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see the difference between texting style and essay style. Or, OMG txting is gr8! putting this another way, teachers who let kids think the difference doesnt matter wouldnt be doing their job. And the same point applies to examinations. Ive asked many examiners by Christopher | February 2, 2009 at 8:00 am whether they have seen textisms in exam answers. The answer is always no. But ask joe public if kids use textisms in schoolwork inShare In a GOOD blog post (that happens to feature some really clever photographs, too) titled "Text-pocalypse Now?," Mark Peters interviews linguist and author David Crystal about whether textese/textish/txt is ruining the English language. Here's a portion of one of Crystal's responses: "People believe that a text message is full of abbreviations, as in the classic c u l8r. In fact, when you collect a corpus of messages and analyze them, the average number of words per message that are abbreviated is around 10 per cent. That means that most words are in standard spelling. This is especially true of messages between adults, now constituting about 80 per cent of all text messages. Organizations such as the stock exchange, colleges, broadcasting stations and political parties (not least, Barack Obama) now routinely text as a means of informing people about things. Some actually ban abbreviations, because of their possible unfamiliarity or ambiguity. Anyone who believes that texting is just for kids is totally out of date. A further myth is that texting is harming childrens literacy. Well of course, once you see the reality, this myth disappears. What is interesting is the recent research which is showing that the more kids text, the better their literacy scores. This shouldnt surprise anyone. Reading and writing improve with practice. Texting provides that practice." I'm not sure what to make of this, actually. I think I would have pessimistically assumed that the more one used textese, the more it would creep into non-phone writing, too. But I have observed that this is not the case with me. I completely reject the following textese: LOL, lolcat, and pwned. Yet, I have been known to use "u" instead of "you," or "gr8" instead of "great," especially when texting using my phone (it IS faster, see). I also must admit to not only using, but actually enjoying, the emoticon. Pretty frequently. :-| (That's my robotic, this-is-noHardly any of these abbreviations are new. Several are hundreds of years old. Those adults who object to initialisms such as bbl (be back later) forget that, once upon a time, they did the same sort of thing themselves - only without a cell phone. Remember SWALK on the back of an envelope? Or the rebus puzzles in magazines and Christmas annuals such as Y Y U R, Y Y U B? joke face.) But has this caused me to end professional emails with "pls call me" or "thx?" No. I think people are smart enough to know how to adapt their speaking or writing to different contexts. Your thoughts? The impact of text messaging language shortcuts on developmental students' formal writing skills Dissertation There was a hoax school essay produced in 2003 which was entirely written in texting abbreviations. Unfortunately, millions were taken in by it. Such things simply dont happen. I work a lot with schools, and I often ask teachers to show me examples of textisms in schoolwork. They never can. I think Ive been shown one example over the past two years, and that was a single instance of rushed writing. I ask the kids themselves would they ever use textisms in their writing. They look at me as if Im nuts. Why would you ever want to do that? said one to me. That would be stupid. Quite so. Youd have to be pretty dumb to not Author: Sherry L. Rankin Abstract: The language shortcuts used in text messages are becoming evident in students' academic writing assignments. This qualitative study sought to determine if the use of the shortcuts has an adverse impact on developmental students' spelling and grammar skills. This research was based on the constructivist theory, which rationalizes that students use what they are most familiar with as they acquire new knowledge. The study was directed by four research questions to understand (a) how and exams, and there is an almost universal yes. Its extraordinary how these myths take hold of the public imagination.

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students use language shortcuts in their academic writing, (b) how language shortcuts influence students' spelling and grammar skills, (c) how well students are able to differentiate between casual writing and academic writing, and (d) how the use of language shortcuts influences the amount of writing students do. A bounded single case study using a sample size of 25 students included student interviews, a focus group, observation of students during a writing assignment, and analysis of students' graded compositions. Data collected from the interviews and focus group were manually transcribed and ............................................11 Significance of the coded, and notes from observations and artifacts were used to Study............................................................................................. ensure validity of the interview findings. Consequently, four ..................11 themes emerged: (1) participants frequently used text Summary....................................................................................... messaging and language shortcuts; (2) language shortcuts .................................................12 commonly occur in students' academic assignments; (3) students agreed that language shortcuts have hurt spelling skills; and (4) the participants often have academic deficiencies that go beyond errors presented through text messaging and language shortcuts. The study's findings could influence positive Framework..................................................................................... social change in that developmental students could become .............................14 Constructivist more proficient writers if curriculum adjustments were made to Theory........................................................................................... connect academic writing instruction with the method of ......................15 Developmental Writing communication that students frequently use and understand. Classes.......................................................................................... TABLE OF CONTENTS ...........18 Technologys Influence on Writing Skills.....................................................................................22 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Introduction.................................................................................... ..................................................1 Statement of the Problem......................................................................................... ........................3 Nature of the Study............................................................................................. .............................5 Research Questions...................................................................................... ....................................5 Purpose Statement...................................................................................... ......................................6 Conceptual Framework..................................................................................... ...............................7 Definitions...................................................................................... ..................................................8 Scope of the SECTION 3: METHODOLOGY Introduction.................................................................................... ................................................34 Research Text Messagings Language....................................................................................... ................23 Text Messaging and the Writing Curriculum.............................................................................24 Teachers Knowledge Base of Technology................................................................................... 26 Research Methods......................................................................................... .................................29 Summary....................................................................................... .................................................32 SECTION 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction.................................................................................... ................................................13 Theoretical Study............................................................................................. ..............................9 Population and Sampling........................................................................................ .....................9 Assumptions.................................................................................. .............................................10 Limitations..................................................................................... ............................................11 Delimitations..................................................................................

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Design........................................................................................... ..................................34 Role of the Researcher.................................................................................... ...............................35 Research Questions...................................................................................... ..................................35 Study Context.......................................................................................... .......................................36 Selection of Participants.................................................................................... ............................37 Checks for Validity........................................................................................... .............................38 Data Collection....................................................................................... .......................................40 Data Analysis Plan............................................................................................... ..........................41 Summary....................................................................................... .................................................42 SECTION 5: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Introduction.................................................................................... ................................................61 Interpretation of Findings......................................................................................... .....................62 Implications for Social Change.......................................................................................... ............62 Recommendations for Action............................................................................................. ...........63 Recommendations for Further Study............................................................................................. 64 Reflections..................................................................................... ................................................65 Summary....................................................................................... SECTION 4: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction.................................................................................... ................................................44 REFERENCES.............................................................................. ................................................67 iv APPENDIX A: COOPERATION FROM COMMUNITY Data Collection....................................................................................... .......................................45 Interviews...................................................................................... .............................................46 Focus Group............................................................................................. ..................................48 Observations................................................................................. ..............................................50 Artifacts.......................................................................................... ............................................53 Data Analysis......................................................................................... ........................................54 Findings......................................................................................... .................................................57 Discrepant and Nonconfirming CURRICULUM VITAE............................................................................................ ....................80 RESEARCH PARTNER..................74 APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE.................................................................................. 75 APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW GUIDE.......................................................................................... 76 APPENDIX D: TRANSCRIPT CODES.......................................................................................7 7 APPENDIX E: FOCUS GROUP GUIDE.....................................................................................78 APPENDIX F: OBSERVATION PROTOCOL............................................................................79 .................................................66 Data.............................................................................................5 9 Evidence of Quality........................................................................................... ............................59

