Common Diseases in Backyard Ducks and Geese

Teresa Y. Morishita, DVM, MPVM, MS, PhD, Dip. ACPV

Although chickens and turkeys comprise the majority of poultry species seen by the private practitioner, on occasion, backyard waterfowl such as ducks and geese, are also brought into the private practice setting. In order to treat our waterfowl patients expediently, it is important to be familiar with the common diseases often reported in backyard waterfowl species. As veterinarians, not only do we have to be familiar with common waterfowl diseases, but we also have to be aware of the environmental situations that may enhance some of these disease conditions. 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Key words: Poultry; waterfowl; infectious diseases; waterfowl diseases; ducks; geese

There are several books, journal articles and manuals that can be used as a resource for veterinarians seeking additional information on diseases that can occur in waterfowl1-14. As with any veterinary evaluation of birds, the healthy bird will appear bright, alert, and responsive (Fig 2). Sick birds should be removed from the ock to reduce potential disease transmission (Fig 3). Although there are many disease conditions that can occur in domestic waterfowl, this review will focus on the more common diseases encountered in backyard waterfowl.

Viral Diseases
Duck Viral Enteritis
Duck viral enteritis, also known as duck plague, is caused by a herpes virus. Although it is called duck viral enteritis or duck plague, this disease is not limited to ducks. Geese are also highly susceptible to this disease1,9. One of the clinical signs for this disease is sudden death. Affected birds appear lethargic and may have a bloody vent. Male birds can have a prolapsed penis. Some birds also may have oral plaques found under their tongues. The lesions found during necropsy are often dramatic and include hemorrhages throughout the intestinal tract. The intestinal lumens are often lled with blood. A characteristic lesion of duck viral enteritis is the hemorrhagic button or band-like lesions found on the mucosal surface of the intestines. Although diagnosis is aided by clinical signs, a denitive diagnosis is made via virus isolation. Carrier birds can serve as reservoirs in the ock, so a recommendation of euthanasia is usually recFrom the Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine; The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH. Address reprint requests to Teresa Y. Morishita, DVM, PhD, Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, 1920 Coffey Road, Columbus, OH, 43210-1092. 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 1055-937X/04/1304-0004$30.00 doi:10.1053/j.saep.2004.04.004

hough a majority of backyard poultry species are chickens and turkeys, as veterinary practitioners, we also occasionally encounter waterfowl such as ducks and geese. There are unique characteristics in waterfowl that may enhance disease conditions. Moreover, certain environmental conditions may also promote disease manifestation. There are several features that are unique to domestic waterfowl medicine. One is the readily available over-the-counter drugs that are available to waterfowl owners. Waterfowl that have been previously treated can affect diagnosis or the isolation of causative agents. In addition, waterfowl or their by-products can be used as a food source. This should be taken into account when developing or recommending treatment plans. Another feature that is unique to waterfowl is that their environment usually involves the presence of man-made or natural bodies of water, and this may enhance the co-mingling of free-living waterfowl species with the domestic ock and ultimately, promote disease transmission (Fig 1). Additionally, environmental conditions may also inuence disease manifestation in domestic waterfowl.

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Figure 3. Sick birds (center) can be identied and should be isolated from the main ock to reduce disease transmission.

and often have hemorrhages. The spleen and kidneys can also be enlarged. Diagnosis is via viral isolation. Vaccination is possible for those ducklings raised in areas of high prevalence.
Figure 1. Domestic waterfowl having access to man-made or natural bodies of water can be exposed to free-living waterfowl. Disease transmission can occur between these two groups of birds.

Bacterial Diseases
Avian Cholera
Avian cholera is caused by the gram-negative bacterium Pasteurella multocida and has been reported in both domestic and free-living ducks and geese. This disease is usually seen in adult waterfowl, and the course of the disease is often acute. Affected birds appear lethargic and are reluctant to move. Although less common, convulsions and neurological syndromes have also been noted. Because the course of this disease is usually acute, affected birds are well-eshed, and the most common lesion found in these birds are compatible with septicemia (ie, hemorrhages on the heart and liver). In addition, pin-point white, multifocal lesions can often be found on the liver. Diagnosis is via culture of the affected organs (ie, liver) and/or blood. Birds that have been dead for a period of time should have their femur removed and the bone marrow cultured. Swabs should be plated on blood agar, such as 5% sheep blood agar. Pasteurella multocida is rather unique in that it grows on blood agar but not MacConkeys media (a selective media for Gram-negative bacteria), and this feature can aid in diagnosis. Pasteurella multocida isolates from waterfowl belong to serotype 1, whereas those in chickens and turkeys usually belong to serotype 1, 3, or 34. Genetic ngerprinting of isolates recovered from waterfowl and other poultry species have not been similar, to date, when they were evaluated at the Avian Disease Investigation Laboratory, The Ohio State University.

ommended for affected ocks. This disease also is frequently seen when domestic and free-living waterfowl come in contact with each other, as in residential settings or urban ponds.

