Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF

STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Principle Of Superposition
Mathematically the principle of superposition is stated as Mathematically, the principle of superposition is stated as
( ) ( ) ( ) L L + + = + +
2 1 2 1
a G a G a a G
or for a linear structural system, the response at a given point in the system caused by two or
more loads is the sum of the responses which would have been caused by each load
individually. Since the addition function is preserved this is sometimes referred to as an
additive map. additive map.
Consider a linear spring where
D K A =
and K is the linear spring constant.
D K A
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
For the initial load on the spring
1 1
D K A =
Now increase the deflection on the system by an amount D. The second
additional load on the spring is
D K A =
The final force on the spring is from the additional deflection is
( )
D K D K A A + = +
1 1
with
( ) D D K + =
1
A A A + =
1 2
and
A A A +
1 2
D D D + =
1 2 1 2
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
then
2 2
D K A =
This result, although deceptively obvious, indicates that for a linear spring system
the deflection caused by a force can be added to the deflection caused by
th f t bt i th d fl ti lti f b th f b i
2 2
another force to obtain the deflection resulting from both forces being
applied;
the order of loading is not important (D or D
1
could be applied first);
The is the Principle of Superposition For a structure with a linear response, the
load effects caused by two or more loads are the sum of the effects caused by each
load applied separately.
For the principle to be applicable to structural analysis the material the structure is
fabricated from must be linear elastic. To guarantee this we typically require the
structure to undergo small deformations.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Consider the beam in figure (a) subject to
external actions A
1
and A
2
. These actions
d i i d produce various reactions and
displacements throughout the structure.
Reactions are developed at the supports. A
displacement is produced at the mid span. p p p
The effects of A
1
and A
2
are shown
separately in (b) and (c). A single prime is
associated with A
1
and a double prime with
1
p
A
2
.
From the figure it becomes obvious that the
following equations can be developed g q p
through the use of superposition:
M M M R R R
A A A A A A

+

=

+

=
D D D R R R
B B B

+

=

+

=
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Next consider the same beam subjected
to displacements i e the support at B is to displacements, i.e., the support at B is
translated down an amount and rotated
counterclockwise an amount . Again
various reactions and displacements are
i d d i h induced in the structure.
Reactions and displacements with single
primes are associated with . Those
ith d bl i i t d ith with double primes are associated with
.
Superposition can be invoked for a linear
t if th i t i bl i ti system if the input variable is an action,
or if the input variables are
displacements.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Action And Displacement Equations
The relationship between actions and displacements play an important role in structural The relationship between actions and displacements play an important role in structural
analysis. A convenient way to see this relationship is through a linear, elastic spring
The action A will compress (translate) the spring an amount D. This can be expressed
through the simple expression:
FA D =
In this equation F is the flexibility of the spring, and this quantity is defined as the
displacement produced by a unit value of the action A.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
This relationship can also be expressed as
Here S (earlier it was K) is the stiffness of the spring and is defined as the action required to
SD A =
( ) p g q
produce a unit displacement in the spring. The flexibility and stiffness of the spring are
inverse to one another.
1 1
1
1
1 1

= =
= =

F
F
S
S
S
F
F
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
The relationship that holds for a
spring holds for any structural
component. Consider the
AL
3
component. Consider the
simple beam subjected to an
action A that produces a
translation D.
EI
AL
D
48
3
= The action and displacement
equation holds if the flexibility
F and stiffness S are determined
as shown
( )
F
EI
L A
D =
=
=
48
1
3
as shown.
The action and displacement
equation given on the previous
slide is valid only when one
EI 48
slide is valid only when one
action is present and we are
looking for one displacement
within the structure. More
( ) ( )
S
L
EI D
A =
=
=
3
48 1
than one action and one
displacement requires a matrix
format.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Lets consider a general example where a beam is
subjected to three actions, i.e., two forces (A
1
and
A ) d (A ) h di i f h A
2
) and a moment (A
3
). The directions for the
actions are assumed positive.
The deflected shape is given in figure (b) and
di l t D D d D d t A A displacements D
1
, D
2
and D
3
correspond to A
1
, A
2
,
and A
3
.
By using superposition each displacement can be
d th f di l t d t expressed as the sum of displacements due to
actions A
1
through A
3
D D D D + + =
In a similar manner expressions for D
2
and D
3
are
13 12 11 1
D D D D + + =
D D D D
33 32 31 3
23 22 21 2
D D D D
D D D D
+ + =
+ + =
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
With
1 1 11
A by caused A at deflection D
3 1 13
2 1 12
A by caused A at deflection D
A by caused A at deflection D