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SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY immediate control over it. This raises the value of the text message even more as the object exchanged represents not Introduction only something that is personal, but also a symbol of young peoples independence (Pitfield, 2004, p. 37). On the contrary, the utilization of text messaging language in the classroom is considered by many educators to be an inappropriate form of language that is infecting Standard English and leading to lower scores on writing examinations (Carrington, 2005, p. 168). So the question arises as to whether this form of communication interferes with developmental English students spelling and grammatical skills, as well as their capacity to write comprehensible, succinct sentences. Text messaging language shortcuts have changed the way students approach and complete writing assignments (Carrington, 2005, p. 171). This point led to the following questions: How well are students able to differentiate between casual writing and academic writing? and How does the use of shortcuts influence the amount of writing students do? A study by Schaller (2007) argued that students who were adept at text messaging were three times more likely to be above standardized literacy rates (p. 58). As students embrace this popular form of technology, teachers are finding that they must

The popularity of the cellular telephone has become increasingly evident among college students, just as important for many as their pencils, notebooks, and textbooks. One of the most widely used features of the phones text messaging service. Text messaging has become a vital part of students social lives (Harley, Winn, Pemberton, & Wilcox, 2007, p. 237). Todays youth are avid users and consumers of wireless technology (Pitfield, 2004, p. 5). Students may prefer this form of contact because it is often included within the cellular service package for free or at a minimal charge and it allows students to consider their responses before sending messages (Harley, Winn, Pemberton, & Wilcox, 2007, p. 234). The students use text messaging so frequently that an article by Carrington (2005) referred to them as addicts: There is almost an unspoken comment here that recreational use of txting (sic) may ultimately lead to an addiction and a lowering of an individuals ability to shift between text types according to social context that increasing mastery and use of txt (sic) must ipso facto lead to withering skills around other text forms embraced within the parameters of Standard English (p. 167). This current research led to the formation of the research question that guided this study: How do text messaging language shortcuts influence developmental students formal writing skills? In regards to the research question about how text messaging language shortcuts influence developmental students spelling/grammar skills, the shortcuts allow students

learn to make adjustments to their writing curriculum. Teachers who use constructivist methods of teaching may best be able to connect this common form of technology to the students writing assignments. According to Lambert et al. (2002), constructivist learning involves posing questions on writing assignments that prompt students to utilize what they can identify with, which

leads to more detailed writing assignments (p. 26). Teachers cannot underplay the technological advancements and they cannot discount the role technology plays in students everyday lives (Cunningham, 2004, p. 25); therefore, professional development would help them to keep up with the changes (Rooney, 2007, p. 87). When teachers improve their skills and knowledge about text messaging language shortcuts, students have a greater chance to learn material in a way that is relevant to them. Rakes, Fields, and Cox (2006) and Schroll (2007)

the option to communicate by using shortened words, acronyms, or codes to relay their meaning (e.g., L8R for later, B4 for before, u for you). These conversational forms allow the senders to construct their own meanings and, in a sense, a language of their own (Pitfield, 2004, p. 32). The author further postulated the following: The written message is an important object of social value, as young people have ownership of, or have

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connected the constructivist theory to technology in the writing classroom by asserting that when teachers use technology to accompany instruction they can reinforce increased learning skills (p. 411). Although technological methods do not replace instructional methods in the writing class, they can enhance the educational development of the students. More detailed discussions about relevant current literature to support the research questions appear in Section 2. Statement of the Problem language shortcuts have on the students formal writing skills. This study presents current literature as it relates to the prevalence with which students use common methods of technology, the role developmental courses play in bolstering students writing skills, and the constructivist theory of learning, which contends that students relate their existing knowledge to what they are learning (Lambert et al., 2002, p. 1). In this regard, students who use the text messaging skills they are familiar with to complete their writing assignments may, at times, produce substandard compositions. The attrition of developmental English students formal writing skills (Carlson, 2004) has resulted in some students using language shortcuts common in text messaging within their academic writing assignments (OConnor, 2005, p. 2; Carrington, 2005, 163; Schaller, 2007, p. 2). Carrington (2005) described a student who wrote an entire essay in text messaging language shortcuts and stressed the implications text messaging has had Nature of the Study 5

This study was a qualitative, single, bounded, within-site case study that examined the impact text messaging language shortcuts have on developmental students writing skills at Jackson State University. The 25 participants were randomly selected from a population of 89 students who were admitted to the university through the Summer Developmental Program in

on the educational system and society in general. The students seem to have become more dependent on the shortcuts, which may have adverse consequences on the students formal writing skills, according to Carlson (2004), who asserted that language shortcuts and colloquial language are reinforcing bad habits in writing (p. 1). The problem impacts Developmental English students at Jackson State University because many of them enter the university with deficient writing skills based upon their substandard ACT English subtest scores. There are many possible factors such as poor academic background and lack of college preparatory courses contributing to this problem, but the use of text messaging language shortcuts should be taken into consideration as well. According to a study reported by Schaller (2007), English students in high school in 2005 were 10 times more likely to use nonstandard forms of English on written exams than they were in 1980, opting instead to use the language shortcuts commonly used in text messaging (p. 2). This study contributes to the body of knowledge needed to address this problem by examining the impact, if any, that the

May 2009. To address the research question about how the language shortcuts influence the participants academic writing, the study consisted of interviews with the participants about their use of the language shortcuts. For triangulation purposes, focus groups also were conducted, the students were observed during a writing assignment, and participants previous compositions were reviewed. The interview instrument attempted to determine how often the participants use text messaging and the language shortcuts, and if the students use of the shortcuts occur in their academic writing assignments. Interview data were coded to identify themes in the participants responses (Creswell, 2003, p.193). Triangulation of the data verified recurring themes (Creswell, 2003, p. 196; Hatch, 2002, p. 92) to address the research question. The data collection method will be explained in greater detail in Section 3. Research Questions

The research question sought to determine if language shortcuts have an impact on developmental students academic writing skills. In addition, the question also sought to find out if these

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language shortcuts affect the students spelling skills. In an attempt to answer this question, four focus questions were derived to address the contributing factors. Tucker, 2009). Research revealed there was limited statistical information regarding the use of text messaging and its influence on students academic writing. The Pew Report (2008) provided statistical data to outline the impact text messaging has on 6 society. This study revealed that as many as 85% of teens use text messaging (p. ii), and the study by Schaller (2007) connected students use of text messaging and their academic writing skills. Schaller (2007) reported the extent to which students use of text messaging overlaps into their academic writing assignments (p. 2). This descriptive study also demonstrated how the students use the language shortcuts by abbreviating or using codes for words (p. 2). The purpose of developmental education courses also was examined through the research studies (Alden, 2007; Bennett-Kastor, 2004; Department of Education, 2007; National Center for Educational The purpose of this qualitative case study was to assess the role of text messaging language shortcuts in Developmental English students academic writing skills at Jackson State University. The instrumental case study permitted the researcher to study a group of 25 students (Creswell, 1998, p. 62). The components of this study helped to determine how the participants explain the influence of text messaging on their writing skills. Any tools that can encourage the use of constructivist classroom practices and encourage the development of thinking skills in students should be considered important for all teachers and students, (Rakes, Fields, & Cox, 2006, p. 422) wrote in formulating the explanation. The case study allowed the researcher to conduct interviews and facilitate focus groups with the participants, observe the participants in a natural setting, and analyze their graded compositions (Creswell, 1998, p. 62) in an attempt to determine if text messaging has any influence on the students writing skills. Technology is continually advancing. As it becomes more personal and commonplace, some terms have become quite familiar. However, there are other terms that may not be as well known. This section provides a list of terms relevant to this study. Blog: Website that allows users to share written ideas 7 (Scott & Mouza, 2007, p. 231). Case study: An in-depth qualitative research approach that studies a bounded system or case(s) using various methods for data collection such as interviews, focus groups, observation, and/or artifacts (Creswell, 1998, p. 249). Developmental students: Students who do not meet college/university admission requirements but who are 8 Statistics, 2003; Russell, 2008; Southard and Clay, 2004), and developmental students writing skills were explored through several studies (Brilliant, 2005; Attewell & Savell-Smith, 2004; Huse, Wright, Clark, & Hacker, 2005; Reynolds & Bruch, 2002; and Romeo, 2007) in an attempt to illustrate the foundation for this current study. The researcher teaches developmental English and has observed the students use of language shortcuts in their writing assignments. Therefore, the research

