Commercialization of Apple

Commercialization of Apple
SubashDahal
Submitted by: Subash Dahal Department of Horticulture IAAS, Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal
April, 2013
Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Scientific Classification 3. Morphology 3.1 Characteristics of Apple 4. utritional value of Apple
Page o 1 1 1 1 3 3 4 5 6 7 7 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 13 18 19 22 23 24 24 24 25 26
5. Classification of apple 6. Different Kinds of Apples 7. Apple production in the World 8. Apple Production in epal 9. The prospects of commercial apple cultivation in epalese high hills 10. Constraints of apple production in epal 11. Government policies for research and development 12. Horticulture Development Plan and Policies 13. Commercialization of Apple farming 13.1 Soil Preparation 13.2 Planting Apple Trees 13.3 Orchard Layout 13.4 Root stock 13.5 Fertilizing Apple Trees 13.6 Irrigation 13.7 Pruning Apple Trees 14. Fruit thinning 15. High Density Planting 16. Pest and Disease Management 16.1 Diseases 16.2 Pests 17. Pollinisers 18. Harvesting 19. Post Harvest of Apple 20. Conclusion References
Prepared by: Subash Dahal, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, Nepal
List of Figures Fig: 1 Apple production in world Fig: 2 Productivity of apple in Nepal Fig: 3 Producers price of apple in Nepal Fig: 4 Well developed central leader Fig: 5 Open and Central leader Fig: 6 Slender, spindle-type system Fig: 7 Crodon type system Fig: 8 dwarf apple tree, normal apple tree, conventional apple orchard, apple meadow orchard
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List of Tables Table1: Nutritional value of apple Table2: Amount of nutrient removed from soil with 10 MT of fruit yield Table3: Recommended amount of manure per fruit tree 3 12 12
1. Introduction Apple is a temperate fruit. Apple is the pome fruit of the apple tree (Malus domestica) in the Rosaceae family. It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans. There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples, resulting in a range of desired characteristics. Cultivars vary in their yield and the ultimate size of the tree, even when grown on the same rootstock. They are native in many parts of Europe and Asia temperate climates. The origin of apple is Central-Asia, and Afghanistan has many areas with native apples. The leading apple growing country is China, producing about 41percent of the world's apples, followed by the United States. In this context of Nepal fruit producer sector can play a significant role covering the local and international market of the region. The apples from the western regions of Nepal are of excellent quality for export. Apple production is not only important for the fresh fruit market, but it also develop favorable conditions for fruit processing industry, which is a significant step forward economy development in the country. Juice production and concentrate export is one of the most promising profit producer industries. 2. Scientific Classification
Kingdom: Division: Class: Order: Family: Subfamily: Genus: Origin: Plantae Magnoliophyta Magnoliopsida Rosales Rosaceae Maloideae Malus Central Asia
3. Morphology The tree naturally grows between 5m and 12m tall. The leaves are arranged alternately along the shoot. Their shape is a simple oval. The leaf is 5 to 12cm long and 3 to 6cm wide attaching to a 2-5cm long petiole with an acute tip. The flowers have five petals with a size approximately 3cm. The color of the flowers is white with a pink tinge. The fruit contains five carpals arranged in a five point star. Each carpal contains 1 to 3 seeds. 3.1 Characteristics of Apple The main shape types are: roundish, oblate, conical, and oblong. Roundish indicates that the height and diameter of the fruit are nearly equal. Oblate indicates that the height is much less than diameter. Conical, is when the fruit is roundish, having the apex end contracted. Oblong, is when the fruit is longer than broad, and having the apex and base of nearly the same breadth. Truncate conic, is when the fruit is flattened at the apex. Ribbed, or obscurely ribbed, when the surface has rising lines and channels from apex to base. Oblique, is when the fruit presents the appearance as of being one - sided, or when the axis is inclined to one side. Oblate fruit is when one side is less than the other. Corrugated apple means that it contains depressed lines, furrows, or wrinkles. Acute, when the fruit is narrowing to a sharp point.
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3.1.1 Axis This is an imaginary straight line between the stem and the centre of the calyx. The axis is inclined when the fruit is oblique or lop-sided; short when oblate or the cavity and basin are deep; long when the fruit is oblong. The core-cells are axial when they meet the axis; abaxial when distant from it. When a section made through the apples at right angles to the axis is circular, it is regular; if so, it could be turned in a lathe, meaning it is very regular; it may be irregular, compressed, or flattened sidewise, angular, furrowed, or ribbed, rarely triangular, quadrangular, or pentangular. 3.1.2 Tube Stamens The stamens can occupy three different positions in the tube. The position is marginal when the stamens are placed close to one of the two ends of the tube: marginal near to the outer end or marginal near to the inner end. The third position relates to when the stamens are placed near to the middle section of the tube (median). 3.1.3 Tube In case of conical fruit, the outlines from the base of the sepals turn in on a curved line inwards towards the core, forming a cone. These curves are generally made inward, but occasionally they are seen outwards. When funnel-shaped, the outlines are seen in a hollow cavity like the stem of a funnel. 3.1.4 Carpals This is the core of the apple fruit. Usually the fruit contains five carpals, each one of them with 1 to 3 seeds. Its shape can be round, ovate, obovate or elliptical. 3.1.5 Eye The sepals are commonly called the eye of the apple. When the fruit develops, the segments from the original calyx stay and gradually assume various directions. When the fruit matures, the segments take four distinct forms. When the segments are reflexed or recurved, it is known as the divergent form. When the segments are erected and pointed, the form is erect convergent. Flat convergent is formed when the segments are closing over the eye without overlapping each other. When the segments are overlapping each other, this forms a compact cone, making the eye connivent. There are other characteristics like the size of the apple, its surface or the appearance of dots. The stem can also brown or green colored and its form can be straight, curved, fleshy or knobbed. Cavity is the depression in which the stem is inserted, and may be wide, deep, shallow, regular, irregular, wavy, uneven, or folded. In a few varieties, the cavity is nearly or quite filled up, and is then termed flat.
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4.
utritional value of apple Amount 13.81 g 10.39 g 2.4 g 0.17 g 0.26 g 0% 1% 2% 1% 1% 3% 1% 8% 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% 0% Table 1: Apple nutritional value per 100 g USDA utrient database (2008) 5. Classification of apple
Element/Compound Carbohydrates Sugars Dietary fiber Fat Protein Vitamin A equiv. 3 g Thiamin (Vit. B1) 0.017 mg Riboflavin (Vit. B2) 0.026 mg Niacin (Vit. B3) 0.091 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 0.061 mg Vitamin B6 0.041 mg Folate (Vit. B9) 3 g Vitamin C 4.6 mg Calcium 6 mg Iron 0.12 mg Magnesium 5 mg Phosphorus 11 mg Potassium 107 mg Zinc 0.04 mg
There are different classification systems of apple. One important system of classification is given by John Warder in 1867. He classified apples in 4 classes. Class: Oblate or flat having the axis shorter than the transverse diameter Class: Conical, tapering decidedly toward the eye and becoming ovate when larger in the middle and tapering to each end making the axial diameter shorter. Class: Round, globular, or nearly so, having the axial and transverse diameters about equal, the former often shorter by less than one quarter of the latter. The ends are often so flattened as to look truncated making the fruit appear to be cylindrical or globular-oblate. Class: Oblong, in which the axis is longer than the transverse diameter, or appears
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so. These may also be truncated or cylindrical. Each class contains the following subdivisions: Order: Regular Section: Sweet Subsection: Pale or blushed, self colored striped Subsection: Striped or splashed Subsection: Russeted Section: Sour Subsection: Pale or blushed, self colored striped Subsection: Striped or splashed Subsection: Russeted Order: Irregular Section: Sweet Subsection: Pale or blushed, self colored striped Subsection: Striped or splashed Subsection: Russeted Section: Sour Subsection: Pale or blushed, self colored striped Subsection: Striped or splashed Subsection: Russeted 6. Different Kinds of Apples The different types of apple are described below Red Delicious Apples: This apple variety has a deep red color and thick skin. The apple skin is bitter in taste and its edible portion has a crispy texture. This popular cultivar is preferred over local varieties by farmers. Unlike the rounder varieties, the red delicious apples are thinner. It is best eaten when in the raw state. Honey Crisp Apples: It is one of the different kinds of apples with sweet taste and crispy in the edible portion. Farmers have started growing this apple variety from the 1990s, it is a cultivar produced by crossing the Macaun and Honeygold varieties. Apart from fresh-eating, this apple finds its use in salads, baking, sauces and many other dishes. Granny Smith Apples: The sweetness and tartness of Granny Smith apples is well balanced and it is also one of their specialties. These green colored apples are durable and retain their freshness throughout the shipping journey. It is possible to store the Granny Smith apples for about 6 months in cold storage. It is one of the different types of apples used for fresh-eating. The applesauce made from this type is considered to be very good. Ambrosia Apples: In the British Columbia, Ambrosia is considered to be one of the popular kinds of apples. Ambrosia was discovered in the 1990s decade on a Cawston BC orchard. The
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and not
and not
and not
and not
perfumed aroma and honey sweet flavor of the Ambrosia makes it one of the best apples for eating. Moreover, the cut slices of apples don't turn brown quickly. Golden Delicious: The Company called Stark Brothers named this apple variety. The Re Red Delicious Apple which is named by the same company is a little less sweet than the Golden Delicious. Juicy flesh and crisp texture is one of the specialties of Golden Delicious. The Golden Delicious is rounder and fatter than the Red Delicious and considered considered to be good for snacking. Since, the Golden Delicious has a firm texture, baking it becomes easy. Swiss Gourmet Apples: Known by an alternative name Arlet, the Swiss Gourmet is good for fresh eating and also for different apple pie recopies. This apple is produced as a result of crossing between the Ida Red and Golden Delicious apples. These yellowyellow-green apples are medium-large large in size. The crispy edible part is creamy-white creamy in color. Spartan Apples: The Spartan apple is popularly known as one o of the best all-purpose kinds of apples. This apple is characterized by a white white-crispy crispy edible portion and a deep red colored skin. The sweet tangy taste of this apple makes it a children's favorite. favorit Empire Apples: The Empire Apple was produced in the 1960s from Red Delicious and McIntosh varieties. These apples have a green background color beneath the red. The Empire apple is not only a fresh-eating fruit, fruit but is also considered as good for cooking, baking, freezing and also in making sauces. 7. Apple production in the World China is the largest producer of apple contributing 41% of the world total production followed by USA.
Fig: Apple production in world Fig:1
8. Apple Production in epal Before the 1960s apples were already grown in Marpha for subsistence use. In 1966 the Horticultural Farm was established and introduced new varieties of apples and production methods to promote a transition of agriculture from subsistence towards cash crop farming. This took place in the context of the sudden end of the salt trade between Tibet and Nepal to provide new sources of income for the Thakali region. The linear trend line of yield of apple in Nepal indicates decreasing productivity whereas the trend of producer price is increasing. This indicates the constraints and prospects of commercial apple cultivation in Nepal.
16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1990 1995 2000 Year 2005 2010 Yield Linear (Yield)
Yield (ton/ha)
Source: FAOSTAT 2009
Fig: 2 Productivity of apple in epal

600 500 400
USD/ton
300 200 100 0 1998 2000 2002 2004 Year 2006 2008 2010 Producers Price Linear (Producers Price)
Source: FAOSTAT 2009
Fig: 3 Producers price of apple in epal
Right from the beginning many farmers welcomed the idea of apple farming in Nepal. Also climate and soil conditions proved to be favorable. Additionally apples are easy to store and can therefore be sold on the markets of Pokhara and Kathmandu in times when vegetables and fruits from other regions are scarce. Because of high transport costs for fresh apples it has always been hard to compete with Indian apples on the markets of Pokhara and Kathmandu. Recently competition on Nepalese markets got even more severe owing to of apple imports from China. 9. The prospects of commercial apple cultivation in epalese high hills
Growing conditions in the region regarding climate and soil are very favorable for the growth of high quality apples Innovation potential and interest in modern agricultural techniques is high among the Nepalese farmers (e.g. private production and marketing of apple rings, cider, etc.) Counseling and advice can always be obtained by such institutions as the Horticulture Farm and the Agricultural Service Center Foreign and local investors as well as the community are interested in financing apple processing facilities (e.g. solar dryer, distilleries) Tourists and pilgrims lead to an additional local market with a high capacity Most people do not depend only on apple farming but have also got other businesses such as lodges, shops, restaurants, etc.
10. Constraints of apple production in epal a) Infrastructural Constraints Apple growing areas are situated in remote places in the mid and high mountains. These areas are not yet accessible to motor roads and large markets, so farmers are facing big problems in selling their produce which discourages them from venturing into commercial production enterprises. Essential inputs such as fertilizers, plant protection chemicals and horticulture tools etc. are not regularly available and on time, in these areas. Farmers have to depend upon compost and farmyard manures which are not readily available to fruit crops. As a result, fruit trees are nutrient deficient, untrained, unpruned and unprotected against diseases and pests. These are some of the causes for low yield and poor quality of these fruits. Apple cultivation requires large initial investment which the majority of Nepalese farmers cannot afford to make and have no access to any credit. Organized marketing channels, transportation, storage and processing facilities have not yet been developed in all deciduous fruit growing areas of the country. These are very important limiting factors that hamper profitable fruit farming in the country. b) Physical and Environmental Constraints Physically, Nepal is situated in a very difficult region of the world. More than 80% of its geographical area comes under hilly and difficult terrain with very steep slopes, loose soil and
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rocky structure. It is understandable how difficult it is to establish the basic development infrastructures in these areas for a very poor country like Nepal. It is also being threatened by the alarming situation with regard to environmental degradation and soil erosion that is being created by the rapidly growing population, compounded by unemployment and poverty (> 40% are below absolute poverty line). It might appear that there would be great opportunities to grow a wide range of apple species at specific locations in Nepal when one considers the enormous range of climatic conditions. However, certain unfavorable conditions also exist in Nepal such as heavy rain during monsoon period, uneven distribution of rainfall, high wind and hailstorms, spring frost etc. c) Agronomic Constraints Lack of quality planting materials, mineral fertilizers, and incidence of economically important insect pests and diseases are the most important agronomic constraints to fruit cultivation in Nepal. The majority of the nursery plants produced in the country are of inferior quality and not true to type. Most of the private nurseries do not maintain quality mother stock and standard rootstocks. Plants produced in the private nurseries are generally of sub-standard and not healthy. Another important constraint to fruit production in this country is the incidence of economically important insect pests and diseases. For example, woolly aphis, San Jose Scale of apple and diseases such as apple scab, pink disease of apple are commonly found. d) Technical Support Constraints These constraints are summarized as follows: - Low priority for fruit research - Poor allocation of fiscal resources - Lack of trained manpower - Weak extension system in horticulture - Inadequate technical information The Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) is the sole agent responsible for fruit research. Only a little research has been done in fruit crops to solve technical problems which the growers are facing. There is also a total lack of coordination between research and development. e) Socio-Economic Constraints - Lack of experience in fruit growing - Socio-cultural
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- Food habits - Land tenure Unlike cereal crops, farmers of Nepal are not experienced in growing fruit crops, since commercial fruit growing is not traditional in Nepal. Most of the Nepalese farmers have small and fragmented holdings which are primarily occupied by cereals, and it is really difficult to persuade farmers to grow fruit trees instead of cereals. 11. Government policies for research and development Until 1990, both agriculture research and development were the responsibility of the Department of Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture. However, in 1991 the Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) was formed as an autonomous organization under a separate act. Now, NARC is mandated for all research activities and the Agriculture Department (DOA) for all extension and development activities. There are many horticultural stations under DOA and NARC located in different agroecological regions of Nepal which are supposed to carry out both research and development activities. However, as far as research on apple is concerned, very little work has been done. There are a number of reasons for that such as lack of qualified manpower and infrastructure, poor coordination between NARC and DOA, inadequate research funds, lack of long term planning and vision. Whatever research work has been carried out so far, it concentrated mostly on plant protection, cultivar collection and maintenance. 12. Horticulture Development Plan and Policies The Government has recognized horticulture as one of the important sub-sectors of agriculture in Nepal. Horticulture has been considered as a key to high growth rates and accorded priority in most of the past development plans. Despite the development potential and accorded priority, the pace of growth of horticulture has been very slow. In view of the slow growth in the past and the ever increasing demand for horticultural products and to harness the immense potential of the country a Twenty Year Horticulture Development Plan was formulated in 1990 with support from the Asian Development Bank, named as the Master Plan for Horticulture Development (MPHD). Despite the implementation of eight development plans in the past, no significant improvement in the living standards of the people has been achieved. Nonetheless, development efforts of the past decades have accelerated some basic infrastructure development. In view of this situation, a long term Agriculture Perspective Plan (APP) has been designed for Nepal that would lead past development towards a dynamic growth path. APP has taken agriculture as the engine of economic growth and that can trigger multiplier effects on the other sectors of the economy. Horticulture, sericulture and apiculture have been treated as high value commodities in the APP.
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Based on the successful story of apple production in some areas and its advantages, the APP has identified apple as one of the high value priority commodities in high mountain areas. In the ongoing Ninth Five Year Plan, the Government has taken a policy of developing commercial orchards of apple in suitable pocket areas of western to far-western development regions. Eleven such districts have been recognized as most suitable for commercial apple cultivation 13. Commercialization of Apple farming For successful commercial apple farming, a standard set of practices are to be followed. 13.1 Soil Preparation Apple likes cool and humid conditions. It is not very sensitive for soils. Apple can grow in wide range of soil types. However the best soil texture type is from sandy-loam to sandy clay loam. Soil drainage is maybe the most important factor to be considered. The soil should be well- drained up to 80-100cm depth. The acceptable soil pH for apple growth is between 5.7 and 7.6. The best pH range is between 5.8 and 6.5. The soil pH should be checked every three years. Site preparation starts with the cleaning of the area. After cleaning the bush, the next step is to level the area and, if necessary, build up the terraces. Carefully avoid the complete removal of the topsoil during the process of leveling and terrace making. This usually happens where the soil depth is shallow. Slope should not exceed 10%. Slope exposure is important. Southern facing slope warms up to fast and western facing slope tends to be thinner. The recommended slope facing direction is east. During soil preparation, avoid excessive or deep tillage practice. It is also very important to avoid tillage in dry soils, because it will turn up big pounds. 13.2 Planting Apple Trees The saplings should be planted if the soil not too wet. First open a large hole to accommodate the root system. Before planting, any roots that are broken or kinked should be cut off. A planting board can help positioning the sapling on the top of the hole. Replace the planting board with the tree stem fitted into the central notch with the graft at least 5-10 cm above the soil surface. After that, fill the hole with soil until the root ball is fully covered. Gently firm the soil around the tree and level the soil. The tree should be planted to the same depth as it was in the pot (or the soil mark on the trunk in the case of bare-rooted trees). Water well if the conditions are dry. Some varieties need to be supported (Staking) sometimes during the whole life of the tree. Stakes should be 5cm diameter and in general about 1.5m high - 60cm below ground, and the remainder above ground. The stake should be 8cm (3in) or so from the main stem. Tie the trunk to the stake in one or two places using plastic ties available from garden centers. Do not use wire or anything which could cut into the tree trunk. The saplings that need supporting stakes depend on the used root stock. M9, M26 and M27 definitely need it. A doughnut shaped basin should be built around the planted tree, so the water drains away from the trunk. The size of the basin should be slightly wider than the planting hole. In this
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way the water can be applied to the entire root area and just beyond. Until the establishment of the roots, fill up the basin once or twice per week. 13.3 Orchard Layout Usually the orchard layout follows a regular pattern. The process starts with establishment of a straight line from the edge of the field, which will be the base line. After establishing a right angle (90) to the base line, begin taking reference point measurements. One base line forms a base row and the other line (running at right angle to the first) forms the line at which the first tree in each row is placed. Using the base lines as reference points, stretch tape along one line and place pegs at the desired intervals of tree spacing. The spacing distance depends on the rootstock and the tree training system. Dwarf and intensive production systems require less spacing than standard type apple trees. Cordon type dwarf trees are planted in double or simple lined beds. Commonly used planting distances of apple trees:
Row and plant distance (m) 5.00 X 5.00 7.00 X 4.00 6.00 X 4.00 5.00 X 3.00
13.4 Root stock
umber of tree per Hectare Single row 400 358 417 667
There are many pruning systems. One of the most important factors to determine which kind of pruning system will be used is the type of root stock where the scion grafted or budded into. This also related to other aspects like production technology, tree density per area, etc. The rootstock clones of apple are divided to three groups: strong growing (standard), medium-strong growing (semi-dwarf) and weak growing (dwarf) types. They form the M series. The M series had been selected in East Malling (M), England. For the identification of each clone in the series after the M every clone has a number. The MM series was created in Merton through cross breeding and their number series is between 100 and 120. The most important apple rootstocks are: Weak growing (Dwarf): M27, M9, M26 Height: Between 1.8-3.0 m Medium-strong growing: MM106, M7, M4, MM104, M2 Height: Around 4.0m Strong growing: MM111, MM109, M10 Height: Between 4.8-5.5m 13.5 Fertilizing Apple Trees The nutrient availability of the soil depends on the soil pH. The farmer should adjust the soil pH between the following ranges: Topsoil: Between 6.5 and 7.0 Subsoil: Between 6.0 and 6.5
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Tree nutrition is probably the most important factor for successful orchard management, and it can be controlled through proper fertilization practices. The fertilization program is focused on two factors. First, during the initial phase, the adjustment of soil nutrient status is the focus. Secondly nutrients may need to be replaced if they were removed from the soil by the tree. Part of the nutrients accumulates in the body of the tree and a large amount of nutrients are removed by the fruit yield. Table: 2 Amount of nutrient removed from soil with 10 MT of fruit yield Type Apple Pear Peach (Kg) 6.0 5.5 13.0
P2O5 (Kg) 2.0 1.5 6.0
K2O (Kg)
15.0 16.0 28.0
CaO (Kg) 3.4 3.4 4.0
MgO (Kg) 2.5 2.0 2.0
Source: Gautier (1979)
Table 3: Recommended amount of manure per fruit tree Year

1st
Qty. in Kg/tree 2.0-2.5 2.5-3.0 3.0-4.0 35.0-40.0 40.0-50.0 50.0-60.0 55.0-65.0
2nd
3rd
Time Monthly until leaves drop Monthly from bud break to leaves drop Monthly from bud break to leaves drop Bud break-After 6 weeks-After harvest Bud break-After 6 weeks-After harvest Bud break-After 6 weeks-After harvest Bud break-After 6 weeks-After harvest
4th 5th
6th 7th
8th 9th
10th onward
Source: F. Sandor (2008) 13.6 Irrigation The apples water need is high, about 800mm per year. The water use of the tree is divided to three periods. The first period is the increasing water use: This stage starts from bud break and finishes when the tree fully developed the first groups of shoots. The water use increases gradually. If the water availability is not adequate the fruit set not will happen. The second period includes the main water use stage. The water use is the maximum, because the foliar volume is huge and the heat causes the highest evapo-transpiration of the whole growing season. Lack of water in this stage severely affects fruit development and causes the falling of fruits in plum,
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apricot and peach. Finally, during the third period the water use decreases and the tree turn into the dormant stage. Small holder farmers usually use surface irrigation. Three methods are important: Border, furrow and basin irrigation. The main concepts for irrigation are to avoid over or under irrigating the trees and irrigation application should follow a regular interval pattern. 13.7 Pruning Apple Trees Objectives of Training and Pruning In the nonbearing years, some pruning will always be necessary, but the emphasis should be on training rather than pruning. Ideally, the growth of the young tree should be directed into branches that will be a permanent part of the mature tree, and an equal effort should be made to avoid superfluous growth that will be removed before it fruits. Training practices should encourage early production and the development of a strong structural framework capable of supporting heavy crops in future years. The framework should facilitate the development and maintenance of optimum tree shape. The training program should also produce trees that will be easy to manage in later years. In terms of future management, pruning is the cultural practice most affected by training. Much of the pruning of mature trees is merely the correction of earlier errors and omissions. Physiology of Tree Growth Growth in an apple tree takes several forms. It includes the readily visible development of extension shoots, leaves, and fruits as well as the less conspicuous thickening of stems and the development of roots. All forms of growth require the assimilated materials manufactured by the leaves. Early-season growth is dependent on stored carbohydrate and nitrogenous reserves derived from photosynthetic activity the previous season. Later in the growing season current photosynthate is utilized to support growth of the tree and crop, and to restore reserves for the coming dormant period and the initial phases of growth the following spring. A healthy functional leaf surface is essential for these processes. A growing point in an apple tree is any site in the tree that can direct the movement of manufactured food materials from the leaves toward itself. Actively growing shoots and fruits have this capability and compete among themselves and with other growing points, such as roots, for the products of the leaves. