Computer

A computer is a complex machine that is capable of performing huge computations at an extraordinary speed. Its processing power is often compared to that of a human brain. Although, human intellect is the undoubted winner in this competition, the capabilities of a computer cannot be underestimated. This complex machine, influenced from the design of a human brain, mainly consists of a processing unit, an arithmetic/logic unit, computer storage, input and output devices along with its peripherals. It is these 'parts' that make the 'whole' system. So, let's take a look at the important parts of a computer. A computer system consists of both hardware and information stored on hardware. Information stored on computer hardware is often called software. 1. The hardware components of a computer system are the electronic and mechanical parts. 2. The software components of a computer system are the data and the computer programs

The major hardware components of a computer system are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Control unit( CPU and ALU) Storage device Input devices Output devices

1. Control unit
A. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Also known as the computer processor, the CPU is an electronic circuit that executes computer programs. The primary responsibility of a computer processor is to execute a sequential set of instructions that constitute a program. CPU operation can be divided into four basic steps, namely, fetch, decode, execute and writeback. During the 'fetch' step, the processor retrieves program instructions from memory. In the decode step, the instruction is broken down into parts. The instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the way in which an instruction is decoded. In the 'execute' step, CPU performs the operation implied by the program instruction. During the 'writeback' step, the CPU writes back the results of execution, to the computer's memory. B. An arithmetic-logic unit (ALU) is the part of a computer processor (CPU) that carries out arithmetic and logic operations on the operands in computer instruction words. In some processors, the ALU is divided into two units, an arithmetic unit (AU) and a logic unit (LU). Some processors contain more than one AU - for

example, one for fixed-point operations and another for floating-point operations. (In personal computers floating point operations are sometimes done by a floating point unit on a separate chip called a numeric coprocessor.) 2.

Storage Device

is a device for recording (storing) information (data). Recording can be done using

virtually any form of energy.storage device is a hardware device capable of storing information. There are two storage devices used in computers; a primary storage device such as computer RAM and a secondary storage device such as a computer hard disk drive. Memory is one of the most important things that is incorporated into computers, be it laptop computers or PCs. There are various types of computer memory that can be installed, depending upon the actual need for functioning and specifications of the system. The memory relates to the many devices and components that are responsible for storing data and applications on a temporary or a permanent basis. It enables a person to retain the information that is stored on the computer. Without it, the processor would not be able to find a place which is needed to store the calculations and processes. There are different types of memory in a computer that are assigned a task of storing several kinds of data. Each has certain peculiarities and capacities. a. Primary Storage: - Primary storage is a storage location that holds memory for short periods of times while the computer is on. For example, computer RAM (random-access memory) and cache are both examples of a primary storage device. This type of storage is the fastest type of memory in your computer and is used to store data while its being used. For example, when you open a program data is moved from the secondary storage into the primary storage. It is also known as internal memory and main memory. 1. Random Access Memory (RAM) . RAM is a location within the computer system which is responsible for stacking away data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly accessed by the processor. The information stored in RAM is typically loaded from the computer's hard disk, and includes data related to the operating system and certain applications. When the system is switched off, RAM loses all the stored information. The data remains stored and can be retained only when the system is running. When the RAM gets full, the computer system is more likely to operate at a slow speed. The data can be retrieved in any random order. Generally, there are two types of RAM; namely Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). When many programs are running on the computer simultaneously, the virtual memory allows the computer to search in RAM for memory portions which haven't been utilized lately and copy them onto the hard drive. This action frees up RAM space and enables the system to load different programs. 2. Read Only Memory (ROM). This type of memory is active, regardless of whether the system is turned on or is switched off. It is a kind of permanent non-volatile storage memory. As the name 'read only' suggests, the contents in it cannot be changed or modified. It is an integrated circuit which is preprogrammed with important data that should necessarily be present for the computer to carry out its normal functionalities. 3. Cache. Cache is a kind of RAM which a computer system can access more responsively than it can in regular RAM. The central processing unit looks up in the cache memory before searching in the central memory storage area to determine the information it requires. This rules out the need for the system to search for information in larger and bigger memory storage areas, which in turn leads to a faster extraction of data. b. Secondary Storage: - Secondary storage is a storage medium that holds information until it is deleted or overwritten regardless if the computer has power. For example, a floppy disk drive and hard disk drive are both good examples of secondary storage devices. As can be seen by the below picture there are three different types of storage on a computer, although primary storage is accessed much faster than secondary storage because of the price and size limitations secondary storage is used with todays computers to store all your programs and your personal data.It is also known as external memory and auxiliary storage.