Research question: How are developmental students academic writing skills influenced by text messaging language shortcuts? Focus questions to address research question: 1. How do students use language shortcuts in their academic writing? 2. How do language shortcuts influence students spelling/grammar skills? 3. How well are students able to differentiate between casual writing and academic writing? 4. How does the use of language shortcuts influence the amount of writing students create? Purpose Statement

studies formed the basis for support of what has been observed in the researchers classroom. Definitions

Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study was taken from research that addressed students use of text messaging and its relationship on students writing skills (Carrington, 2005; Im, 2007; Pew Internet & American Life Project Writing Report, 2008; Pitfield, 2004; Schaller, 2007; and

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allowed admission contingent upon them completing remedial courses in writing, math, and/or reading prior to taking collegelevel courses (Department of Education, 2007, p. 1). Instant messaging: Digital interactive technology that allows users to receive and send messages in real time via the Internet (Lewis & Fabos, 2005, p. 473). Language shortcuts: Abbreviations, shortened words or codes used to communicate short messages with other cellular phone users (Schaller, 2007, p. 7). Text messaging: A feature on cellular telephones that allows users to receive and send short messages (maximum of 160 characters) using the telephones alphanumeric keypad (Harley, Winn, Pemberton, & Wilcox, 2007, p. 1). 10 consenting to participate in the study. All 25 students were interviewed personally about their text messaging practices. After the interviews, six participants were randomly selected for inclusion in the second part of the study, the focus group. The number of

participants for the focus group was based on information from Hatch (2002), who wrote that most authors of qualitative research recommend that the size of focus groups be kept to about 6 to 12 participants to allow enough participants for discussion, but not such a large number that everyone does not get to speak (p. 135). The six participants discussed their use of text messaging language shortcuts in a small-group setting with

Visual technology: Any form of electronic communication that allows users to see what is being exchanged. Writing process: The steps the students take to complete writing assignments (Langan, 2008, p. 25). Scope of the Study

the researcher serving as facilitator. The same six randomly selected students were observed in classroom settings during a writing assignment. The use of the focus group and observations served as methods to triangulate the data obtained from the individual interview sessions. In addition, previous writing

Population and Sampling

assignments were analyzed to establish an idea of the students writing styles, grammatical skills, and command of the language. Assumptions

All students who were granted admission into Jackson State University through the Summer Developmental Program in 2009 were considered the population. The program has existed on the Jackson State University campus since 1994 and admits an average of 80 students per year. The participants in the program are all students who do not meet requirements for regular admission to the university because of factors such as low ACT scores, low grade point average, and/or deficient college preparatory course requirements (Jackson State University Undergraduate Catalog, 2005-2007, p. 75). The students within this program apply for admission to the university from all over the country and are referred to the program by the admissions office based on their low ACT scores, low grade point average, and/or deficient course requirements. The researcher sent letters to all students who were participants in the Summer Developmental Program in 2009 requesting their permission and consent to be included in this case study. One group of approximately 25 students was randomly chosen from those

It was assumed that the participants in this study were representative of all developmental students. Developmental students are admitted to the university based on a variety of deficiencies such as low grade point average, low standardized test score(s), and/or absence of college-required core courses. Based on these deficiencies, there is the assumption that developmental students have less-than-average academic writing and spelling skills. In addition, there is the assumption that the majority of the research participants used the text messaging feature on their cellular phones and the language shortcuts commonly used with the method of communication. Limitations

The findings of this qualitative case study could be subject to other interpretations due to the participants proficiency of text messaging language shortcuts as well as the

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11 with those students (Cunningham, 2004, p. 26). The use of text messaging language shortcuts in the writing process may be participants varied levels of academic writing skills. Also, the study was limited to developmental students. As such, the findings may not be applicable to the general population of students at the university. Furthermore, some of the potential participants were students in the researchers English class in Summer 2009, and so a relationship had already been established. Delimitation This section of the proposed study has focused on developmental English students use of text messaging language shortcuts in formal writing assignments by introducing the research questions. It also looked at how the research questions relate to the theoretical framework and current literature. The remaining sections of this study will address the The population for this study is all students who had been admitted to Jackson State University through the Summer Developmental Program. However, this within-site study focused solely on the 2009 Summer Developmental Program participants. The study was conducted during 2-months on the university campus. Significance of the Study Todays students are a generation of learners who want things instantly, as exhibited by the use of text messages and the language shortcuts that are commonly used within the messages. Teachers also must have an understanding of how these students perceive their own academic writing skills. There are several common characteristics among developmental writers such as lack of confidence in their skills, discouragement caused by prior assessments, a lack of understanding of their errors and how to correct them, and a desire to write the perfect paper the first time (Ries, 2005, p. 24). After teachers know to what degree text messaging language shortcuts influence students writing skills, adjustments can be made to the curriculum to factor in the technological changes that may improve their deficient writing skills. Rochford (2003) proposed how best to help developmental students: The less academically successful students are, the Introduction Writing teachers have encountered new challenges as text messaging language shortcuts have made their way into the academic writing classroom. A Pew Internet and American Life Project Writing Report (2008) revealed that 85% of teenagers use electronic communication, including text messaging (p. 3), yet adults, and writing teachers in particular, tend to frown upon students use of the practices because of the substandard spelling and grammar used within the communication (Jacobs, 2008, p. 203; OConnor, 2005, p. 2; and Schaller, 2007, p. 3). The literature reviewed within this section explores how the constructivist theory supports the notion of connecting what students know about text messaging with what they do in their assignments. Specifically, the research looks at how and why some students are using text messaging language in their academic compositions. This section also looks at the function of developmental writing courses and the role they play in honing students writing skills and the 12 knowledge base of teachers regarding this form of technology. Overall, the relevant literature sought to address the research more important it is to accommodate their learning-style preferences because these are the students who often are placed into remediation and are unable to successfully negotiate college-credit courses (p. 667). Teachers in developmental courses must find other ways, more relevant ways, to connect question about how text message language shortcuts influence developmental students writing skills. This literature review begins with an exploration of the role the constructivist theory plays in the implementation of technology in the writing classroom. It continues with a look at the purpose of SECTION 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE relevant professional literature, the research design, and its findings and conclusions, as well as recommendations for further study. that connection. Summary