and the fact that

only A to al proportion directly is D
only A to al proportion directly is D
1 11
th
only A to al proportion directly is D
only A to al proportion directly is D
3 13
2 12
then
2 12 12
1 11 11
A F D
A F D
A F D
=
=
3 13 13
A F D =
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
We can express the equations for the deformations D
1
,
D
2
and D
3
as
A F A F A F D + +
3 33 2 32 1 31 3
3 23 2 22 1 21 2
3 13 2 12 1 11 1
A F A F A F D
A F A F A F D
A F A F A F D
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =
Each term on the right-hand side of the equations is a
displacement written in the form of a coefficient times
the action that produces a deformation represented by
the coefficient. The coefficients are called flexibility
coefficients. The physical significance of the flexibility
coefficients are depicted in figures (c), (d) and (e)
All the flexibility coefficients in the figures have two subscripts (F
ij
). The first subscript
identifies the displacement (D
i
) associated with an action (A
j
). The second subscript
denotes where the unit action is being applied. Figure (c) is associated with action A
1
,
figure (d) is associated with action A
2
and figure (e) is associated with action A
3
figure (d) is associated with action A
2
, and figure (e) is associated with action A
3
.
Flexibility coefficients are taken as positive when the deformation represented by the
coefficient is in the same direction as the i
th
action.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Instead of expressing displacements in terms of
actions, it is possible to express actions in terms of
di l i displacements, i.e.,
3 23 2 22 1 21 2
3 13 2 12 1 11 1
D S D S D S A
D S D S D S A
+ + =
+ + =
Thi t f ti b bt i d f th
3 33 2 32 1 31 3
3 23 2 22 1 21 2
D S D S D S A
D S D S D S A
+ + =
+ +
This system of equations can be obtained from the
displacement system of equations under suitable
conditions.
Here S is a stiffness coefficient and represents an
action due to a unit displacement. To impose these
unit displacements requires that artificial restraints
must be provided These restraints are shown in the must be provided. These restraints are shown in the
figure by simple supports corresponding to actions
A
1
, A
2
and A
3
.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Each stiffness coefficient is shown acting in its assumed positive direction, which is
the same direction as the corresponding action If the actual direction of one of the the same direction as the corresponding action. If the actual direction of one of the
stiffness coefficients is opposite to that assumption, then the stiffness coefficient will
have a negative value.
The calculations of the stiffness coefficients for the beam shown can be quite The calculations of the stiffness coefficients for the beam shown can be quite
lengthy. However, analyzing a beam like the one shown previously by the stiffness
method can be expedited by utilizing a special structure where all the joints of the
structure are restrained. We will get into the details of this in the next section of
t notes.
The primary purpose of this discussion is for the student to visualize what flexibility
and stiffness coefficients represent physically.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Flexibility and Stiffness Matrices
We can now generalize the concepts introduced in the preceding section. If the number of
actions applied to a structure is n, the corresponding equations for displacements are:
n n
A F A F A F D
A F A F A F D + + + = L
1 2 12 1 11 1
n nn n n n
n n
A F A F A F D
A F A F A F D
+ + + =
+ + + =
L
M L L L M
L
2 2 1 1
2 2 22 1 21 2
In matrix format these equations become

(
(

n
A F F F D L
1 1 12 11 1

(
(
(
(

n nn n n
n
n
A
A
F F F
F F F
D
D
M
L
M L M M
L
M
2
2 1
2 22 21 2
or
) )
{ } | |{ } A F D =
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
The action equations with n actions applied to the structure are
n n
D S D S D S A + + + = L
1 2 12 1 11 1
n nn n n n
n n
D S D S D S A
D S D S D S A
+ + + =
+ + + =
L
M L L L M
L
2 2 1 1
2 2 22 1 21 2
In matrix format these equations become
n nn n n n 2 2 1 1