Some of the commonly used secondary storage devices include Floppy Disks and Drives Hard Disks CDs/DVDs and CD/DVD drives Pen Drives. 3.

Input device

Computers are used by almost everyone for personal and professional purposes. Some

years ago, Information Technology (IT) was not that developed, so the use of computer accessories and I/O devices was limited. However, today you will find a wide range of advanced input devices for computers. If you are wondering what an input device is, note that any computer hardware equipment which is used to add information or control PC functions is known as an input device. 1. Keyboards. Computer keyboards are one of the most traditional input devices used even today. They have alphabetical, numerical, and functional keys which help the user to type in commands for computer operations. Nowadays, you will even find keyboards specifically meant to be used for gaming purposes. Backlit keyboards are also available for easy operation in dark conditions. 2. Mice. Just like the keyboard, mouse is another very important input device for a computer system. It is used to control the pointer on the screen for selecting matter and clicking on icons on the interface. The latest developments in computer mice are that they can even be used wirelessly on PCs and some are mainly used for gaming. Most of the interface operation controls are done by the mouse. 3. Joysticks. Joysticks are primarily used for computer gaming. These are input devices that are connected to a computer to manage game controls such as moving front, behind and sideways, shooting, or other gaming tasks. The devices are believed to make the gaming experience more enjoyable. As a result, hardcore games prefer joysticks over keyboard controls. 4. Headsets. Headsets are headphones with microphones for online verbal communication. Headsets particularly meant for talking have just one speaker, with a microphone. Whereas, others have two, which can also be used for communication purposes, listening to music, or gaming without disturbing others. You can connect these devices to the computer using either a standard 3.5 mm jack or a USB connection. 5. Scanners. Scanners are widely used for professional communication. Image scanners do the job of making a soft copy image of printed materials, pictures, or even objects. These are very useful in transferring documents from one office to the other in just no time. Today, scanning machines are even available in advanced printer combos available in computer stores. 6. Webcams. 'Webcam' is a term referred to 'web camera'. This is a small camera mounted on a desktop or built in a laptop, which does the job of viewing and capturing real-time live videos of the subject. These are mainly used for video chat such as in 'Skype'. These devices function with the help of a software and an Internet connection. They can even be used to record a home video and post it on the web. 7. Touchpads. Touchpad or trackpad is a term that is typically associated with the input control on laptop computers. A touchpad is a sensitive surface which, when moved a finger on, detects the motion of the user's finger and controls the pointer on the screen. On laptops, it works very much in the same way as a computer mouse. It is also used on iPod models with the click wheel. 8. Touchscreens. Touchscreens are one of the latest developments in the computer technology. As the name suggests, these screens can be operated by just touching the appropriate place on the screen surface. Such screens can be found on laptops, PDAs, mobile phones, entertainment devices, and many other latest gizmos. You can control touchscreen functions using your fingertips or using a stylus tool. 4.