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developmental courses in the university setting. Next, the study delves into technologys influence on the writing curriculum and teachers knowledge of how to employ technology in the classroom. Finally, this section reviews education continually evolved, teachers moved beyond the routine type of instruction to allow the students to be more involved in their learning process. The constructivist theory permitted students to be more in charge of their own educational processes and development. Constructivism was created based 14 upon John Deweys belief that students increase their knowledge as a result of their experiences and social activities (Lambert et al., 2002, p. 28). Lev Vygotskys theory of cognitive development expanded the idea of constructivism into the sociocultural realm, which stressed social interaction as a means of acquiring knowledge (Irvin, 2001, p. 9). The theorist suggested that learners must be exposed to those with more experience in order to promote advanced levels of learning (Boland, 2009, p. 15). In that regard, students and teachers play an active role in how knowledge is obtained and the tools used to gather that knowledge (Falcon-Huertas, 2006, p. 21). The constructivist theory is applied to the writing curriculum by having the teacher present composition topics that are relevant to the students and through which the students can write details based upon their prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences (Lambert et al., 2002, p. 26). That writing instruction should also focus on stretching students minds and honing their awareness and creative thinking capabilities to produce compositions that demonstrate their understanding of what they know (The National Commission on Writing in Americans Schools and Colleges, 2003, p. 13). Students use

the various research methods used in the scholarly studies. In order to find relevant information for this section, it was necessary to utilize various textbooks that dealt with educational research as well as the Thoreau Multiple Databases search engine available through the Walden Library. Key search terms included case study, cellular phone, constructivist theory, developmental education, developmental writing, and text messaging. Theoretical Framework Previous generations of English students were drilled about spelling, verb conjugation, proper punctuation and the like in an attempt to learn the components of a well-written composition. Applying B.F. Skinners theory of behaviorism, the writing teacher would provide instruction and model the compositions the students were to produce, and the practice would be repeated until the expected outcome was achieved (Irvin, 2001, p. 8). Students would rely on their memories and routine practices to complete writing assignments, and they possibly had no connection between how they were learning and what or how they were writing. Skinners concept of operant conditioning stressed the reinforcement of responses to attain learning (Snowman & Biehler, 2003, p. 227). Basically, the behaviorist theory allowed the learner to react to what was going on in the environment around him instead of allowing the learner to be actively involved in the environment itself (Braathen, 2000, p. 21). But questions arose as to whether the drills and repetition actually helped students learn to write well. Graham and Perin (2007) suggested that one way to combat the rigidity and repetitiveness of

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of text messaging language shortcuts to prepare their writing assignments is an example of social constructivism. It allows students to gain meaningful knowledge using cultural items, such as the cellular phone, to create a common understanding with other students. In the modern classroom, writing assignments are usually completed using a form of technology.

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Adding technology to the curriculum is not a new approach. Skinner proposed the use of teaching machines in the 1950s to offer practice and drills in instruction (Nye, 1979; Snowman & Biehler, 2003). The machines were designed to keep the students actively moving through stages of instruction,

writing instruction is for teachers to focus more on students expressions instead of their grammar and spelling (p. 22) during the early stages of the writing process. Constructivist Theory As

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reinforcing their positive responses as they went through the process (Nye, 1979, p. 56). Vygotsky connected the use of technology and his theory of cognitive development, by applying cultural knowledge, conceptual tools, and social interaction to education (Snowman & Biehler, 2003, p. 59). Schroll (2007) emphasized that when students are able to combine technological skills and constructivist principles, they are then able to improve their technology literacy skills in preparation for advanced learning (p. 1). In reinforcement of that point, Clough, Jones, McAndrews, and Scanlon (2007) conducted a study that looked at the benefits and distractions of using mobile phones in the learning process and found that people who frequently used mobile devices and had working knowledge of their various functions were more likely to increase their informal learning (p. 368). Constructive learning allows students to use their existing knowledge to grasp and retain the new knowledge. Sherman and Kurshan (2005) suggested that in order for classrooms to produce engaging learning, they should have eight characteristics for incorporating technology Text messaging bastardizing language? Updated June 10, 2002 - 12:00am 0 0 googleplus0 0 4). Research tends to support that technological methods can enhance the learning process for students (Hertzog & Klein, 2005, p. 27). A study of the instructional use of text-messaging practices by DeArment (2002) found that when pedagogical practices were based on cognitive-constructivist theory, the students were believed to be actively involved in the lesson. They were able to cognitively manipulate the course content and transform their thinking in order to gain more meaning from the instruction (p. 203). Learning is a social activity (Lambert et al., 2002). In order for constructivist learning to take place, students must interact with others to obtain a full understanding of a concept (Lambert et al., 2002, p. 27). Because writing is a form of communication it is also a

Bastardizing language. This is what teachers have to say about text messaging.

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With the Philippines being tagged as the "texting capital of the world," many wonder how the proliferation of mobile phones has affected the Filipinos’ facility for languages.

using constructivist approaches. The authors recommend that the classrooms should be active, interesting, learner centered, focused on real life, social, time-conscious, and provide frequent feedback and support (p. 39). When students are able to process information internally they are then able to produce assigned writing assignments with greater ease (Ruttle, 2004, p. 72). They are able to use what they have been taught through instruction and blend it with their preferred method of selfexpression, which may be text messaging. Alvermann (2007) reiterated the importance of connecting the technological advancements students are familiar with to their assignments. The author added that teachers need to embrace innovative ideas that may be outside of the traditional style of teaching to allow the students to be more involved in their educational development (p. 18-19). OConnor (2005) posited that popular forms of technology such as text messaging can be used as a learning tool if students are taught how to make the connection between its form of writing and the formal, academic writing (p.

Reading students’ essays with words like "4u or 2gthr yrs 18r" and looking at the signpost that reads "Ped Xing" (meaning pedestrian crossing), one can tell that cellular text messaging or Short Messaging Service (SMS) has revolutionized the way Filipinos talk, write and read. But doesn’t text messaging further thwart or impede the facility for languages?

Assistant professor Mildred Rojo-Laurilla, of De La Salle University-Manila’s Department of English and Applied Linguistics (DEAL), attempts to provide answers in her research titled A Preliminary Investigation on the Linguistic Aspects of Text Messaging.

Using the Dell Hymes theory of "Ethnography of Speaking" that studies how culture, language and society interact, Laurilla is able to capture the existing and even underlying relationships between and among variables examined.

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Laurilla administered a questionnaire to 433 first-year English students from the De La Salle University (297) and from the University of the Philippines-Los Baos in Laguna(136). the grammar and spelling scores of both cellular phone owners and non-owners. It can be implied that the students’ performance in terms of their language skills or competencies is independent or not related at all to the fact that they own cellular phones. Laurilla’s study establishes several facts. In the Philippines, the cellular phone industry widely caters to the younger market. The study shows that most of the respondents aged 16 to 21, majority of them 17- to 18-year-olds, have cellular phones (95 percent, DLSU; 71 percent, UPLB). Most of them are prepaid phone users, with an average spending profile of P400 to P500. Despite the respondents’ overexposure to the cellular Texting is part of the youth’s cellular phone use, but students are generally low frequency texters (54 percent, DLSU; 71 percent, UPLB). Early to late evenings are the most preferred time for texting, owing perhaps to the fact that they are already out of school and use their time on leisurely activities, including texting. Laurilla suggested that "real" or more recognizable effects of texting on students’ grammar and spelling competencies may be seen if the respondents were the more vulnerable ones like high school or elementary students who are just beginning Students admit to abbreviating (89 percent, DLSU; 100 percent, UPLB), citing convenience as the number one reason for doing so. Other reasons given: it is the "in" thing or fad, or that they do not know the spelling of the words. Laurilla partly dispelled the popular observation that cellular phones may bring more harm than good to students. Results of her study indicate that college students are able to discern the In terms of language use, the 150 respondents who participated in the "actual texting," prefer to use "texted English" or the abbreviated form of English if they send messages or reply to messages that take the form of "pure" or straight English and the texted or abbreviated English. Indirectly, the technology serves as an "image maker" for the youth, who are impressionable and are finding their own identities. The college students are mature enough to know their Fifty percent of the respondents did not respond to text sent to them via "pure" Filipino and Filipino/English pure or texted codeswitched forms. The rest of the respondents had mixed preferences for the language to be used whether in pure Filipino, pure English or pure Filipino/English code-switched forms or their texted forms when responding to text sent to them via pure Filipino and English/Filipino pure or abbreviated code-switched forms. (Laurilla finished M.A. Communication Studies at the University of North Iowa in the United States. Aside from language and technology, she also specializes on gender studies, popular culture, mass communications, mediated discourse and sociolinguistics. She is currently completing her Ph.D. in Applied Linguistics at DLSU-Manila. There seems to be ambivalence on the effects of texting on their language competencies. Both DLSU and UPLB students believe that texting has no negative effects at all on their language competencies, such as grammar and spelling. Majority of both DLSU and UPLB respondents have a positive attitude toward texting (82 percent, DLSU; 79 percent, UPLB). Source: Breakthrough, DLSU Statistical tests show that there are no significant differences in The paper will be presented at the 52nd Annual International Communication Association (ICA) Conference on July 15-19 in Seoul, Korea.) personal academic capabilities and what the technology means to them. formal language – the kind that is used in the classroom – from the non-conventional texted English. to develop language and communication skills. phone technology, it does not, in any way, cause them to do poorly in class, especially in grammar and spelling. Among cellular phone owners, their frequency of texting has no effect on their grammar and spelling scores. Similarly, it can also be implied that language skills or competencies are independent of the extent they use the technology.