(
(

n
D S S S A L
1 1 12 11 1

(
(
(
(

nn n n
n
D
D
S S S
S S S
A
A
M
L
M L M M
L
M
2
2 1
2 22 21 2
or
) ) n nn n n n
D S S S A
2 1
{ } | |{ } D S A { } | |{ } D S A =
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Since the actions A
i
and displacements D
i
correspond to one another in both formats, it
follows the flexibility matrix F and the stiffness matrix S are related to each other Taking follows the flexibility matrix F
ij
and the stiffness matrix S
ij
are related to each other. Taking
the matrix inverse of
{ } | |{ } A F D =
yields
{ } | | { } D F A
1
=
With
{ } | | { }
{ } | |{ } D S A =
then
| | | |
1
= F S
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
In a similar fashion one can show that
Thus the stiffness matrix is the inverse of the flexibility matrix and vice versa provided that
| | | |
1
= S F
the same set of actions and displacements are being considered in both equations
Note that a flexibility matrix or stiffness matrix is not an array that is determined by the
geometry of the structure only The matrices are directly related to the geometry and the set geometry of the structure only. The matrices are directly related to the geometry and the set
of actions and displacements under consideration.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Example
The cantilever beam shown in the figure below is subjected to a force (A
1
) and moment (A
2
)
at the free end. Develop the flexibility matrix and the stiffness matrix for assuming
displacements D
1
and D
2
are of interest.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Making use of Case #7 and Case #8 from the following table
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
(continued)
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Then the flexibility coefficients are as follows:
L L L
2 3
Th di l t
EI
L
F
EI
L
F F
EI
L
F = = = =
22 21 12 11
2 3
The displacements are
2 1
2
2 2
2
1
3
1
2 2 3
A
EI
L
A
EI
L
D A
EI
L
A
EI
L
D + = + =
The flexibility matrix becomes
2 1 2 2 1 1
2 2 3 EI EI EI EI
| |
(
(
(
(

=
L L
EI
L
EI
L
F
2 3
2
2 3
(
(

EI
L
EI
L
2
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
In order to develop the stiffness matrix consider the following beam reactions
due to applied displacements:
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Then the stiffness coefficients are as follows:
Th ti
L
EI
S
L
EI
S S
L
EI
S
4 6 12
22
2
21 12
3
11
= = = =
The actions are
2 1
2
2 2
2
1
3
1
4 3 6 12
D
L
EI
D
L
EI
A D
L
EI
D
L
EI
A + = =
The stiffness matrix becomes
2 1
2
2 2
2
1
3
1
L L L L
| |
(
(
(
(

=
EI EI
L
EI
L
EI
S
4 6
6 12
2 3
(

L L
2
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
When the flexibility matrix and the stiffness matrix are multiplied together, the
result is the identity matrix:
| || |
(
(
(
(

(
(
(
(

=
2 3
4 6
6 12
2
2 3
2 3
L L
EI
L
EI
L
EI EI
L
EI
L
EI
F S
(

=
(
(

1 0
0 1
2
2
EI EI
L L
This infers but does not prove that the two matrices are inverses of one another.

