40

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS

IRAN

ANSWER BXPLANATIONS _ IRAN (QUESTTONS, pp. 444-452 rN THE COURSEBOOK)

l. C - In many ways, Iran is a unique addition to the AP Comparative Goverrrment and Politics course because it is the only one of the six countries that currently is governed as a theocracy. lran's identity is steeped in tlrousands of years of history that not only includes a deep attaclrment to Islam, but also a popular revolution in tlre early 20th century that resulted in a western-style constitution that was intact until 1979. These influences are still at odds today, and tlrey shape the major challenges that face the political system. Is democracy incompatible with lslarn, or is true Islarn actually based on popular support? The first impulse leads Iran toward a theocracy, or a government ruled strictly by religion, and the second leads the country toward secularization, or the belief that religion and government should be separated.
The brand of Islam that distinguishes Iran from its neighbors today - Shiisrn - was established as the state religion in the l6th century by Ismail, tlre founder of the Safavid Ernpire. Ismail and his qizilbash ("redheads," because of their colorful turbans) were supporters of this sect of Islam that had quarreled bitterly with Sunni Muslims for centuries. Tlre division originated after the religion's founder, Muhammad, died witlrout a designated heir, a significant problem since his armies had conquered many lands. The Sunnis favored choosing the caliph (leader) from the accepted leadership (the Sunni), but the Shiites argued that the mantle slrould be hereditary, and should pass to Muhammad's son-in-law, Ali. When Ali was killed in the dispute, the Shiite opinion became a minority one, but they kept tlreir separate iderrtity, and carried the belief that the true heirs of Islam were the descendants of Ali. These lreirs, called imams, continued until the 9'h century, when the l2'h descendant disappeared as a child, only to become known as the "Hidden Imam." When Isrnail established Iran as a Shiite state in the l6'h century, he distinguished it as different from all Sunni states around him, a characteristic that still exists today. He gave political legitimacy to the belief that the "Hidden Irnarn" would everrtually return, but until he did, the rulers of lran stood irr his place as the true heirs of Islarn.

2.8-

- Beginning with the Safavid Empire, the central political leaders did not control all areas of individuals' lives. While the leaders claimed to be all-powerful, in reality tlrey were not, and people became accustomed to paying attentiorr to local officials and/or to leading their own lives within civil society.
3' A
is not only based on Shiite vs. Sunni Islarn. Even after tlre Arabs invaded lran, people continued to speak Persian rather than Arabic, and many of their otlrer cultural habits renrained as well, including distinctive architecture, literary works, poetry and decorative afts (such as "Persian rugs"). This identity shapes Iranian nationalism today.

4.8 - Differences between Iran and neighboring countries

invaded lsfahan in 1722. Iran was in disarray for more tlran finally conquered by another Turkish group, the Qajars. The Qajars moved the capital to Tehran, and they retained Shiism as the official state religion. Howeveq the Qajar rule marked an impoftant political change. Whereas the Safavids claimed to be descendants of the Twelve Imams, the Qajars obviously could not tie tlreir legitimacy to such a link. As a result, the Shia clerical leaders could clairn to be tlre main interpreters of Islam, and the separation between government and religion widened significantly.
a half century, until the land was

5. D

- The Safavid Empire ended when Afghan tribesmen

6. A - The revolution sparked a debate about separation of religion fronr the govenrment - the trend that the Qa.jars thenrselves had initiated. The constitution retained the monarchy, but it created a strong legislature to balance executive power. The new assembly was called the Majles, and seats were guaranteed to the "People of tlre Book": Jews, Clrristians,

andZoroastrians. The Majles notonlyhadtheauthoritytomakeandpasslaws,butitalsocontrolledcabinetministers, who reported to the legislature, not the shah. The Constitution of 1906 did not turn away from Shiism cornpletely. Shiism was declared the official state religion, and only Shiites could hold cabinet positions. The constitution also created a Guardian Council of clerics that had the power to veto any legislation passed by the Majtes.
7. C - Economically, Iran was transformed into a rentier state under tlre Pahlavis because of the increasing amount of income coming in from oil. A rentier economy is heavily supported by state expenditure, while the state receives rent from other countries. Iran received an increasing amount of income by exporting its oil and leasing oil fields to foreign countries. The income became so great by the 1970s that the governmeltt no longer had to rely on internal taxes for its suppoft, but paid most of its expenses through oi I income. I n short, the govenrment d idn't need the people anynrore. lran was quickly transformed into a one-product economy, and was heavily dependent on oil to keep the government afloat.