Output devices

of computer are types of peripheral hardware connected to the computer either using

cables or over a wireless network. An output given by the computer can be in the form of a display on the

screen or a printed document or a song that is played. Immaterial of whether you have desktop computers, laptop computers or supercomputers, you will require at least one output device. 1. Monitor. A monitor is also called video display terminal (VDT). The users can view the visual display of the processed data on the monitor. Computer monitors come in a variety of screen sizes and not to forget, visual resolutions. All monitors have a video card, which processes the data into images, to be eventually displayed. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and flat panel displays are the two types of monitors. CRTs are cheaper, and have good viewing angle. They are also bulkier and consume more power. On the other hand, the flat panel displays have no magnetic interference and lighter. They are also costlier. 2. Printer. Printer is an external hardware device, which takes processed data from the computer to generate a hard copy of the same. After the monitors, printers are the most used peripherals of computers and they are commonly used to print text data, images, etc. There are three main types of computer printers, namely inkjet, laser and dot matrix printers. The dot matrix printer is an impact printer. It uses striking pins against a ribbon to produce the characters in order to print the data. The inkjet printer uses magnetized plates that spray ink on the paper to produce the data. On the other hand, laser printers use a laser beam to produce the data. 3. Speaker . A speaker is a hardware device, that is connected to a computer's sound card, which outputs the sound generated by the card. Audio data generated by the computer is sent to the audio card that is located in the expansion slot. The card translates the data into audio signals, which are then sent to either the speakers or the headphones. In the initial phase, computers had on-board speakers, which generated series of different tones and beeps. When the popularity of multimedia and computer games grew, better quality computer speakers known for higher quality sound effects and music came into the market. 4. Projector. It is a hardware device with which an image and text is projected onto a flat screen. Image data is sent to the video card by the computer which is then translated into a video image and sent to the projector. A projector is often used in meetings or to make presentations as it allows the display to be visible to a larger audience. Ceiling mount projector and table mount projector are the two types of projectors available in the market today. 5. Plotter. Plotters, like printers, create a hard copy rendition of a digitally rendered design. The design is sent to a plotter through a graphics card and the image is created using a pen. In simple words, plotters basically draw an image using a series of straight lines. This device is used with engineering applications. Drum plotter uses a drum, on which the paper gets wrapped. The plotter pen moves across the drum to produce plots. The other type of plotter is the flatbed plotter. The paper is placed on the bed and graphics are drawn on it. This kind of plotter is used for larger drawings. 6. Braille Embosse. It is nothing but an impact printer that prints braille output by punching dots on the paper. A few embossers also emboss graphics. Before printing, the data should be first translated into braille by using braille translation software. There are two types of braille embossers namely, single-sided embosser and twosided embosser. Interpoint printers or double-sided printers, print on both the sides of the paper by lining the dots in such a manner that the dots do not overlap. 7. Braille Reader/Display. Specially designed for visually impaired, it is an alternative for a monitor. It is connected to a computer via a USB connection. This device displays the output braille characters by raising nylon or metal pins on a flat surface. The data that is highlighted on the computer screen will be automatically displayed on the device by converting the text to braille.

Software
Software, by definition, is the collection of computer programs, procedures and documentation that performs different tasks on a computer system. The term 'software' was first used by John Tukey in 1958. At the very basic level, computer software consists of a machine language that comprises groups of binary values, which specify processor instructions. The processor instructions change the state of computer hardware in a predefined sequence. Briefly, computer software is the language in which a computer speaks. There are different types of computer software. What are their major