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Text messaging is described as the exchange of short text messages. Text messages can be sent via mobile phones, fixed-line phone, and portable or fixed devices over a network. Originally, text messaging only referred to Short Message Service (SMS) messages but as technology improved, text messaging also includes Multimedia Message Service (MMS) messages. While SMS is only text-based, MMS messages contain pictures, sound, images, animation, and video. The person who sends a text message is called a texter and separate regions may have different colloquialisms. In Australia, India, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and North America, text messaging is simply known as a text. In other parts of Europe, its SMS, and in Asia and the Middle East, its SMS or TMS. Since its very easy to send a text, many people find it very convenient to use SMS or MMS for communication, alerts, business, and so on. Nowadays, famous people like entertainers, sports personalities, politicians, and other influential people can use text messaging to reach their fans via the Twitter platform. History The history of text messaging began when Sema Group test engineer Neil Papworth sent a text message to Richard Jarvis through the Vodafone network by using his personal computer. Sent on December 3, 1992, the message simply read Merry Christmas. The limit of a standard SMS message is 140 bytes per message. With 7-bit encoding, a texter can send a maximum of 160 characters if the English alphabet is used. In the early days, text messaging was not so popular and one GSM customer only sent an average of 0.4 messages per month in 1995. Since the operators were not up to speed in setting up charging systems and eliminating billing fraud, the general public was not too enthusiastic to use text messaging. Now, SMS is available on 3G networks as well as a wide range of other networks and its the most popular mobile data service. At the end of 2007, 74 percent of mobile phone users around the world are active users of SMS. More than 85 percent of the population in countries like Finland, Norway, and Sweden use SMS. At the end of 2008, close to 60 percent of North Americans and about 80 percent of Europeans are known to be active users of SMS. In the Philippines, subscribers send an average of 27 text messages a day. Social Impacts One of the social impacts of text messaging is the effect on language. Due to the small phone keypad and the charges for sending messages, users have come up with a number of adaptations and abbreviations like lol for laugh out loud, brb for be right back, HMU for hit me up, and OTOH for on the other hand. Sometimes, texters may use CamelCase so they may write something like ILoveToText. According to a 2009 Rosen report, young adults who regularly used abbreviations or adaptations in daily writing performed worse in formal writing as compared to young adults who used less abbreviations or adaptations. There are also concerns that texters may forget how to communicate in real life since they can speak to other people without using voice communication. In the real world, avid texters may feel awkward about talking to real people but its not something that they cannot get used to. cannot use voice communication. SMS is also widely used in regions where its much cheaper to send a text message than to make a voice call. SMS is used in home automation systems to control certain appliances so users can switch them on or off. Flash SMS is suitable to be used to warn people of an emergency and it can also be used to send a one-time password to protect the confidentiality of the user. Nowadays, text messaging is used for various purposes so users have access to sports updates or scores, news, alerts from companies, infotainment, banking services, ticket booking, mobile billing, and the like. Companies also use SMS to deliver Premium-rated Short Messages where subscribers have to pay premium rates for receiving financial information, news alerts, ringtones, logos, and more. Businesses use SMS to provide updates, reminders, time-critical alerts, content, and run mobile campaigns, competitions, media voting, mobile social networking services, dating services, and so on. SMS is particularly popular in Asia, Australia, Europe, New Zealand, and the United States. In 2001, subscribers in China sent some 18 billion text messages but the champion text messaging country must surely be the Philippines where subscribers sent about 142 billion text messages per year.

Text Messaging (PDF) 7 Productive Uses Improving Social Presence Uses of Text Messaging (PDF) More than Just an Add-On Americans & Text Messaging

History of Text Messaging History of SMS The History of Texting SMS History The First Texter What is SMS? Uses Text messaging is highly popular with private mobile users because they can communicate with each other even when they

Effects on Teens Grammar (PDF) Text Messaging (PDF) Text Message Shorthand Text Messaging Abbreviations Teenage Social Networks, Text Messaging, and IMing Social & Psychological Effects (PDF) Problems

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Texting while driving is a great distraction and its extremely dangerous. The Virginia Tech Transportation Institute conducted an 18-month study in 2009 and the results showed that its texting can increase the risk of crashing by 23 times. In schools, texting has made it easier for students to cheat in exams. Text bullying is also a great concern because a gossip or rumor can be spread quickly and it can cause distress to the victims. There are also security concerns about texting because the network operator has access to the content. In this sense, texting may not be suitable for secure communications. Considering the popularity of text messaging, what role do textisms and textese play in the overall literacy or illiteracy of young people today? Interested in texting, and its affects on literary skills, Clare Wood, Sally Meachem, and their research team investigated text messaging and spelling ability in children aged 8-12 years in 2011. The team concluded from the results of their study that the use of textisms, or text-message spellings, does affect spelling

Texting While Driving Getting Drivers to Stop Texting A Tool for Cheating (PDF) Cheating Goes Digital Dealing with Text Bullying Abusive Text Messaging The Future The volume of global SMS has grown every year and its forecasted to reach about 3,700 billion in 2012. SMS is perfect for companies that want to launch a mobile campaign because its reliable and affordable. Furthermore, all mobiles are enabled to receive and send text messages and the majority of the world population own mobiles. As more and more people switch to smart phones, some people observe that the use of SMS will decline. According to a recent study by CTIA in 2010, the volume of texts was still increasing but the rate of growth had slowed down. For the younger generation, SMS may be considered old-fashioned, and there are indications that the use of text messaging may decline in the future.

performance, but when strong phonological skills are present, spelling skills remain intact. Text Messaging and Spelling Research Over the last ten years, several researchers have studied the effect of text messaging extensively, coming to a variety of conclusions, some of which appear to support this most recent research.

Back in 2003, Dr. Crispin Thurlow, an expert in language and communication, described the language of text messaging to be adaptive and additive rather than necessarily subtractive, meaning that texting can have positive linguistic advantages. However, Thurlows remarks were made almost a decade ago and research highlights substantial increases in young peoples use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) and shows that text messaging is one of the most widespread digital practices. A 2010 study clearly supports this by revealing

Future of SMS Enhanced Messaging Service The Future of SMS Messaging Future in Business Communication (PDF) Texting Cools Off SMSs Slow Decline

that US teens alone send over 6 text messages per waking hour, and send and receive and average of 3,339 texts monthly.