0
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Equivalent Joint Loads
The calculations of displacements in larger more extensive structures by the means of the
matrix methods derived later requires that the structure be subject to loads applied only at the
joints. Thus in general, loads are categorized into those applied at joints, and those that are
t L d th t t li d t j i t t b l d ith t ti ll i l t l d not. Loads that are not applied to joints must be replaced with statically equivalent loads.
Consider the statically indeterminate beam with a distributed load between joints A and B, and
a point load between joints B and C:
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
First one must identify joints, and here we select points A, B, and C for convenience. By
superposition the beam can be separated into two beams, one with loads located at the joints,
and a second with loads between the joints: and a second with loads between the joints:
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
To transfer the loads that act on the members to the joints, the joints of the structure are
restrained against all displacements. This produces two fixed end beams:
When these fixed end beams are subjected to the member loads, a set of fixed end actions is
d d Th fi d d ti h i th f ll i fi h th produced. The same fixed-end actions are shown in the following figure where they are
depicted as restraint actions in the restrained structure.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
If the restraint actions are reversed in direction, they constitute a set of forces and couples that
are statically equivalent to the member loads. These equivalent joint loads, when added to the
actual joint loads produce the combined joint loads shown in the next figure actual joint loads produce the combined joint loads shown in the next figure.
The combined loads are then used in carrying out the structural analysis. Will the unknown
displacements at nodes be correct using this statically equivalent system? Will the
displacements computed along segment AB in the figure above be equivalent to the displacements computed along segment AB in the figure above be equivalent to the
displacements along segment AB given the original load configuration?
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Reciprocal Theorems
If the loads on a structure are zero and gradually increase such that all loadings hit peak
( ) D A D A D A D A W + + + + = L 2 1
g y g p
values at the same time, the work done during this period of time will be the average,
hence
( )
n n
D A D A D A D A W + + + + =
3 3 2 2 1 1
2 1
In a matrix format but both A and D are column vectors by definition so to perform this
matrix multiplication we must use the transpose of one or the other column vectors. Thus
( ){ } { } ( ){ }{ }
T T
D A D A W 2 1 2 1 = =
Recall that
{ } | |{ } A F D =
Now, substitute this in the above equation.
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
This substitution leads to
| | | |
1 1
In addition the following relationship holds from matrix algebra
{ } { } { } | |{ } A F A D A W
T T
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
1
In addition, the following relationship holds from matrix algebra
{ } | |{ } ( )
T T
A F D =
Substituting this relationship in the equation from the previous slide yields
| | { }
T T
A F =
Substituting this relationship in the equation from the previous slide yields
{ }{ } { }| | { }
T T T
A F A D A W
.
|

\
|
=
.
|

\
|
=
1 1
{ }{ } { }| | { } A F A D A W
.

\ .

\
2 2
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Equating the two equations for work we obtain
{ } | |{ } { }| | { }
T T T
A F A A F A 2 1 2 1 = { } | |{ } { }| | { } A F A A F A 2 1 2 1 =
{ } | |{ } { }| | { }
T T T
A F A A F A =
Multiplying both sides by ({A}
T
)
-1
and {A}
-1
we obtain
{ } ( ) { } { } | |{ } { } ( ) { } { }| | { }
T T T T T
A F A A A A F A A A
1
1
1
1

{ } ( ) { } { } | |{ } { } ( ) { } { }| | { } A F A A A A F A A A =
{ } ( ) { } { } { } ( )| | { } ( ) { } { } { } ( )| |
T T T T T
F A A A A F A A A A
1
1
1
1

=
| || || | | || || |
T
F I I F I I =
| | | |
T
F F =
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Thus the flexibility matrix must be symmetric. To prove the stiffness matrix is symmetric
recall that
Substituting this in the equation for work
{ } | |{ } D S A =
Substituting this in the equation for work
{ }{ } | |{ }{ }
T T
D D S D A W
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
1
In addition, the following relationship holds from matrix algebra
. \ . \
2 2
{ } | |{ } ( )
T T
D S A =
{ } | | { }
T T T
D S A = { } | | { } D S A =
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Substituting this in the above equation for work
{ } { } | | { } { }
T T T |

| |

|
1 1
Equating these two relationships for work
{ } { } | | { } { } D D S D A W
T T T
.
|

\
|
=
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
1
| |{ }{ } | | { } { } D D S D D S
T T T
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
2
1
2
1
Multiplying both sides by [D]
-1
and [D
T
]
-1
we obtain
| |{ }{ } | | { } { } D D S D D S
T T T
=
{ } ( ) { } { } | |{ } { } ( ) { } { }| | { }
T T T T T
D S D D D D S D D D
1
1
1
1

=
Lecture 5: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS OF
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
Further manipulation yields
{ } ( ) { } { } { } ( )| | { } ( ) { } { } { } ( )| |
T T T T T
S D D D D S D D D D
1
1
1
1

= { } ( ) { } { } { } ( )| | { } ( ) { } { } { } ( )| | S D D D D S D D D D
| || || | | || || |
T
S I I S I I =
Hence the stiffness matrix is symmetric. Of course the fact that the stiffness matrix is
| | | |
T
S S =
y
symmetric could have been concluded from the fact that the flexibility matrix is symmetric
and the stiffness matrix is the inverse of the flexibility matrix. But this has not been formally
proven.