types? Let us see. 1. Programming Software: This is one of the most commonly known and popularly used types of computer software. These software come in the form of tools that assist a programmer in writing computer programs. Computer programs are sets of logical instructions that make a computer system perform certain tasks. The tools that help programmers in instructing a computer system include text editors, compilers and interpreters. Compilers translate source code written in a programming language into the language which a computer understands (mostly the binary form). Compilers generate objects which are combined and converted into executable programs through linkers. Debuggers are used to check code for bugs and debug it. The source code is partially or completely simulated for the debugging tool to run on it and remove bugs if any. Interpreters execute programs. They execute the source code or a precompiled code or translate source code into an intermediate language before execution. System Software: It helps in running computer hardware and the computer system. System software refers to the operating systems; device drivers, servers, windowing systems and utilities. System software helps an application programmer in abstracting away from hardware, memory and other internal complexities of a computer. An operating system provides users with a platform to execute high-level programs. Firmware and BIOS provide the means to operate hardware. Application Software: It enables the end users to accomplish certain specific tasks. Business software, databases and educational software are some forms of application software. Different word processors, which are dedicated to specialized tasks to be performed by the user, are other examples of application software. Malware: Malware refers to any malicious software and is a broader category of software that are a threat to computer security. Adware, spyware, computer viruses, worms, trojan horses and scareware are malware. Computer viruses are malicious programs which replicate themselves and spread from one computer to another over the network or the Internet. Computer worms do the same, the only difference being that viruses need a host program to attach with and spread, while worms don't need to attach themselves to programs. Trojans replicate themselves and steal information. Spyware can monitor user activity on a computer and steal user information without their knowledge. Adware: Adware is software with the means of which advertisements are played and downloaded to a computer. Programmers design adware as their tool to generate revenue. They do extract user information like the websites he visits frequently and the pages he likes. Advertisements that appear as pop-ups on your screen are the result of adware programs tracking you. But adware is not harmful to computer security or user privacy. The data it collects is only for the purpose of inviting user clicks on advertisements. There are some other types of computer software like inventory management software, ERP, utility software, accounting software among others that find applications in specific information and data management systems. Let's take a look at some of them. Inventory Management Software: This type of software helps an organization in tracking its goods and materials on the basis of quality as well as quantity. Warehouse inventory management functions encompass the internal warehouse movements and storage. Inventory software helps a company in organizing inventory and optimizing the flow of goods in the organization, thus leading to improved customer service. Utility Software: Also known as service routine, utility software helps in the management of computer hardware and application software. It performs a small range of tasks. Disk defragmenters, systems utilities and virus scanners are some of the typical examples of utility software. Data Backup and Recovery Software: An ideal data backup and recovery software provides functionalities beyond simple copying of data files. This software often supports user needs of specifying what is to be backed up and when. Backup and recovery software preserve the original organization of files and allow an easy retrieval of the backed up data.

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Operating system
An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources. It hosts several applications that run on a computer and handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and application programming interfaces. Users interact with a computer operating system through Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In short, an operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Operating systems contribute to simplifying human interaction with the computer hardware. They are responsible for linking application programs with the hardware, thus achieving easy user access to computers.

Here is an overview of the different types of operating systems.

1. Real-time Operating System: It is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main object of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They either have an event-driven or a time-sharing design. An event-driven system switches between tasks based of their priorities while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts. 2. Multi-user and Single-user Operating Systems: Computer operating systems of this type allow multiple users to access a computer system simultaneously. Time-sharing systems can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable a multiple user access to a computer through time sharing. Single-user operating systems, as opposed to a multi-user operating system, are usable by only one user at a time. Being able to have multiple accounts on a Windows operating system does not make it a multi-user system. Rather, only the network administrator is the real user. But for a Unix-like operating system, it is possible for two users to login at a time and this capability of the OS makes it a multi-user operating system. 3. Multi-tasking and Single-tasking Operating Systems: When a single program is allowed to run at a time, the system is grouped under the single-tasking system category, while in case the operating system allows for execution of multiple tasks at a time, it is classified as a multi-tasking operating system. Multi-tasking can be of two types namely, pre-emptive or co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking. If you are aware of the multi-threading terminology, you can consider this type of multi-tasking as similar to interleaved multi-threading. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. This kind of multi-tasking is similar to the idea of block multi-threading in which one thread runs till it is blocked by some other event. MS Windows prior to Windows 95 used to support cooperative multitasking. 4. Distributed Operating System: An operating system that manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer is known as a distributed operating system. The development of networked computers that could be linked and made to communicate with each other, gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system. 5. Embedded System: The operating systems designed for being used in embedded computer systems are known as embedded operating systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE, FreeBSD and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. 6. Mobile Operating System: Though not a functionally distinct kind of operating system, mobile OS is definitely an important mention in the list of operating system types. A mobile OS controls a mobile device and its design

