University Question Key- April 2010 Part-A 1.

Characteristics of optical sources It must emit the required wavelengths It should be reliable,durable and inexpensive It should have compact size and high efficiency It must require very small time for its operation

2. Types of optical splicers Fusion splicing- by flame or by an electric arc Mechanical splicing

3. The potential applications of fiber optic sensors

Measurement of physical properties such as strain, displacement, temperature, pressure, velocity, and acceleration in structures of any shape or size. Monitoring the physical health of structures in real time.

4. Principle of Electro optic modulator Many elements like potassium tantalite niobate , nitrobenzene,nitrotoaluene exhibit electro optic effect in presence of applied electric field Kerr effect- change in the refractive index of the medium which is proportion to the square of the applied electric field or voltage 5. a. population inversion for light amplification, the rate of emission of photons should exceed the rate of absorption of photons population inversion is the condition for light amplification by stimulated emission

b. optical pumping
In a laser we strive to create a "population inversion" where most or all of the particles are in the excited state. This is achieved by adding energy to the laser medium (usually from an electrical discharge or an optical source such as another laser or a flash lamp); this process is called pumping 6. SLM and MLM lasers

7. features of laser trimming is the controlled alteration of the attributes of a capacitor or a resistor by a laser action 8. Basic principle of velocity measurement Based on the Doppler effecr, the velocity of the particle in the fluid flow can be measured from the Doppler frequency shift produced in the laser beam 9. components of holography
Holographic optical elements (HOE) can perform the functions of mirrors, lenses, gratings, or combinations of them, and they are used in myriad technical devices 10. Requirements for laser instruments for medical applications

The highly collimated beam of a laser can be further focused to a microscopic dot of extremely high energy density.

This makes it useful as a cutting and cauterizing instrument. Lasers are used for photocoagulation of the retina to halt retinal hemorrhaging and for the tacking of retinal tears.

Higher power lasers are used after cataract surgery if the supportive membrane surrounding the implanted lens becomes milky.

PART- B 11.a.i) Different types of optical fibers Types of optical fiber based on different classification Each fiber with neat sketch Applications -> 2 marks -> 3 marks ->2 marks

11.a.ii) Skew ray scattering loss Define scattering loss Types of scattering loss Define skew Ray scattering loss Explanation Define dispersion ->2 marks -> 1 mark -> 2 marks -> 2 marks -> 2 marks

11.b.i) Compare optical sources with optical detectors

Optical source 1. to convert electrical signal to light signal 2. Source- LED, LASER diode

Optical detector 1. to convert light signal to electrical signal

2. Detector - Avalanche photo diode, p-i-n photo diode

3. It must emit required wavelengths 4. requires low current

3. it have high quantum efficiency 4. requires low dark current

11.b.ii) LED LED Symbol Principle Operation and charcteristics ->2 marks -> 1 mark -> 2 marks -> 5 marks

12. a.i) Acousto optic modulator Define acousto optic modulator Neat sketch Special feature and working 12. a.ii) Interferometric method for the measurement of length Define interferometric method Neat sketch Working Fiber sensor for measurement of pressure and temperature Neat sketch Working Characteristics graph 12. B.Fiber optic sensors - for the measurement of liquid level, length and strain Neat diagram Working for each quantity -> 6 marks ->10 marks -> 4 marks ->2 marks -> 2 marks ->4 marks -> 4 marks

13.a.i) Fabry perot cavity

Fiber-based Fabry-Perot interferometer (FFPI) is a typical multiple-beam interferometer. It consists of a singlemode fiber with cleaved end faces and a sensing element, surface. o o The space separating of the reflecting surface is called the cavity length. The reflected light in the FFPI is wavelengthmodulated in exact accordance with the cavity length. It can be used in various sensitive applications such as measuring velocity, displacement, strain, temperature and stiffness measurements. Fabry-Perot interferometer For dynamic displacement measurements. A vibrating target was excited by a mechanical vibrator via a function generator in various excitation frequencies. An interference signal was generated from the modulation between the two sets of reference and sensing signals at the output arm of the fiber interferometer detected by a detector. A fringe-counting technique was used for counting the number of interference fringes. This number was then converted to displacement information. One fringe period is equivalent to a displacement of a half of the wavelength (/2). A commercial displacement sensor was employed as a reference displacement sensor for comparison with the measured information from the fiber interferometer. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION In general, the classical configuration of the fiber-based Fabry-Perot interferometer for dynamic displacement measurement is illustrated in Fig.