Duck Virus Hepatitis

Duck virus hepatitis, caused by the duck hepatitis virus, is a highly infectious disease of ducklings that is usually most devastating to those ducklings younger than 3 weeks of age. One characteristic sign of affected ducklings is that they lay on their sides and paddle their legs. Livers are enlarged

Figure 2. Evaluate the ock visually. Healthy waterfowl will appear bright, alert, and responsive.

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193 and mallard ducks in metropolitan parks in Ohio did not demonstrate a high prevalence of salmonellosis in free-living waterfowl15. Outbreaks in backyard ocks are usually associated with contaminated feeders or exposures to other avian species, or housing mixed species of birds. Affected birds may appear depressed and have diarrhea. Diarrhea has often been reported in ducklings and goslings. Lesions found during necropsy included an enlarged liver, white spots on the liver, and cecal cores. Arthritis of the leg joints also have been reported in older birds that have survived a Salmonella infection at an early age. A ock with arthritic problems should be evaluated for the presence of Salmonella. Diagnosis is via culturing of fecal samples or of tissues (ie, liver) collected during necropsy. Although antibiotics can prevent an outbreak, carrier birds can persist in the ock and continue to infect the ock due to their intermittent shedding, especially during times of stress. If a client intends to breed waterfowl species, it is important to start with a Salmonella-negative ock and to maintain a negative status through periodic culturing of the ock.

Botulism
Botulism is caused by the ingestion of a toxin produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Both ducks and geese can succumb to botulism, although it is more frequently reported in ducks. Botulism has been associated with various environmental conditions, including uctuations in water levels and/or water temperatures. These uctuations in the environment can lead to C. botulinum proliferation, which ultimately leads to increased toxin production. Affected birds often demonstrate neurological signs, including paralysis of the leg and neck muscles. This disease has often been called limberneck because of the inability of affected birds to hold their heads upright. As a result of this clinical sign, affected waterfowl often drown. Moreover, waterfowl often display a paralysis of the nictitang membrane9. Affected birds do not have any gross lesions when examined during necropsy. A lack of lesions at necropsy, characteristic clinical signs, and a history of recent environmental changes help establish a preliminary diagnosis of botulism. This diagnosis is conrmed by performing a mouse protection test, which utilizes the serum from sick, affected birds to see if it protects mice exposed to the C. botulinum toxin. To reduce clinical cases, it is recommended that carcasses be collected, as they can serve as breeding grounds for ies, which lay eggs on the decaying carcasses. The botulism cycle can be perpetrated when the birds consume the y maggots, which concentrate the C. botulinum toxin on the carcasses, and they succumb to the disease, subsequently die, and perpetuate the botulism cycle. Hence, recommendations for carcass removal/management and environmental management are the best methods to prevent future are-ups for our clients ocks. Once botulism has been reported on a farm, future outbreaks are possible because the bacteria and its spore can survive in the environment for an extended period of time. A commercial type C toxoid that has been available for mink has been used effectively in birds10. Treatment for affected birds includes removing the C. botulism toxin and maggots from the birds stomach by gavage as well as providing uids and antitoxin10.

Chlamydophilosis
Chlamydophilosis is caused by the intracellular bacterium, Chamydophila psittaci, and has been reported occasionally in waterfowl. Often, the affected birds rarely show signs. If clinical signs are observed, birds will appear depressed and may have ocular discharges. Some birds may have a greenish diarrhea, and this should be distinguished from lead poisoning, a common noninfectious disease in waterfowl. Lesions include an enlarged spleen, pericarditis, perhepatitis, and airsacculitis. Diagnosis is via isolation of C. psittaci from the feces. A Giemsa-stained smear from the liver, spleen, air sac, and lungs for examination for C. psittaci can be performed for a quick preliminary diagnosis. This disease has zoonotic implications, so care must be considered when performing a necropsy. Other waterbirds, like gulls, can also serve as carriers for C. psittaci and can spread infection to domesticated waterfowl ocks if they share the same water access. Treatment with chloratetracycline has been effective.

Salmonellosis
Although salmonellosis has been reported in waterfowl, its prevalence in ducks and geese most likely depends on environmental exposure and/or contact with other animals present on the farm. A recent study of free-living Canada geese

Staphylococcus Infection
Infections caused by the gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus are common in waterfowl raised under suboptimal environmental conditions. The most common sites for S. aureus infections are the leg joints, foot pads, or tendon

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hatching waterfowl. There is usually a history of an exploding P. aeruginosa-contaminated egg in the incubator/hatcher that contaminates the incubating eggs and ultimately the young hatchlings. The ducklings and goslings can be lethargic, have inamed navels, and die suddenly. Egg yolk infections (or omphalitis) can be seen on necropsy. The yolk will be retained, can be dark in color, and there will be prominent blood vessels on the yolk surface. Diagnosis is via culturing the yolk sac and liver of affected ducklings or goslings. Prevention is via good nest management (Fig 5).

Fungal Diseases
Aspergillosis
Aspergillosis is caused by the fungi Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus avus, or Aspergillus niger. Aspergillosis is rarely a primary pathogen in waterfowl. It usually occurs secondary to other concurrent disease conditions or in immune-compromised birds, such as those with lead poisoning. Affected birds may show signs of respiratory distress, including gasping and open-mouth breathing. Infection with Aspergillosis sp. can often be diagnosed during necropsy. A tracheal wash can be performed on live birds. The wash uid can be examined for branched fungal hyphae and the sample can be cultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar. Young ducklings and goslings usually have aspergillosis as a result of exposure to a high number of spores in a hatchery environment. These birds will die suddenly, and their lungs will have multifocal white nodules. Aspergillosis in

Figure 4. One recommendation is to keep the drinking area on slotted areas to reduce wet litter for the waterfowl and hence reduce bumblefoot lesions (a). Note the continuous drip from the nipple drinker. This can be an alternative way to allow ducks to induce preening and bathe. However, a slotted oor is needed (b).

sheaths. When the infection occurs on the plantar surface of the foot, it is often called bumblefoot. Oftentimes, other bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, can also be secondary contaminants of these bumblefoot lesions. Waterfowl raised on rough ooring, wet litter ooring, or oors with heavy manure build-up can be prone to bumblefoot (Fig 4). If a diagnosis of staphylococcus infection is made, a systemic treatment is recommended in addition to local treatment of the skin lesion. Moreover, recommendation to the owner to modify the housing environment should be made to prevent future occurrences of bumblefoot.

Pseudomonas Infection
Pseudomonas infections, primarily caused by the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa, can occur in

Figure 5. Nest boxes for waterfowl can be placed on the ground. Ensure that the bedding is dry and clean to reduce potential Pseudomonas or other bacterial contamination of the eggs.

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195 tissues. Treatment includes the use of chelating agents. Impaction of grass or grains can occur secondarily to lead poisoning and surgical intervention may be needed in these cases.

older waterfowl usually occurs as a result of exposure to a low number of fungal spores and greyish fungal colonies can be seen during necropsy.

Parasitic Diseases
Sarcocystis
Sarcocystis is a disease that is most commonly caused by the protozoan parasite, Sarcocystis rileyi. It occurs in waterfowl but is usually not fatal. Affected birds usually demonstrate no clinical signs, unless the infection is very severe. In these severe cases, birds become easily tired when exerted. This disease usually is found in free-living waterfowl and is diagnosed during necropsy. Affected birds have parasitic cysts resembling white rice grains in the muscles, especially on the breast musculature. Because of these dramatic lesions, it is often referred to as rice breast disease. This disease is more common in free-living waterfowl rather than domesticated waterfowl and involves a carnivore denitive host. Although not common in domesticated ocks, as veterinarians, we may receive calls from hunters that may encounter this disease during the hunting of waterfowl.

Zinc Poisoning
Zinc poisoning can occur in captive waterfowl that have access to zinc-based items or to shallow, manmade ponds in which coins, especially pennies, have been tossed. Gastric lesions have been seen in some birds with zinc toxicosis. Diagnosis is via toxicological analysis.

Mycotoxins
Waterfowl are highly susceptible to mycotoxins, which usually occur from exposure to moldy feeds. Young birds appear lethargic and become ataxic. Lesions found during necropsy include an

Intestinal Nematodes and Cestodes

A variety of nematodes (roundworms) and cestodes (tapeworms) can be found throughout the intestinal tract. A fecal exam is useful to differentiate the species involved. In general, domestic waterfowl ocks have a low prevalence of parasitic infection if they remain a closed (no new bird introductions) ock.

NonInfectious Disease
Lead Poisoning
Lead poisoning can occur due to the absorption of lead. Ingestion of lead shots for migratory freeliving waterfowl or of lead paint (or other leadbased objects) for domesticated waterfowl can lead to lead poisoning. Affected birds will often have green diarrhea, which must be distinguished from a chamdophilial infection. Affected ducks often hold their wings in a characteristic roofshaped pattern9. Affected geese can have puffy faces9. Affected birds become emaciated because this is a chronic disease and affected birds often have a prominent keel bone. Radiographic exams can help with a diagnosis, but a denitive diagnosis is via toxicological analysis of whole blood or

Figure 6. When providing temporary housing for geese, make sure that they do not engorge on newspaper or shavings. They will engorge on these new items if they are not exposed to them at an early age (a). Temporary cagings also facilitate disease transmission if birds have contact between cages (b).

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Backyard waterfowl species can be quite interesting patients, and working with them is rewarding. By understanding the common infections and noninfectious conditions that affect backyard ducks and geese, we can better serve our patients and clients.

References
1. 2. Figure 7. Water should be readily available and be located close to feeding areas. 3. 4. Calnek BW, Barnes HJ, Beard CW, et al: Diseases of poultry. Ames IA, Iowa State University Press, 1991 Whiteman CE, Bickford AA: Avian Disease Manual. Kennett Square, PA, American Association of Avian Pathologists, University of Pennsylvania, 1988 Schwartz LD: Poultry health handbook. University Park PA, The Pennsylvania State University, 1994 Jordan FTW: Poultry diseases. London, Bailliere Tindall, 1990 McLelland J: A color atlas of avian anatomy. Philadelphia, WB Saunders, 1991 Randall CJ: Color atlas of diseases and disorders of the domestic fowl and turkey. Ames, Iowa State University Press, 1991 Riddell C: Avian histopathology. Kennett Square, PA, American Association of Avian Pathologists, University of Pennsylvania, 1987 Purchase HG, Arp LH, Domermuth CH, et al: A laboratory manual for the isolation and identication of avian pathogens. Kennett Square, PA, American Association of Avian Pathologists, University of Pennsylvania, 1989 Friend M: Field Guide to Wildlife Diseases: General Field Procedures and Diseases of Migratory Birds. US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Resource Publication 167, Washington, DC, 1987 Olsen JH: Anseriformes, in Ritchie BW, Harrison GJ, Harrison LR (eds): Avian Medicine Principles and Application. Lake Worth, FL, Wingers Publishing, Inc, 1994, pp. 1237-1275 Haynes C: Raising Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Pigeons and Gueneas (ed. 1). Blue Ridge Summit PA, TAB Books Inc, 1987 Morishita TY: Poultry management 101: Poultry management topics for the avian veterinarian. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians 1995:327-332 Morishita, TY: Respiratory syndromes in backyard poultry. Core Seminar Proceedings. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians 1994:35-44 Morishita, TY: Establishing a differential diagnosis for backyard poultry ocks. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the Association of Avian Veterinarians 1990:136-146 Fallacara DM, Monahan CM, Morishita TY, Wack RF: Fecal shedding and antimicrobial susceptibility of selected bacterial pathogens and a survey of intestinal parasites in free-living waterfowl. Avian Dis 45:128-135, 2001

enlarged, often pale yellow, liver and swollen kidneys. Feed analysis will aid in diagnoses.

5. 6. 7. 8.

Impaction
Captive waterfowl, especially geese, that are suddenly exposed to new environments should be monitored for the ingestion of non-digestible items like newspaper (Fig 6) or engorgement of plant products, like grasses. Ingestion of grains that have a low moisture content with concurrent exposure to water can lead to grain swelling and result in impaction of the esophagus. In general, waterfowl should have access to water at all times, especially when eating (Fig 7). Affected birds will become lethargic and a palpable mass can be felt along the neck region. Surgical intervention is necessary to remove the impaction.

9.

10.

Conclusions
There are many disease that can affect waterfowl species. The infectious diseases described here are the more common ones seen in domesticated waterfowl species. In addition, some common diseases of free-living waterfowl were also included because there are often co-mingling of domestic and free-living waterfowl in some ocks. The treatment of waterfowl depends on the purpose or usage of the birds. If the birds or their by-products, ie, eggs, are used for human consumption, then drug choices and drug withdrawal times need to be considered. In addition, it should be noted that management and environmental conditions should be modied to prevent certain diseases from re-occurring.

11. 12.

13.

14.

15.