supports wireless communication and mobile applications. It has built-in support for mobile multimedia formats. Tablet PCs and smartphones run on mobile operating systems. 7. Batch Processing and Interactive Systems: Batch processing refers to execution of computer programs in 'batches' without manual intervention. In batch processing systems, programs are collected, grouped and processed on a later date. There is no prompting the user for inputs as input data are collected in advance for future processing. Input data are collected and processed in batches, hence the name batch processing. IBM's z/OS has batch processing capabilities. As against this, interactive operating requires user intervention. The process cannot be executed in the user's absence. 8. Online and Offline Processing: In online processing of data, the user remains in contact with the computer and processes are executed under control of the computer's central processing unit. When processes are not executed under direct control of the CPU, the processing is referred to as offline. Let's take the example of batch processing. Here, the batching or grouping of data can be done without user and CPU intervention; it can be done offline. But the actual process execution may happen under direct control of the processor, that is online.

Features of an Operating System

Now that we are done with the types of operating system, let us take a look

at what are the features that a particular operating system should have. Some of these features are a part of all operating systems, while some of them may or may not be available in the operating system you are using. 1. Managing Hardware and Software As already mentioned, it is the computer operating system that causes the hardware and software in a computer to interact with each other. It is also the platform that causes one software in the computer to communicate with another. Once the operating system in a computer loads during the booting up process, other application software can be loaded into the computer. 2. Consistent Application Program Interface Application Program Interface which software development professionals refer to as APIs allow the applications that run on one computer to run on another computer having the same operating system. It is thus important that the operating system has a consistent API. Undoubtedly, every operating system will have certain requirements, but it should be flexible enough to support computer hardware from different vendors. 3. Program Execution It is up to the operating system to execute all the programs running in it. It is a rather complicated process. It may have to allow multitasking and allow different programs to run at the same time and share the system resources. It needs to allot RAM space to different applications running on the computer. The execution of more than one program may also require the operating system to prioritize the operations running on the computer. 4. Interrupts The operating system needs to support a good number of interrupts to react with the immediate external environment. On receiving an interrupt it should have the capability to stop the current execution and start off a new process. Interrupting is not a very simple process. On receiving an interrupt, the computer operating system should be such that they immediately save the status of the current applications and start executing the code of that particular interrupt. 5. Memory Management As already mentioned in the section on program execution, it is up to the computer operating system to provide memory to the different programs running on the computer. It has to prioritize and allocate memory to each application. Even when data is saved in a secondary storage device, it is the operating system, that decides how should that particular chunk of information be stored. 6. Process management: It deals with running multiple processes. Most operating system allow a process to be assigned a priority which affects its allocation of CPU time. Interactive operating systems also employ some level of feedback in which the task with which the user is working receives higher priority. In many systems there is a background process which runs when no other process is waiting for the CPU. 7. Accessing Data The data required by any particular application software for its smooth running needs to be accessed by the operating system. The operating system stores data in a particular storage area in such a way that the data can be retrieved as and when required. The file system that different computers use may be different. The operating system needs to support these different file systems. Let us try to understand this with

an example. Some computers may be using the FAT 32 file system, while some may be using the NTFS file system. Irrespective of which file system is being used, the operating system should provide support for the same. However, not all operating systems support all types of file systems. 8. Networking We are in the age of networking. Computers need to communicate with each other. A computer without Internet is not even imaginable. It is the task of the operating system to provide the required networking features. It should have features to allow two or more computers to connect and form a network or connect to the Internet. 9. Security Last but not the least, in today's age, security that an operating system should provide is undoubtedly one of its most important features. Right from setting passwords for logging in, to providing firewall protection; everything comes under the tasks of an operating system. Some network utilities may need file sharing, printer sharing and using TCP/IP protocols. Hence, it becomes very important for the computer operating system to provide proper security so that the computer's security is not compromised in such cases. Let us now take a look at the details of the different operating systems available in the market. Here, we will take a look at only the most popular operating systems and of course, these are the operating systems which you would want to know about.