The optical FFPI can be approximated as a two-beam interferometer due to the inherent property of the fiber Interferometer. When the laser diode light arrives at the fiber end-face, a portion is reflected off the fiber/air interface (R1) and the remaining light propagates through the air gap (L) with a second reflection occurring at the air/fiber interface (R2).

 In an interferometric sense, R1 is the reference reflection called the reference signal (I1) and R2 is the sensing reflection or sensing signal (I2). These reflective signals interfere constructively or destructively based on the optical path length difference between the reference and sensing signals which is called the interference signal.

Therefore, small movements of the vibrating target cause a change in the gap length, which changes the phase difference between the sensing and reference signals producing fringes.

13. a ii) Gas laser

Heliumneon laser A helium-neon laser, usually called a HeNe laser, is a type of small gas laser. HeNe lasers have many industrial and scientific uses, and are often used in laboratory demonstrations of optics. The best known form operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nm, in the red portion of the visible spectrum.[1]

The gain medium of the laser, as suggested by its name, is a mixture of helium and neon gases, in a 5:1 to 20:1 ratio, contained at low pressure He at 1torr and Ne at 0.1torr (an average 50 Pa per cm of cavity length) in a glass envelope. The energy or pump source of the laser is provided by an high voltage electrical discharge through an anode and cathode at each end of the glass tube. A current of 5 to 100 mA is typical for CW operation.[The optical cavity of the laser typically consists of a plane, high-reflecting mirror at one end of the laser tube, and a concave output coupler mirror of approximately 1% transmission at the other end. HeNe lasers are normally small, with cavity lengths of around 15 cm up to 0.5 m, and optical output powers ranging from 1 mW to 100 mW. The precise operating wavelength lies within about 0.002 nm of this value, and fluctuates within this range due to thermal expansion of the cavity. Frequency stabilized versions enable the wavelength to be maintained within about 2 parts in 1012[4] for months and years of continuous operation. The laser process in a HeNe laser starts with collision of electrons from the electrical discharge with the helium atoms in the gas. This excites helium from the ground state to the 23S1 and 21S0 long-lived, metastable excited states. Collision of the excited helium atoms with the ground-state neon atoms results in transfer of energy to the neon

atoms, exciting neon electrons into the 3s2 level[3]. This is due to a coincidence of energy levels between the helium and neon atoms. This process is given by the reaction equation: He(21S)* + Ne + E He(11S) + Ne3s2* where (*) represents an excited state, and E is the small energy difference between the energy states of the two atoms, of the order of 0.05 eV or 387 cm-1, which is supplied by kinetic energy.[3]. The number of neon atoms entering the excited states builds up as further collisions between helium and neon atoms occur, causing a population inversion. Spontaneous and stimulated emission between the 3s2 and 2p4 states results in emission of 632.82 nm wavelength light, the typical operating wavelength of a HeNe laser. After this, fast radiative decay occurs from the 2p to the 1s ground state. Because the neon upper level saturates with higher current and the lower level varies linearly with current, the HeNe laser is restricted to low power operation to maintain population inversion. Prior to the invention of cheap, abundant diode lasers, HeNe lasers were used in barcode scanners

13. b.i) Resonator configuration Optical resonators A simple laser resonator diagram Features and importance of resonator design Principle of semiconductor laser
The laser consists of a semiconductor p-n diode cleaved into a small chip, as shown to the left. Electrons are injected into the n-region, and holes into the p-region. The electrons and holes recombine in the active region at the junction and photons are emitted. The laser cavity is formed by using the cleaved facets of the chips. The refractive index of a typical semiconductor is in the range 34, which gives about 30% reflectivity at each facet. This is enough to support lasing, even in crystals as short as ~1 mm, because the gain in the semiconductor crystal is very high. A highly reflective coating is often placed on the rear facet to prevent unwanted losses through this facet and hence reduce the threshold. The energy of the photons emitted is equal to the bandgap of the semiconductor. The drive voltage must be at least equal to Eg/e, where Eg is the band gap, and e is the electron charge. The semiconductor must have a direct band gap to be an efficient light emitter. Silicon has an indirect band gap, and is therefore no good for laser diode applications. The laser diode industry is based mainly on the compound semiconductor GaAs, which has a direct band gap at 1.4 eV (890 nm). 13. b.ii) Liquid laser Dye laser Construction Diagram Working Advantages 14.a. Measurement of distance and length ->8 marks

 Laser for measuremet of distance operation with neat diagram Disadvantages Overcoming technique Laser for measuremet of length operation with neat diagram 14.b. i)Laser melting and welding Welding and Brazing

Against many predictions laser beam welding has found its place in industrial production with a rapidly growing market. Some years ago first laser welded aluminium parts in the automotive industry were introduced, meanwhile aluminium car bodies with more than 30 m of laser welded seams are in production. More and more branches discover new chances in product development by laser welding. With a shortening of production chains and new designs for example in ship building industry by combined production steps for cutting and welding of panels large savings are forecasted In aircraft industry a partially replacement of the rivet technology enables new constructive benefits which lead to low weight constructions and higher up-times laser surface alloying (LSA) involves melting of a deposited layer along with a part of the underlying substrate to form an alloyed zone for improvement of wear, corrosion and oxidation resistance. It includes three major parts: a laser source with a beam focusing and delivery system, a lasing chamber with controlled atmosphere and a microprocessor controlled sweeping stage where the specimen is mounted for lasing. The process includes melting, intermixing and rapid solidification of a thin surface layer with pre/codeposited alloying elements 14.b.ii) Industrial applications of laser Any two industrial applications of laser with neat sketch

15. a . i) Principle of holography Holography is a much broader field than most people have perceived. Recording and displaying truly three-dimensional images are only small parts of it. Holographic optical elements (HOE) can perform the functions of mirrors, lenses, gratings, or combinations of them, and they are used in myriad technical devices Basic hologram setup

Hologram formation

15.a.ii) Holographic interferometry Microscopic changes on an object can be quantitatively measured by making two exposures on a changing object. The two images interfere with each other and fringes can be seen on the object that reveal the vector displacement.

 In real-time holographic interferometry, the virtual image of the object is compared directly with the real object. Even invisible objects, such as heat or shock waves, can be rendered visible. There are countless engineering applications in this field of holometry Holography for non-destructive testing

Optical Holographic techniques can be used for nondestructive testing of materials (HNDT). Nonoptical Holography techniques include Acoustical, Microwave, X-Ray and Electron beam Holography. HNDT essentially measures deformations on the surface of the object. However, there is sufficient sensitivity to detect sub- surface and internal defects in metallic and composite specimens. In HNDT techniques, the test sample is interferometrically compared with the sample after it has been stressed (loaded). A flaw can be detected if by stressing the object it creates an anomalous deformation of the surface around the flaw. Optical holography is an imaging method, which records the amplitude and phase of light reflected from an object as an interferometric pattern on film. It thus allows reconstruction of the full 3-D image of the object. In HNDT, the test sample is interferometrically compared in two different stressed states. Stressing can be mechanical, thermal, vibration etc. The resulting interference pattern contours the deformation undergone by the specimen in between the two recordings. Surface as well as subsurface defects show distortions in the otherwise uniform pattern.

In addition, the characteristics of the component, such as vibration modes, mechanical properties, residual stress etc. can be identified through holographic inspection. Applications in fluid mechanics and gas dynamics also abound. HNDT is widely applied in aerospace to find impact damage, corrosion, delamination, debonds, and cracks in high performance composite aircraft parts as well as turbine blades, solid propellant rocket motor casings, tyres and air foils. But Holography is also finding new applications in commercial and defense related industries to investigate and test object ranging from microscopic computer chips and circuits to cultural articles, paintings and restoration.

15.b.i) Plastic Surgery Laser instruments used For the treatment of angiomas and other vascular lesions For the treatment of port wine stains and for the coagulation of pigmented lesions 15.b.ii)Gynecology -refers to the surgical speciality dealing with the health of female reproductive system Main conditions dealt with the gynaecologist Lasers used Oncology