Even thouglr the slrah adopted irnport substitution industrializatio, by encouraging ucts thatthe population needed, by 1979 oiland its associated industries rnade up a large percentage of lran's GNB and provided 97%o of the country's foreign exchange.

o"*::L'irH:,tifil"rT:;[tJl

In botlr Iran and China, the revolutions were headed by charismatic leaders - the Ayatollah Khomeini in lran and Zedong in Chirra - wlro founded regimes based on their ability to inspire their followers. Great revolutions have Mao shaken the world in many places since the late I 8th century, and the causes and consequences of Iran's 1979 revolution are in some ways very similar to those in Russia, China, and Mexico in the 20'h century. However, lran's revolution is unique in that it was almost cornpletely religious in nature. Tlre dominant ideology was religion, whereas revolutions in Russia and China revolved around cornmunism. Although the Catlrolic Churclr was very much involved in tlre revolutionary era (early 20'h century) in Mexico, the Churclr did rrot direct the rnilitary and PRI quickly sidelined tlre Clrurch once the party gained control of the country. In lran, the dominant ideology was Shiism, and the most irnpoftant revolutionary leader was a cleric, who in turned ruled Iran for ten years following tlre revolution. Perhaps most significantly, Iran's revolution resulted in the establishment of a theocracy, while other revolutions often tried to break religious control of
8. D

the government.

9. B - The Ayatollah gave new rneaning to an old Shia term velayat-e-faqih (urist's guardianship). The principle originally gave tlre senior clergy (including himself) broad authority over the unfortunate people (widows, orphans, mentally unstable) irr the society, but Klromeini claimed that the true meaning of.iurist's guardianslrip gives the clergy authority over tlre entire Shia comnrunity.
Once the Constitr.rtion of 1979 was endorsed in Iran, the Shia leaders - especially the Ayatollah Khomeini launched the Cultural Revolution witlr goals tlrat were very similar to Mao Zedorrg's goals as he led China's Cultural Revolution in 1966. The Cultural Revolution in Iran airned to purify the country from not only the shah's regime, but also from secular values and belraviors, particularly tlrose with western origins. The universities were cleared of liberals and staffed with faculty who suppofied tlre new regime. Tlre new govemment suppressed all opposition, including almost all groups frorn civil society, and many were executed in the name of "revolutionary justice."
10. E

In many ways the conflict between theocratic and democratic values has played itself out during the presidencies of Moharnmad Khatarni (1997-2005) and Mahmoud Alrmadinejad (2005-Present). Although both are clerics, Khatami was a refonnist who aimed to end tlre freeze in relations between Iran and the West, pafticularly the United States. Klratami believed in a "dialogue among civilizations" that fostered positive relationships with other countries, not just a cessation of hostilities. Although he never advocated clranging theocratic political structures, reformers became a strong presence in both the Majles and the executive branch. In contrast, Ahrnadinejad is aconservative who has antagonized western countries, although he has not isolated hirnself frorn them. He has asserted theocratic values, and has appealed to Iranian nationalism to solidify his white (bloodless) coup of the reformists.
II.A

12.D - Ethnicity is closely tied to religion, but other cultural differences distinguish minorities in Iran. 5l% may be considered Persian, speaking Persian (Farsi) as their first language;24Yo are Azeri; \oh are Gilaki and Mazandarani loh are Kurds; 3o/o are Arabi; and tlre rernaining percentages are a mixture of other groups. Many Azeris live in the northwest close to the fonner Soviet republic of Azerbaiian, creating a worry for the Iranian government that tlre Azeris will want to forrn a larger state by taking territory away from lran. The Azeris do not speak Persian, but they are strongly Shiite, arrd the supreme leader that followed Khomeini in 1989 -Ali Khameini- is Azerl Kurds and Arabs tend to be Sunni Muslim, so the religious cleavage is reinforced by ethnicity.
The cornplicated set of cleavages in Iran is rnade more complex by distinct divisions among the clergy that have led to rnany important disagreements at the top levels of policymaking. Radicals are more numerous arxong younger and more militarrt clerics, and they call for measures to enlrance socialjustice, especially in terms of providing welfare benefits to lran's poor. Radicals generally endorse state-sponsored wealtlr redistribution and price controls. Pragmatic conseruatives are clergy tlrat favor liberal economic policies tlrat encourage foreign trade, free markets, and direct foreign investment. They base their points of view on strong personal ties to rniddle-class merclrants (bazaaris) and rural landowners who lrave long supported mosques and religious activities. Conservatives argue that private property and economic inequality are protected under Islamic law. They are generally willing to turn over.economic management to I iberal ly-incl ined technocrats.
13. E

