1050 CD DOI: 10.

1017/S143192760707105X

Microsc Microanal 13(Suppl 2), 2007 Copyright 2007 Microscopy Society of America

Metallographic Interpretation of Steel Forging Defects

Michael L. He Scot Forge Company, Spring Grove, Illinois Steel forgings are widely utilized in nearly every industry. They often play a critical role in the overall design; therefore, there is a great need to understand the various manufacturing defects that affect the steel forgings. Metallographic examination is a commonly used method of characterizing forging defects. Most major steel forging defects have distinctive metallographic characteristics, thus making it possible to differentiate them metallographically. Certain mounting, polishing, etching and viewing techniques are discussed relative to the type of defects presented. It should be recognized that there are limitations of how far metallography can go in root cause analysis of forging defects, other characterization techniques such as SEM/EDS and microprobe analysis are sometimes necessary to solve the problem. The main steel forging defect types can be grouped as following: Raw Material (Fig. 1): Exogenous inclusions are introduced into the steel during the pouring of the steel ingots. Well block sand, runner brick, and teeming flux are the most common type found in bottom-poured ingots. Indigenous inclusions (sulfide, oxides, etc.) are formed as a result of the steel alloying and/or residual elements; they are considered defects only when they fail their respective acceptance criteria. Delta ferrite is a product of the steel solidification process that can be revealed with several etching methods. Forge (Fig. 2): Most forge surface defect contains forge oxidation and decarburization from exposure to the forging environment. Lack of forge consolidation often appears porous (Swiss cheese-like) and accompanied by noticeable dendritic segregation. Forge tears cannot always be confirmed with metallographic examination alone but often can be suspected the metallographic cross sectional view of the void has a torn appearance. Forge laps typically has an angle of 30-60 and is filled with forge oxidation and decarburization. Forge cracks and seams are likely oriented nearly perpendicular to the forged surface. Hydrogen flake cannot be confirmed with metallographic examination alone but has certain characteristics associated with it. Heat Treat (Fig. 3): Quench cracks are a well know forging defect type. They occur during or shortly after the quench and are characterized by intergranular cracks with the presence of temper scale and the absence of decarburization, assuming the heat treat furnaces used are oxidizing atmosphere. Cooling rate from solution anneal temperatures can influence the formation certain deleterious phases for duplex and super duplex stainless steel grades, e.g. Sigma phase. Several etching methods have been developed to reveal Sigma phase. Unusual Defect Types (Fig. 4): Several unusual defect types found in steel forgings are discussed. These include 4340 VAR ingot surface Mn segregation, post forge ductility crack, Al-Ti-Mn-Mg oxides, Mn-Si oxides, Fe-Al inclusion, etc.

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1051 CD

Photomicrograph Examples of Steel Forging Defects

Teeming flux

Well Block Sand, Brightfield

Well Block Sand, Darkfield

Fig. 1 Examples of exogenous inclusion such as teeming flux and well block sand.

Forge Crack

Forge Lap

Forge Non-Consolidation

Fig. 2 Examples of forge related defects: forge crack, lap, and forge non-consolidation.

Quench Crack From Surface

Quench Crack From Center of a Bar

Sigma Phase

Fig. 3 Quench cracks and Sigma phase.

Mn segregation in 4340 VAR steel

Al-Ti-Mn-Mg oxides

Mn-Si oxides

Fig. 4 Unusual defects types encountered in steel forgings.