In 2009, Beverly Plester and Clare Wood, taking interest in the question of the influence of texting on literacy, focused on the use of text messaging by pre-teen British

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children. In this study, the researchers paid specific attention to the abbreviations and characteristic language used within text messages, also known as textese and

Text Messaging: Basically Addictive or Essentially Additive? DECEMBER 12, 2011 BY LESLEY LANIR 2 COMMENTS inShare1

textisms. Their results did not conclusively support the negative reports surrounding cell phone use and texting. Quite the reverse, they discovered that textese and textisms assisted the development of literary skills. Plester and Woods findings, in particular, appear surprising, since over the years, research has shown that the mental

US Teens send over 6 text messages per waking hour - Photo by Darkstream

template of a written word, although supported by the sound system of a language, is established principally through exposure to whole word formats. A survey of research of over

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more than two decades supports this by revealing that producing, or being shown, misspelled words can adversely affect spelling skills. Link Between Texting and Literary Skills Explained awareness instruction eventually improve their literary skills. More importantly, much textism depends upon senders and receivers having good linguistic abilities and some acquired linguistic skills for successful texting to take place. Therefore, to all intents and purposes, texting, through its text manipulations and creations, provides a platform for young people to create Texting and literary - additive or subtractive? Photo by lipajr Although unexpected, text messagings positive affect on literary skills seems plausible when you consider more deeply Wood and Meachems claim that strong phonological skills may be one of the contributing factors of the of text message senders continued spelling accuracy in traditional written language exercises. This result lends support once again to the theory of the strong role of phonological awareness and perception in orthographic processing and spelling ability, and partially answers the question of how texting can improve literacy. Texting Both Needs and Strengthens Phonological Skills Conceivably, texting and phonological skills have a reciprocal relationship dependant primarily on highly-functioning phonological ability. Textese and textisms permit more linguistic information to be condensed into the 160 characters allowed per message than conventional spelling would allow. In order to create textisms, such as l8r, inorite, and b4, text message creators and receivers need to be able to accomplish a number of language tasks. Nielsen Wire. U.S.TeenMobileReport: Calling Yesterday, Texting Today, Using Apps Tomorrow. (October 14, 2010). Accessed December 12, 2011. Plester, B. & Wood, C. Exploring Relationships between Traditional and New Media Literacies: British Preteen Texters at School. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. Volume 14, Issue 4, 11081129. (July 2009). Accessed December 12, 2011. Thurlow, C. Generation Txt? The sociolinguistics of young peoples text-messaging. Discourse Analysis Online, 1(1). (2003). Accessed December 12, 2011. Wood, C., Meachem, S., et al. A Longitudinal Study of Childrens Text Messaging and Literacy Development. British Journal of Text composers must break words down into syllables, and understand that words are a stream of compressed distinct language sounds. Psychology. Aug;102 (3):431-42. (2011). Accessed December 12, 2011. Resources Brown, A. Encountering misspellings and spelling performance: Why wrong isnt right. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80 (4), (1998): 488-495. Accessed December 12, 2011. Burt J.S. & Long J. Are word representations abstract or instancebased? Effects of spelling inconsistency in orthographic learning. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology. Sep;65(3) (2011): 214-428. Accessed December 12, 2011. Dixon, M. & Kaminska, Z. Is it Misspelled or is it Misspelled? The Texting proves and improves phonemic awareness - Photo by hollywata Texting Essentially Phonemic Exercises For decades, reading research has focused on phonological awareness and reading attainment. Researchers have shown repeatedly that children who receive explicit phonological Influence of Fresh Orthographic Information on Spelling . Readingand Writing. An Interdisciplinary Journal. 9 (1997): 483498. Ehri, L. Reading by Sight and by Analogy in Beginning Readers. In C. Hulme & R.M. Joshi (Eds.),Readingand Spelling: and practice phonemic activities that enhance phonemic awareness. This vital skill is eventually readily transferred to reading and writing acquisition, and furthers literacy development. So, texting is not necessarily detrimental and, in some cases, actually adds to the literary skills of those children whose innate phonological capabilities are functioning normally. Sources

Composers of a text message must identify graphemes which represent phonemes, isolate the individual phonemes, deconstruct words into individual phonemes, and. construct a word from a string of single phonemes.

Text message users must be familiar with the acceptable phoneme-grapheme mappings in written English, and must differentiate the sequence of the discrete language sounds or phonemes in a word.

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Developmental and Disorders Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc., (1998b): 87-112. Ehri, L. Learning to Read and Learning to Spell: Two Sides of a Coin. Topics in Language Disorders, 20(3) (2000): 19-36. Folk, J., Rapp, B., & Goldrick, M. The Interaction of Lexical and Sublexical Information in Spelling: Whats the Point? Cognitive Neuropsychology, 19 (7) (2002): 653-671. Accessed December 12, 2011. Jacoby, L., & Hollingshead, A. Reading Student Essays may be Hazardous to your Spelling: Effects of Reading Incorrectly and Correctly Spelled words. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 44(3) (1990): 345-358. FILED UNDER: LINGUISTICS TAGGED WITH: LITERACY, PHONOLOGY, TEXTING The language shortcuts used in text messages are becoming evident in students' academic writing assignments. This qualitative study sought to determine if the use of the shortcuts has an adverse impact on developmental students' spelling and grammar skills. This research was based on the constructivist theory, which rationalizes that students use what they are most familiar with as they acquire new knowledge. The study was directed by four research questions to understand (a) how students use language shortcuts in their academic writing, (b) how language shortcuts influence students' spelling and grammar skills, (c) how well students are able to differentiate between casual writing and academic writing, and (d) how the use of language shortcuts influences the amount of writing students do. A bounded single case study using a sample size of 25 students included student interviews, a focus group, observation of students during a writing assignment, and analysis of students' graded compositions. Data collected from the interviews and focus group were manually transcribed and coded, and notes from observations and artifacts were used to ensure validity of the interview findings. Consequently, four themes emerged: (1) participants frequently used text messaging and language shortcuts; (2) language shortcuts commonly occur in students' academic assignments; (3) students agreed that language shortcuts have hurt spelling skills; and (4) the participants often have academic deficiencies that go beyond errors presented through text messaging and language shortcuts. The study's findings could influence positive social change in that developmental students could become more proficient writers if curriculum adjustments were made to connect academic writing instruction with the method of communication that students frequently use and understand. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/enUS/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.] Summary: Database: ERIC The ERIC database is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Education. The language shortcuts used in text messages are becoming evident in students' academic writing assignments. This qualitative study sought to determine if the use of the shortcuts has an adverse impact on developmental students' spelling and grammar skills. This research was based on the constructivist theory, which rationalizes that students use what they are most familiar with as they acquire new knowledge. The study was directed by four research questions to understand (a) how students use language shortcuts in their academic writing, (b) how language shortcuts influence students' spelling and grammar skills, (c) how well students are able to differentiate between casual writing and academic writing, and (d) how the use of language shortcuts influences the amount of writing students do. A bounded single case study using a sample size of 25 students included student interviews, a focus group, observation of students during a writing assignment, and analysis of students' graded compositions. Data collected from the interviews and focus group were manually transcribed and coded, and notes from observations and artifacts were used to ensure validity of the interview findings. Consequently, four themes emerged: (1) participants frequently used text messaging and language shortcuts; (2) language shortcuts commonly occur in students' academic assignments; (3) students agreed that language shortcuts have hurt spelling skills; and (4) the participants often have academic deficiencies that go beyond errors presented through text messaging and language shortcuts. The study's findings could influence positive social change in that developmental students could become more proficient writers if curriculum adjustments were made to connect academic writing instruction with the method of communication that students frequently use and understand. [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/enEdition/Format : Book : English The Impact of Text Messaging Language Shortcuts on Developmental Students' Formal Writing Skills Author: Publisher: Sherry L Rankin ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106. Tel: 800-521-0600; Web site: http://www.proquest.com/enUS/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml 201000-00