Best Operating Systems

1. Unix-like Operating Systems We are all aware of the fact that Unix is an open source operating system. By open source, we mean that its source code is kept free for changes. No doubt, for a full version Linux, you will need to have the license key from the vendor from whom you are getting the operating system. There are various vendors like Red Hat, Fedora, etc. who design Linux operating system. History of Unix Unix operating system is designed by many vendors today. However, the success of Unix can be attributed to the AT&T's Bell Laboratories from where it was released in the early 1970s. By the end of the 1970s most people who had done pioneering work in the success of this operating system were holding important positions in the computer world. They insisted on using Unix. Government bodies, educational institutions and electronic companies, all continued to use Unix. This led to various vendors entering into this market and producing their own versions of Unix. In 1980, 'The Open Group' or X/Open Company Ltd. was formed by a group of vendors to limit the encroachment by larger companies who wanted to control the system interface. Open Systems had to meed specific standards and Unix system was chosen as the platform for the open systems. In 1993, AT&T sold its Unix System Laboratories to Novell and in 1995, SCO bought the same from Novell. In 1995 X/Open introduced the Unix 95 brand for computer systems. It was meant to guarantee the Single Unix specification. 2. Microsoft Disk Operating System It is the operating system, which probably marks the rise of Microsoft. DOS is another operating system which has the basic feature of CUI (Character User Interface) mode. You need to learn the commands. Undoubtedly, it was one of the most powerful operating systems of its time and Microsoft continuously tweaked and improved this product, which led them to capture a significant market. History of MSDOS The original version of DOS, QDOS was purchased by Microsoft from Seattle Computer Products in 1981. Microsoft kept on improving this product and by 1984, they had added support for high density floppy disks, 32 MB hard disks and networking. Microsoft continued to release different versions of DOS and worked on the bugs present in those versions. By 1993, Microsoft had included the MOVE command, MSBACKUP and a simple anti-virus program and disk defragmenter. In 1994, Microsoft licensed a disk compression package called DriveSpace and included it in its DOS version. This version is also a part of the Windows 95 operating system. 3. Macintosh Macintosh is the line of operating systems, developed and marketed by Apple Inc. It is the primary operating system of Apple Computers right from 1984. It is a Unix based operating system. This operating system is often credited for the start of the graphical user interface systems. History of MAC OS Starting in early 1979, the Macintosh project was meant to build an operating system that

will be easy to use for the average user. Unlike the IBM PC which used 8KB of system ROM for power on self test (POST) MAC ROM was larger (64 KB). The first version of Macintosh was an easy contrast from the operating systems of that time. Users no longer had to type commands. Newer versions of Macintosh were launched and it still holds a great graphical user interface system. The latest version in MAC OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard). 4. Microsoft Windows Here I am referring to the Windows operating system. It is the most widely used operating system in the world and again a product from Microsoft. The latest version is Microsoft Windows 7. Microsoft Windows was an operating system that included support for a variety of features before other operating systems had included them. The large market that they captured led to the production of a wide range of software specifically meant for the Windows operating system. History of Microsoft Windows In November 10, 1983, Microsoft announced the launch of Microsoft Windows, which was nothing but an extension of the MS DOS operating system. This marked the beginning of the GUI era. The success that they saw caused them to work upon newer versions of Windows. Windows 95 was acclaimed to a greater extent when it was released in 1995. The year 2000 saw the release of Windows ME after Windows 98 in 1998 and finally there was Windows XP, which was released in the year 2001. All these operating systems included a variety of features. There was constant improvement with each version and the GUI got better and better. The year 2006 saw the release of Windows Vista with an even better graphical interface as compared to Windows XP, but it did have its own drawbacks. Finally Microsoft brought Windows 7 to the markets in March 2010, and most of the problems with Windows Vista were fixed.