at some point.
! 2ppm - moderate contamination. Water is
not safe to drink.
! 4ppm - high contamination. Cause for
concern.
5. Ammonia
Ammonia is a common ingredient in most fertiliz-
ers, plastics, paper, rubber and fibres. It is present
in variable amounts in most surface water and
groundwater. In water, the primary source of
naturally occurring ammonia is bacterial decompo-
sition of organic wastes, and animal excretions.
Ammonia is an important nutrient for growth of
aquatic plants. Ammonia is usually present in two
forms ammonia (NH3) or ammonium ions (NH4+).
The latter is non-toxic unless present in high con-
centrations. Too much ammonia in water means
contamination through organic wastes and raw
sewage.
! 0ppm - 1ppm - natural amounts. No
contamination of water.
! 2ppm - moderate contamination.
! 4ppm - high contamination from organic
wastes, raw sewage and animal wastes.
6. Chloride
Chloride is widely used in the manufacture of
industrial chemicals and some fertilizers. It is a
major anion present naturally in water and
sewage. A high concentration of chloride in
water is evidence of salt water intrusion or pol-
lution from industrial effluents or domestic
wastes. The chloride is highly mobile in water.
The levels of chloride differ - 0ppt in freshwa-
ter and 35ppt in sea-water. (ppt - parts per
thousand or g/L)
! 0-ppm - natural water - zero contamination
! 20ppm - low contamination
! 40ppm - moderate contamination -
evidence of industrial pollution or salt water
intrusion
! 60ppm - high contamination from industrial
effluents or salt water intrusion.
7. Iron
Iron is used mainly in construction works,
manufacture of plastics, paints and food
colours. It is present in most natural freshwa-
ter bodies and is an important nutrient for
many organisms especially macro-
invertebrates. Soil and rocks are the most
common natural sources of iron in water.
Industrial wastes such as acid, construction
industry or mine drainage can increase iron
levels beyond the tolerance of many aquatic
organisms. Concentrations in natural freshwa-
ter can vary from trace amounts to several
ppm depending on geology. Large amounts of
iron will give water an undesirable taste and
color.
! 0-1ppm - natural levels. Zero
contamination.
! 5ppm - moderate contamination.
! 10ppm - high contamination. Cause for
concern.
8. Chromium
Chromium is a major ingredient in paints, fun-
gicide, glass, photography and chrome manu-
facture. Chromium compounds maybe found
naturally in water in trace amounts from 0.003
- 0.040ppm. It may also be present in water
containing industrial effluents from metal plat-
ing factories, or water from air-conditioning
units. Chromium is a heavy metal usually
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found in the stream/river sediments of pollut-
ed waters. It is considered to be a toxic metal.
Certain shellfish are capable of concentrating
this metal in their tissue endangering the
health of consumers e.g. humans. A chromium
level above 0.5ppm is considered as evidence
of pollution or incompletely treated wastes.
! 0-0.2ppm un-natural levels of chromium in
water.
! 0.4ppm - low level contamination
! 0.6ppm - moderate contamination from
industrial effluents.
9. pH
The pH of water is a measure of the acid-base
equilibrium in water. The pH of most freshwa-
ter is between 6.5 - 8.5. Rapidly growing
algae and vegetation remove carbon dioxide
from the water during photosynthesis. This can
result in a significant increase in pH. Acidic-
rain water may have a pH of 5.5 - 6.0. Alkaline
soil and minerals can raise the pH to 8.0 - 8.5.
Seawater usually has a pH of 8.0.
! pH between 7-8 - is acceptable.
! <7 - contamination from industrial effluents.
! >8 - contamination from minerals such as
plant nutrients, raw sewage or animal
wastes.
10. Hardness
Natural sources of hardness are the dis-
solved minerals Calcium ions (Ca2+) and
2+
Magnesium ions (Mg ). These ions are dis-
solved from sedimentary rocks and soil as
water moves along them. Hardness refers to
the amount of calcium and magnesium in
water. Hardness is usually expressed as ppm
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). These results
can be expressed as calcium or magnesium
by multiplying by 0.4 for calcium and 0.24
for magnesium.
Waters with <10ppm calcium generally sup-
port aquatic life. Levels of 25ppm or more indi-
cate excessive levels of plant nutrients and
may contribute to excessive algal growth.
Typical levels of calcium in freshwater range
between 5-15ppm. Typical seawater contains
350-1500ppm calcium. Water with hardness 0-
60ppm is considered soft while water with
hardness level above 120ppm is hard.
FUNDED
 RiverCare

Displaying Your Results

Got your test results…..what next?
Over the next few months you will gather a great number of test results; depending on the num-
ber of tests you do in the field. This process is called monitoring - gathering data over a period
of time. After obtaining these results it is important to analyze them to make conclusions about
the state of the stream or river that you are working at. There are many ways in which you can
analyze your results. The best method is to do simple statistical analysis.