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US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.] Rea d less Rating: (not yet rated) 0 with reviews - Be the first. analysis of students' graded compositions. Data collected from the interviews and focus group were manually transcribed and coded, and notes from observations and artifacts were used to ensure validity of the interview findings. Consequently, four themes emerged: (1) participants frequently used text messaging and language shortcuts; (2) language shortcuts Borrow / obtain a copy Find a copy in the library We were unable to get information about libraries that hold this item. Details Document Type: Book commonly occur in students' academic assignments; (3) students agreed that language shortcuts have hurt spelling skills; and (4) the participants often have academic deficiencies that go beyond errors presented through text messaging and language shortcuts. The study's findings could influence positive social change in that developmental students could become more proficient writers if curriculum adjustments were made to connect academic writing instruction with the method of communication that students frequently use and understand. All Authors / Contributors: Sherry L Rankin [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by ISBN: ISBN-978-1-1243-0929-3 Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: http://www.proquest.com/enUS/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.] OCLC Number: 748840998 OMG: Researchers say text messaging really is leading to a generation with poor grammar skills By MARK PRIGG PUBLISHED: 13:58 GMT, 27 July 2012 | UPDATED: 16:04 GMT, 27 July 2012 Comments (24) Share

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Abstract: The language shortcuts used in text messages are becoming evident in students' academic writing assignments. This qualitative study sought to determine if the use of the shortcuts has an adverse impact on developmental students' spelling and grammar skills. This research was based on the constructivist theory, which rationalizes that students use what they are most familiar with as they acquire new knowledge. The study was directed by four research questions to understand (a) how students use language shortcuts in their academic writing, (b) how language shortcuts influence students' spelling and grammar skills, (c) how well students are able to differentiate between casual writing and academic writing, and (d) how the use of language shortcuts influences the amount of writing students do. A bounded single case study using a sample size of 25 students included student interviews, a focus group, observation of students during a writing assignment, and

Text messaging is having more of an effect of young people's grammar skills than previously thought, researchers believe. They say 10-12 year old children, known as tweens, who constantly rely on shortened words and phrases such as OMG, LOL and amazeballs, struggle in grammar tests. 'Tweens who frequently use language adaptations -- techspeak - when they text performed poorly on a grammar test', said Drew Cingel, a former undergraduate student in communications, Penn State, and currently a doctoral candidate in media, technology and society at Northwestern University.

Children who text frequently were found to perform badly in grammar tests 'They may use a homophone, such as gr8 for great, or an initial, like, LOL for laugh out loud,' said Cingel. 'An example of an omission that tweens use when texting is spelling the word would, w-u-d.' Mr Cingel said the use of these shortcuts may hinder a child's ability to switch between techspeak and the normal rules of grammar. He gave middle school students in a central Pennsylvania school district a grammar assessment test.

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Why can't we all just stop texting and have an actual face-toface conversation for once? 'Innits' and aints' drive me insane! Emma Thompson hits out at teenagers' sloppy English after visit to her old school The researchers, who report their findings in the current issue of New Media & Society, then passed out a survey that asked students to detail

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Not only did frequent texting negatively predict the test results, but both sending and receiving text adaptations were associated with how poorly they performed on the test, according to Sundar. 'In other words, if you send your kid a lot of texts with word adaptations, then he or she will probably imitate it,' Sundar said. 'These adaptations could affect their off-line language skills that are important to language development and grammar skills, as well.'

Text concerns: Researchers believe that children who text frequently and shorten words have poor grammar skills Typical punctuation and sentence structure shortcuts that children use during texting, such as avoiding capital letters and not using periods at the end of sentences, did not seem to affect their ability to use correct capitalization and punctuation on the tests, according to Sundar. The researchers suggested that the tweens' natural desire to imitate friends and family, as well as their inability to switch back to proper grammar, may combine to influence the poor grammar choices they make in more formal writing. Sundar said that the technology itself influences the use of language short cuts. Tweens typically compose their messages on mobile devices, like phones, that have small screens and keyboards. 'There is no question that technology is allowing more selfexpression, as well as different forms of expression,' said Sundar. 'Cultures built around new technology can also lead to compromises of expression and these restrictions can become the norm.'

Or does it?

What is textese? What is a textism? Textese is an abbreviated vocabulary that includes initialisms, letter/number homophones, contractions or shortenings of words or phrases,

Read more: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article2179808/OMG-Researchers-say-text-messaging-really-leadinggeneration-poor-grammar-skills.html#ixzz2Q0zQPWhS Follow us: @MailOnline on Twitter | DailyMail on Facebook

emoticons (symbols for representing emotions such as for sad), and the deletions of unnecessary words, vowels, punctuation, and capitalization (Thurlow, 2003; Carrington, 2004; Varnhagen et al., 2010). This vocabulary stems from text messages originally only being able to contain up to 120 characters, and forcing users to form a more

Friday, April 27, 2012

Text Messaging and Literacy

Many of us fear that text messaging and the use of textese may be adversely affecting children and adults use of Standard English. The media has promoted these fears with anecdotal reports given by educators of children using textisms in their formal writing, and, in some cases, by supervisors showing concern for their employees use of these abbreviations in their professional writing (Lee, 2002; Barker, 2007; Rogers, 2008). According to recent research on the topic, these individuals may be the outliers, and texting and textisms may actually serve as a way to increase reading skills, literacy, and spelling fluency.

economical mode of communication within this limitation. Abbreviations such as 2nite for tonight and gr8 for great are common occurrences in this abbreviated language. The language does not end with just words, but some of the most common textisms are often whole phrases, such as lol for laugh out loud, C u l8r for see you later, or even omw for on my way. These abbreviated phrase can even be as complicated as idc wots ur add cwot meaning I dont care what your address is complete waste of time. Maybe phrases such as this one are why scholars deemed to give these communications the name textese, because it reads almost like a language of its own.

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To some these may seem quite foreign and a complete bastardization of the language we speak on a daily basis, but increasingly it is becoming more and more common for people to communicate using these textisms. Text messaging surpassed voice calls in popularity as a means to communicate while mobile in 2008, and has been on the rise ever since (Reardon, 2008; Drouin, 2011). accessible over time (Brown, 1958). Dourin and Davis (2009) applied this to the scenario of textisms and hypothesized that exposure to the textism might make is more difficult to remember the Standard English spelling of words. Alternatively, in cases where the Standard English version of a word is not accessed over a long period of time, it would become more difficult to remember. There theory gained initial support for previous research examining processes with regard to spelling in adults has shown that even a single exposure to a misspelled word can have a detrimental impact on future spellings of that word (Jacoby & Hollingshead, 1990; Dixon & Kamiska, 1997; Kratz & Frost, 2001). Further, this effect is especially pronounced when a misspelled word is a plausible phonological alternative (or it looks the way it sounds) (Kratz & Frost, 2001). Thus, it could indeed Research Theories The research having been done on texting and literacy is not vast, nor clear cut. There are several theories that attempt to explain the impact that texting and the use of textese is having on adults and childrens reading, spelling, and language fluency. Some theories related to psychological theories on memory. Drouin and Davis (2009) suggested that the theories of retroactive interference and decay may be at play. This was hypotesized when the research was assumed to follow the anecdotal evidence provided by the media. Retroactive interference suggests that information presented at a later time may interfere with information presented at an earlier time (McGeoch, 1932; Britt, 1935). Meanwhile, decay theory states that learned information that is not accessed may be less However, recent research has not been able to lend support to these theories of memory interference, and, in fact, it has shown just the opposite to be the case, text messaging may actually be positively associated with children and adult literacy (Plester et al., 2008, 2009). There have been two broad theories to explain these findings. First, Plester et al. (2009) suggested that texting can allow people access to a form of written language which is not constrained by standard grammer and spelling or produced for the purposes of formal learning practice in school, but rather as a means of easy communication with frieds. Crystal (2008) and Leake (2008) further hypothesized that this freeing from conventional constraints and the additional necessity of brevity to fall within the be possible that continued exposure to textism (interference) could lead to forgetting (or decay) of the Standard English presentation.