42

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS_ IRAN

Under the presidency of Muhammad Khatami (1997-2005), Iranians experienced the so-called "Tehran spring" political liberalization, with a loosening of freedom of speech and press, a more open economy, and a friendlier stance towards the outside world. However, the Iranian president has only limited powers, and the reforms were limited by more conservative elements in the government. Since Mahmoud Ahmadinejad became president in 2005, the government has closed down newspapers, banned and censored books and websites, and no longer tolerates the peaceful demonstrations and protests of the Khatami era.

14. B

a period of cautious

15. C Most remarkably, the days of protests that followed the presidential election of 2009 demonstrate the Iranian capacity to react strongly to repressive government. When the election results were announced, supporters of opposition candidates to President Ahmadinejad cried foul, and the biggest popular upheaval since the 1979 revolution began. The

announcement that Ahmadinejad had won with 63Yo of the vote, against 34%o for Mir Hossein Mousavi, caused the opposition candidates to call for the election to be annulled, and people on both sides of the issue poured out into the streets. Demonstrations and rallies continued for several days, and the govemment arrested many protesters, including some top leaders of the opposition. meaning that divorce and custody laws now follow Islamic standards that favor males. Women must wear scarves and long coats in public, and they cannot leave the country without the consent of male relatives. Occasional stoning of women for adultery has also taken place, though the government recently issued a ban on them. However, women are allowed educations and entrance to at least some occupations. Women now constitute about 33Yo of the total labor force. Iranian women are not well represented inthe Majles with only 2.8%o of the total number of representatives. On the national level, citizens over the age of eighteen (minimum age changed in early 2007 from fifteen to eighteen) may vote for members of the Assembly of Religious Experts, representatives to the Majles, and the president of the Republic. The Republic is a highly centralized regime, although citizens may also vote for officials on the local level. Elections to the Mailes and the presidency are conducted according to plurality, or winner-take-all, and no proportional representation is used.
17 .

16. D

- The Islamic Republic calls its policy toward women "equality-with-difference,"

A-

18. C - The constitutionprovides forpoliticalparties, but thegovernment did not allow them until Muhammad Khatami's e\ection as ptesident in 199"1 . Since ttren, mu\tip\e partreshave tormed, with most of them organized around pesona\ities, not issues. A number of new parties appeared for the Majles elections of 2007 and the presidential elections of200!l! and only a few carried over from previous elections, so current parties are highly unstable and very likely to change in the near future. However, the parties usually operate in loose alignments within two main coalitions: the conservative and the reformist. The party system reflects factionalism, or the splintering of the political elites based not just on points of view, but also on personalities. Since parties are fluid and weak, they are not vehicles for discussing policymaking alternatives. Instead, factions tend to coalesce before elections and then break apart iftheir candidates are chosen. Defeated factions tend to stay together between elections in hopes of reversing their fortunes in the next election.

Some observers have questioned the honesty of elections, particularly since the media obviously promoted yeltsin in 1996 and Putin in 2000. A 2001 law seriously restricted the right of small, regional parties to run presidential candidates, so critics questioned how democratic future presidential elections might be. The presidential electio n of 2004 added credence to the criticism, since Vladimir Putin won withTl% of the vote, again requiring no run off. His closest competitor was Nikolay Kharitonov, who ran for the Communist Party, and received less than 14Yo of thevote. ln 2008 putin was ineligible to run, but his chosen successor, Dmitri Medvedev, won the election with more than70%oof the vote.

has. In 2000 Putin received 52.94% of the vote, so no run-offelection was required, since he captured a majority on the first round. Communist Gennady Zyuganov received 29.zlyo,and no other candidates garnered more than j.8%.