Using tables
Converting data into relevant tables is a good way to analyze your results. Tables are usually
simple to design and understand. The results that you obtain can be put into a tabular form, for
example:

Month pH D.O. Phosphates Temperature

Fact Sheet 9
January 8 4 2 24

February 7 4 4 25

March 7 2 4 24

April 8 2 4 27

Average 7.5 3 3.5 25

Quick Tip #1
How to calculate average: Sum of results = Average
No. of results
* E.g. for pH: 30/4 = 7.5

Using graphs
Graphs such as line graphs or bar graphs are also simple statistical tools which are easy to design
and simple to understand. Tables such as the one above can be easily converted into a bar or
line graph as shown in the example below.

Figure 7: Bar and line graphs to show the differences in Dissolved Oxygen and Phosphates in the monitoring
period Jan-April.
Concentration (ppm)

Concentration (ppm)

5 5
4 4
3 DO 3 DO
2 Phosphates 2 Phosphates
1 1
0 0
JAN FEB MAR APR JAN FEB MAR APR
Month Month
Using pie charts

Some data will involve analysis by calculating percentages. Pie charts can be used to display
and interpret such results. For example, in January you did an assessment of the different
types and numbers of solid wastes that you observed on the river-banks. This result can be
converted into a pie chart as shown in the example below.

Figure 8: A table and graph showing Waste Assessment data

Type of Waste Number Plastic bags

12% 19%
Plastic bags 5 Paper
8%
Paper 12 Tyre

Tyre 1 12%
Metals/tins/cans
Metals/tins/cans 3
4% Broken tree
45% branches
Broken tree branches 2
Glass bottles
Glass bottles 3

Quick Tip #2
How to convert data into percentage.

1. Add all results. (5+12+1+3+2+3 = 26)

2. To convert each result into percent, divide by the sum and multiply by 100.

* Plastic bags - 5/26 x 100 = 19% (Always round off to the nearest
percentage).

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25 McGregor Road,
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Phone: +(679) 331 5868
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 RiverCare

Networking
It is useful to contact other agencies involved in addressing environmental issues in Fiji and the
region. These include non-government organizations, Government departments and community
groups. Some of these organizations have active projects involving the environment and they
will be in a position to help you identify suitable actions for improving water quality and may
even be able to provide support for the work that you and your RiverCare group are doing.

Organization / Department Name of Phone Address

Contact Number
Person

Live & Learn Environmental Lepani Rabuli 3315868 25 McGregor Rd,

Education Suva.

Fact Sheet 10
Foundation of the People of Floyd 3300392 8 Denison Road, Suva.
the South Pacific (FSPI) Robinson

World Wide Fund for Nature Tamsin 3315533 Maáfu Street, Suva.
(WWF) Vuetilovoni

Fiji Institute of Technology Winifereti 3381044 Samabula, Suva.

(FIT) Nainoca

Public Works Department Sarabjeet Singh 3392133 Kinoya Sewage

(PWD) Treatment Plant,
Kinoya, Nasinu.

University of the South Bill Albersberg 3313900 Laucala Bay Campus,

Pacific (USP) Suva.

South Pacific Applied Rhonda Bower 3381377 Mead Road, Suva.

Geoscience Commission
(SOPAC)

Institute of Marine Dr. Cameron Lower Campus

Resources (IMR) Hay 3313900 USP, Suva.

Fijian Affairs Board (FAB) Mr. Lomaloma 61 Carnarvon Street,

3304200 Suva.

Department of Local Fiji FA House,

Mr. Aiyaz
Government and Housing 3311699 Gladstone Road, Suva.
Mohammed

Centre for Development Laucala Bay Campus,

Dr. Mahendra
Studies 3313900 USP, Suva.
Reddy

8th Floor, Pacific House,

International Marine-life Mr. Iliape 3300708 Suva.
Alliance Tuwai
 Department of Environment Sandeep Singh 3311699 3rd Floor, Fiji FA
or Eleni House, Gladstone
Road, Suva.

Pacific Water Association David Parish or 3308200 41 Gladstone Road.

Taraivini Suva

National Trust of Fiji Emily Erasito 3301807 3 Maáfu Street,

or Avisaki Suva.

Greenpeace Josephine 3312861 Victoria Parade,

Terry Suva.

Pacific Concerns Resource Patrina 3304649 83 Amy Street,

Centre Dumaru Toorak, Suva.