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character limit allows children and adults to use reading and writing in a much more playful way. can have a positive effect on knowledge of words and standard spellings. Drouin (2011) conducted another study that had some other interesting findings. In this study, 152 undergraduate students engaged in grammar exercises, literacy tasks measuring reading, reading fluency, and spelling, followed by a survey on the use of text messaging, textese use in different contents, and access to social networking sites. The results show that participants in this study reported using textese more often as compared to previous research by Drouin and These theories postulate that there may be something about the very nature of texting and textisms that help with literacy (Powell & Dixon, 2011). In order to read or produce textisms, one has to have a good level of phonological awareness, that is, sensitivity to the underlying sound structure of spoken language. The fact that texting could be mediated by phonological processes suggests that it may be linked to phonological awareness, which had been repeatedly shown to predict literacy measures (Powell & Dixon, 2011; Adams, 1990). Davis (2009). However, although the overall use of textese may have increased in the past couple of years, they continued to mediate use of textese by context. For example, participants reported using textese more often in text messages and emails to friends, but rarely on social networking sites and in emails to professors (Drouin, 2011). These results suggest that people are making conscious decisions on whether or not to use textese.

Two Research Studies Dixon and Powell (2011) conducted a study using 94 undergraduate students where participants were exposed to misspellings, correct spellings, and textisms. Participants were given a pre- and post- test measure on spelling ability. During this one exposure, significant positive effects on posttest scores could be seen in both the correct spelling exposure group and the textism exposure group. This study provides experimental evidence that even a single exposure to textisms This study supports an interesting notion: that people are constantly able to make the conscious decision to switch between textese and Standard English without one interfering directly with the other. Some have suggested that this is the equivalent of a bilingual person switching between two languages, while there may be some crossover an individual is easily able to correct any

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mistakes (Drouin, 2011). It may also help to note that most of the crossover experienced by bilingual Adams M.J. (1990) Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learnperson is in speech, and as textese is almost a ing about Print. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA. purely written language these effects should be limited. So why are we still seeing textese in formal Retrieved writing and in emails to professors? In Drouin from: http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=2 (2011), there was a significant correlation among 341958 participants that used textese more on social networking sites and in emails to professors and lower reading accuracy scores. This suggests that those without a comprehensive understanding of Standard English are the ones most likely to commit these context faux pas. Additionally, this mediated use by context supports another interesting notion. Participants reported that their reason for not using textese on social networking sites or in emails to professors was that the context was not appropriate. Therefore, those who do use textese in these contexts may not view them as inappropriate, indicating a more limited pragmatic knowledge (Drouin, 2011). These research finding show that it is not texting or textese itself that is causing a decline in language standards, but maybe a more fundamental educational flaw. These results support that if a child or adult has a strong basis in Standard English it is hard to reverse that knowledge with the use of textese. Additionally, it may actually be beneficial for remembering the correct spelling of a word, and continuing in lifelong reading fluency skills. There is also research that supports texting and textism as a basis for teaching the founding principles of Standard English, but more on that later. Drouin, M.A. (2011). College students text messaging, use of textese, and literacy skills. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 27, 67-75. Doi:10.1111/j.13652729.2010.00399.x Jacoby L.L. & Hollingshead A. (1990) Reading student essays may be hazardous to your spelling: effects of reading incor- rectly and correctly spelled Crystal D. (2008) Txting: The Gr8 Db8. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Dixon M. & Kaminska Z. (1997) The spell of misspelled words: susceptibility to orthographic priming as a function of spelling proficiency. Reading and Writing: An Interdisci- plinary Journal 9, 483498. Drouin M. & Davis C. (2009) R U txting? Is the use of text speak hurting your literacy? Journal of Literacy Research 41, 4667. Brown J. (1958) Some tests of the decay theory of immediate memory. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 10, 1221. Carrington, V. (2004). Texts and literacies of the Shi Jinrui. British Journal of Sociology Education 25, 215-228. Doi: 10.1080/0142569042000205109. Britt S.H. (1935) Retroactive inhibition: a review of the litera- ture. Psychological Bulletin 32, 381440. Barker, I. (2007). Txts r gr8 but not in exams. Times Educational Supplement 4723,20. 9 Feburary. Sources

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words.Canadian Journal of Psychology 44, 345 358. Katz L. & Frost S.J. (2001) Phonology constrains the internal orthographic lexicon.Reading and Writing: Rogers, D. (2008). We know what u mean, m8. Innit? The An Interdisci- plinary Journal 14, 297332. Leake J. (2008 May 25) Texting boosts childrens literacy. The Sunday Times.Available 006244 at:http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/educati on/article3998970.ece Lee, J. (2002). Nu shortcuts in school r 2 much 4 Online. Retrieved teachers. The New York Times 19 September. from:http://extra.shu.ac.uk/daol/articles/v1/n1/a3/th Retrieved urlow2002003-paper.html from: http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/19/technolo gy/circuits/19MESS.html# McGeoch J.A. (1932) Forgetting and the law of disuse. Psychological Review 39,352370. Plester B., Wood C. & Bell L. (2008) Txt msg n school literacy: does texting and knowledge of text abbreviations adversely affect childrens literacy attainment? Lit- eracy 42, 137144. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-4369.2008. 00489.x. Plester B., Wood C. & Joshi P. (2009) Exploring the relation- ship between childrens knowledge of text message abbre- viations and school literacy outcomes.British Journal of Developmental Psychology 27, 145161. doi: 10.1348/ 026151008X320507. Powell, D. & Dixon, M. (2011). Does SMS text messaging help or harm adults knowledge of standard
Gainesville mobile marketing strategy 1. Push DaddyJanuary 9, 2013 at 9:27 PM Text messaging is an effective way for small business owners to communicate with their clients. This is called text messaging marketing, the trend for many businesses today.

Available at: http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/09/23/tech/c nettechnews/ main4471183.shtml

Times Educational Supplement. 12 December. Retrieved from:http://www.tes.co.uk/article.aspx?storycode=6

Thurlow, C. (2003). Generation txt? The sociolinguistics of young peoples text messaging. Discourse Analysis

Varnhagen C.K., McFall G.P., Pugh N., Routledge L., Surnida-MacDonald H. & Kwong T.E. (2010). Lol: new language and spelling in instant messaging.Reading and Writing: An Interdisiplinary Journal 23, 719-733. Doi:10.1007/s11145-0099181-y.
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spelling? Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 27,58-66. Doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00403.x

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Reardon M. (2008) Text messaging explodes in America. CNET Tech News. 23 September.

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