19.E-lnlran,Electionstothe Mailesandthepresidencyareconductedaccordingtoplurality,orwinner-take-all,andno proportional representation is used. However, elections consist oftwo rounds, so that one of the two contenders left in the second round will get a majority of the votes. In Russia, Presidential elections follow the two-round model that the Duma

20. B - In 1989 a smaller Assembly of Religious Experts was expanded to be an 86-man house directly elected by the people every four years. The Assembly is given the responsibility, along with the supreme leader and the Guardian

council, of broad constitutional interpretation. one of the new Assembly's nrrt u"ti#s#XlrllSi"tTf,Iloili;ti,HI, Khomeini's replacement as supreme leader. The Assembly also reserved the right to dismiss him if he was unable to Khomeini's shoes. So far, that has not happened.

fill

ii

21. B - The Constitution gives the supreme leader many powers. First and foremost, he is the faqih, or the leading Islamic jurist to interpret the meaning of religious documents and sharia,Islamic law. He links the three branches of government together, may mediate among them, and is charged with "determining the interests of Islam." Although the dual executive positions of the lranian government may be categorized as head of state (the supreme leader) and head of government (the president), the supreme leader holds ultimate power, and is far from a figurehead.
process in Iran is highly complex because laws can originate in many places (not just the legislature), and can also be blocked by other state institutions. Also, policies are subject to change depending on factional control. The two most powerful policymaking institutions in Iran are the Majles and the Guardian Council, with the Expediency Council refereeing disputes between the two. Bills passed by the Majles are reviewed by the Guardian Council to ensure that they conform to sharia, and the council also has the power to decide who can compete in elections. ln2004 and 2005 they disqualified thousands of candidates for both the Majles and the presidential elections.

22.D -The policymaking

23. A- Iran does not have a presidential system, so the head of the executive branch does not have the same authority as presidents in countries that have a presidential system, such as the U.S., Mexico, and Nigeria. However, the president is the highest official representing democratic principles in lran, and he functions as the head of government, while the supreme leader serves as head of state. The president is the chief executive and the highest state official after the Supreme Leader. He is directly elected every four years by Iranian citizens, and he is limited to two consecutive terms in office.

Mexico have both. Britain and Mexico have plurality systems, but Russia and Iran require a presidential candidate to have a majority ofthe votes. Of all the countries, Iran is the only one with a military that has significant policymaking power. Iran's uniqueness comes with its unicameral
24. C

Britain does not have

a president or a Supreme Court, but Russia and

legislature, the Majles.

All the other countries

have bicameral legislatures.

25.8 -The Majles has 290 seats, all directly elected through single member districts by citizens over the age of eighteen. The election of 2000 saw many reformists fill the seats through a coalition of reformist parties called the Khordad Front. They won 80% of the vote in a campaign that drew over 70%o of the electorate. Many supporters of secular parties, all banned from the campaign, voted for the reformers since they saw them as better alternatives to religious conservatives. Before the2004 elections, the Guardian Council banned many reformist candidates from entering the race, and the result was an overwhelming victory for conservatives. Significantly, control of the Majles flip-flopped dramatically from the hands of reformers to religious conservatives.
A body that represents theocratic principles is the Guardian Council, which consists of twelve male clerics. Six are appointed by the supreme leader, and the other six are nominated by the chiefjudge and approved by the Majles. Bills passed by the Majles are reviewed by the Guardian Council to ensure that they conform to sharia, and the council also has the power to decide who can compete in elections. ln2004 and 2005 they disqualified thousands of candidates for both the Majles and the presidential elections. Together the supreme leader and the Guardian Council exercise the principle of jurist's guardianship, making sure that the democratic bodies always adhere to Islamic beliefs and laws.
26.

A-

In both China and Iran, the military takes an active role in policymaking, whereas in Mexico, Britain, and Russia it does not. Iran's elite military force, the Revolutionary Guard, is an important political force, with its own ministry army, navy, and air-force units, and appears to have a great deal of say in Iran's nuclear program. The Guard is becoming increasingly independent, and takes an active role in policymaking. A large number of former Guards sit in the Majles, and men with close links to the Guards control principal media outlets, such as the state broadcaster and the powerful Ministry for Islamic Guidance and Culture. The Guards'engineering arrn, known as Ghorb, has been granted big state projects, such as a new section of the Tehran metro. In China, the People's Liberation Army has been an important political force since before the revolution of 1949, and it continues to play an important role in Chinese politics. Two of the 24 members of the Politburo are military officers, and PLA representatives make up over 20 percent of the Central Committee membership. In 2003, Jiang Zemin's retention of his position as head of the Central Military Commission despite
27. C

44

ANSWER EXPLANATIONS- IRAN

his stepping down as president, indicates that he still had significant policymaking power. When President Hu Jintao replaced Jiang in 2004,the shift signaled that the transition of power was complete, and tlrat Hu now has full control of tlre parallel hierarchies. The PLA is skeptical about military connections to the United States, and Clrina cut offall top-level military exchanges in January 2010 in response to Barack Obama's approval of $6.4 billion of arms sales to Taiwan.

- The rift between statists and free-marketers cuts across conservatives and refonners, and lras taken different meanings over the years. Basically, though, the statists believe that the government should take an active role in controlling the economy - redistributing Iand and wealth, eliminating unemployment, financing social welfare programs, and placing price ceilings on consumer goods. We have seen this point of view at work in Mexico under Lazaro Cardenas during the 1930s, and in Russia and China under communism. Statists are not necessarily communists (and few in lran are), but the same philosophy directed the economy of the Soviet Union with its Five-Year Plans, and continues to direct China's "socialist market economy." On the other hand, the free-marketers want to remove price controls, lower business taxes, encourage private enterprise, and balance the budget. In many ways they believe in the same market principles that guide the United States, but they envision it working within tlre context of the theocratic/democratic state.
28. D

29.n- In 2010, the government made a bold announcerrent that major refonns would end many economic subsidies, especially those that encouraged people to waste precious resources. By dropping subsidies, the government allowed prices of oil, gas, electricity, and other basic comrnodities to reach market levels, and within a month of tlre president's announcement of the reforms, the price of gasoline had gone upby 75oh and that of diesel by more than 2000Yo. Electricity and water bills also increased, as did the price of some types of bread. Supported by state television, President Ahmadinejad pointed out that the old system favored tlre rich, whose lifesfyles - including heating big houses and fueling multiple cars - were subsidized by the cheap comrnodities. Indeed, tlre refonns were structured so that the rnore water, gas, and electricity an lranian consumes, the more expensive these utilities become. In order to cornpensate ordinary Iranians for raising prices closer to world levels, the government lras given monthly cash transfers to fanrilies. These reforms have reduced waste and encouraged conseruation, and yet the cash transfers lrave kept people frorn openly protesting or resisting the changes.
The attitudes toward supranational organizations such as tlre United Nations, the World Bank, and the World Trade Organization are mixed. lran's application to join the WTO in 1996 failed in part because of the difficulties irr making foreign investments within the country's borders. The application also failed because the United States opposed it, so these hostilities between the two countries have reverberated into many areas of intenrational economic policy. Iran's most important international membership is probably in OPEC (Organization for Petroleum Exporting Courrtries) that
controls the price of oil exported from its member states.

30. B

RUBRIC FOR COUNTRY-CONTEXT FREE-RESPONSE QUESTION:

Social cleavages create major divisions that often define a political culture. ln Iran, an important societal division is between conservatives and reformers. (a) Describe the conservative view of government and politics in Iran. Describe the reforrnist view of govenrment and politics in lran. (b) Describe one impactthat the division between conservatives and reformers lras had on Iran's political party systenr. (c) Describe one impact that the division between conseruatives and reformers has had on recent Iranian elections. (d) Explain one way that the division between conservatives and reformers has impacted Iran's relatiorrs with western countries.
5 Points

Part (a): 2 points

is eamed for an accurate description of the conservative view of government and politics in Iran as upholders of the right of clerics to run the political system.

I point

is eanred for an accurate description of the refonnist view of govenrment una westenr influence than conservatives and less likely to believe that leaders lrave to be clerics.

I point

ptli[.tirtilfffitt"T;;-li "

Part (b):

point
an accurate description of one irnpact that the division between conservatives and refornrers has

I point is earned for

had on lran's party system. Some possible impacts include:

. . .

division into parties on the left (reformists) and parties on tlre right (conservatives) pafties dorninated by individuals who carry the banner of eitlrer conservatives or reformists alliances/coalitions of parties lrave fonned orr either side

Part (c):

point

I point

is earned for an accurate description of one irnpact that the division between conservatives and refonners has

had on recent lranian elections. Some possible irnpacts include:

,:

. . . . .

Candidates for the presidency are labeled as eitlrer conservative or refonnist. Candidates for the Majles are labeled as either conservative or reformist. Friction between the two factions led to rnany reformist candidates being disqualified in the 2004 Majles election. Friction between the two factions led to disqualification of reformist candidates in the 2005 presidential election. Friction between the two factions led to major protests during the presidential election of 2009.

Part (d):

I point

I point

is earned for an accurate explanation of one impact that the division between conservatives and reformers has

had on Iran's relations with western countries.

. . .

Relatiorrs between Iran and the West lrave generally been more positive during times wlren refonnists have had strong representation in tlre lranian government. Relatiorrs between lran and the West lrave generally been more negative during times wlren conservatives have had strong representation in tlre Iranian government. Mixed signals have sometirnes been sent to western countries when reformists have controlled the Majleslpresidency.