Curriculum Development Viniana 3306077 Vinod Patel Building,

Unit Kunabuli Stewart Street,
Suva.

INTERNATIONAL CONTACTS

Organization / Department Name of Phone Address

Contact Number
Person

World Wide Fund for Dermot Maáfu street, Suva.

Nature (South Pacific) O’Gorman 3315533

Department of Natural John McCoy (03) 9450 Email:

Resources and Environment 8656 John.McCoy@nre.vic.gov.au
123 Brown street, Heidelberg
VIC 3084, Australia.

National Institute of P.O.Box 8602

Charles
Water and Atmospheric Christchurch,
Pearson
Research (NIWA) New Zealand.

South Pacific Community Salend Kumar Nabua Road,

3370733 Nabua, Suva.
(SPC)

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Live & Learn Environmental Education

25 McGregor Road,
Suva, Fiji
Phone: +(679) 331 5868
FUNDED
Fax: +(679) 330 5868
E-mail: rivercare@livelearn.org.fj
 RiverCare

Developing Your monitoring plan

How to design your RiverCare plan?
The RiverCare monitoring plan is a simple one-page document describing what you are testing,
when and where, and why you are doing this monitoring.

Developing your monitoring plan - your RiverCare group meeting

After forming your RiverCare Group a meeting shall be held to discuss the RiverCare process. In
this meeting the monitoring plan can also be discussed. Go over the sample monitoring plan pro-
vided and discuss the various aspects of the monitoring plan with your RiverCare Group mem-
bers. Try to come up with ideas about how, when, what and where you are going to test. It is
important to decide upon various matters in relation to your monitoring plan before the
RiverCare briefing meeting.

Fact Sheet 11
RiverCare briefing meeting
The RiverCare briefing meeting is an important occasion for your group. In this meeting you will
get to meet the RiverCare team which will train and assist you in your monitoring throughout the
year. The RiverCare team will brief you about the RiverCare process. You have the opportunity
to present and discuss your monitoring plan with the RiverCare team during this meeting. The
RiverCare team will advise you on your monitoring plan. Your monitoring plan will be finalised at
this meeting. Once the monitoring plan is finalised, you are officially ready to begin monitoring.
However, your group will need to be trained first on various aspects of Water Quality Monitoring.
At this meeting, your group will decide upon the date and time for your training day. The train-
ing day is the day when you will be trained in water quality testing. Following the training day
you are ready to continue testing on your own. The RiverCare team will support and assist you
throughout the year.

Matters to decide upon for your monitoring plan

Your monitoring plan needs to define clearly the reasons for monitoring the water quality. It also
needs to define what tests you are going to do, where will you do your tests and how often will
you test. It should also describe the actions you will take if you have an accident. It also needs
to explain what you are going to do with your results. So ideally, the following needs to be
defined, described or explained briefly but quite clearly in your monitoring plan.

1. Objective
What is the purpose of this plan? What is the plan going to be used for? The objectives of
the plan should be clearly defined, in consultation with all members of the RiverCare group.
The RiverCare project is targeting the following:

i. surveying water bodies to assess their current condition,

ii. identifying areas where water degradation or pollution exists,
iii. identifying causes of water degradation and pollution,
iv. providing a database of water quality data to analyze trends and changes in water
quality and
v. indicating areas where water quality needs improvement and ways in which this can be
achieved.
You may choose one, more than one or all of the above as your objectives.

2. What will you be testing?

This is an important part of your plan. There are a variety of tests that can be done under
the RiverCare project. You can choose the tests that you want to carry out. It is
recommended that you select all tests given in the accompanying Fact Sheets to have a
better monitoring programme and obtain better data.
 ! The following tests are covered by the AM 12 kit / RiverCare test kit.
Calcium, copper, iron, chloride, chlorine, nitrate, phosphate, dissolved oxygen,
biological oxygen demand, pH, chromium, alkalinity, hardness etc.
! The following physical tests are recommended:
Temperature, stream velocity, pH and dissolved oxygen.
! Habitat assessment is also highly recommended. (Please refer to the Fact Sheet on
Habitat Assessment for more detail and instructions).

3. How Often to Test

The last part of the plan is to decide how often the water quality should be tested. This
part depends on weather, availability of resources, number of members in the group, type
of stream and the tests to be done. Frequency of visits could be weekly, monthly, once a
term or yearly (though yearly is not recommended). Physical and chemical parameters
may require frequent testing (weekly/monthly) while macro-invertebrate assessment
may be done once in each term. Frequency of testing is important because any trends in
the water quality can be easily analyzed. This is why this step is critical for the monitor-
ing plan.

4. Site Selection
An equally important part of designing the plan is to select your site. The RiverCare team
has identified the following rivers as target rivers for testing. You can choose any river in
your area to monitor.
Suva - Vatuwaqa River, Samabula River, Laqere River and Vaturaka Creek.
Nausori - Waimanu River and Rewa River.
Nadi - Nadi River and Nawaka River.
Labasa - Qawa River and Labasa River.

5. What will you do with your results?

A brief explanation of what you intend to do with your results. This part will reflect your
objectives of testing and will also lead to your Action Plan (Fact Sheet 12).

6. Accident Management Plan

Briefly describe the actions you will take to prevent accidents while testing and also a
brief description of the actions you would take in the event of an accident while testing.

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Phone: +(679) 331 5868
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 RiverCare

Developing an Action Plan

RiverCare is not just about testing water quality, but the more important part of this project is
to take effective action with the view to improve the water quality or to prevent further degra-
dation of the stream environment and water quality. The test results are a powerful tool for
taking positive environmental action.

Some examples of action that can be taken are as follows:

1. A regular meeting of your RiverCare group to discuss your plan and possible
projects.
Forming a RiverCare group.
In our collected efforts to maintain river systems and waterways, the first step is to estab-
lish a RiverCare group. This will allow the students to participate and claim`ownership’ of a
section of the river and address problems that may be facing the school or community.

Fact Sheet 12
The group should consist of equal numbers in the following areas:
• teachers and students
• men, women, boys and girls
• representatives from the elders forum
• all ethnic groups in the community

This will contribute to a broad debate and will consider the needs and concerns of everyone.
Students can elect their representatives through class ballot. A chairperson should be
elected at the first meeting to oversee and call every meeting. Meetings are to be focused
and should have an agenda to avoid time wasting.
The agenda of the first meeting could be:

a) Develop a RiverCare mission statement.

b) Identify desired goals from test result and assessment obtained -eg…Cleanups, re-veg-
etation, writing letters to suspected factories, etc…
c) Identify ways in which the whole community can be involved in maintaining quality of
rivers and waterways.

2. Coming up with small environmental projects such as:

! bank replanting
! monthly stream clean-up campaigns / stream clean up day (or week)
! "bug" survey (macro-invertebrate surveys)
! awareness workshop/open day to display test results to teachers, other students, and
parents
! designing and distributing information about water pollution e.g. community awareness
newsletter
! removing weeds from the stream bank and planting native or local trees
! establishing a network with other RiverCare groups and discussing what other groups
are doing
! a yearly get-together of all RiverCare groups for discussion on plans and success stories
! campaigns to prevent dumping of rubbish in the stream environment
! conducting more surveys in other residential or industrial areas
3. Identifying pollution hot spots and informing the appropriate people.
a) Identifying pollution `hotspots’……
• identify cause of pollution
- make a site assessment
- compile a map
- identify sources

• investigate the problem

- make tests along the river
- use the RiverCare test kit
- compile your data

• take responsibility and action

- take ownership of the problem
- plan your form of action
- implement your action plan

b) Informing the appropriate people………

Whatever form of pollution is found, you need to inform the people responsible eg:
if the pollution is chemicals from farm runoffs, farmers are to be approached-or if -
factory waste is detected, factory managers are to be informed.

Your observational reports and data are important to be presented. You can present
them in person or enclosed with your letters.

4. Involving industries and factories to participate in your projects.

• Approach the factories and industries managers for a session.

• Inform them of your project by means of data and analysis presentation.

• Ask them of their waste disposal plan. What other options could they take to
minimize pollution of rivers and waterways?

• Ask them to work together on their future plans and to be part of your action group.
This will allow for healthy dialogue and support from factories and industries in your
effort to maintain the quality of rivers and waterways.

5. Communication and consultation.

Communication of test results and findings to other groups, agencies, government depart-
ments, non-government organizations and community groups is an important part of the
RiverCare project. Regular visits to these agencies will be useful in coming up with effective
actions and projects to undertake. It is also useful in gaining their support for your projects
and future plans. The following departments and organizations can be contacted for
assistance and/or discussion:

WWF, SOPAC, FSP, Environment Department, Health Department, Department of Forestry,

City/Town councils, Jaycees Club and community groups.

Live & Learn Environmental Education's RiverCare Team is always prepared to assist
RiverCare groups in any way possible. Do contact the RiverCare team for assistance,
discussion or consultation.

Contact us for more information

Live & Learn Environmental Education

25 McGregor Road,
Suva, Fiji
Phone: +(679) 331 5868
FUNDED
Fax: +(679) 330 5868
E-mail: rivercare@livelearn.org.fj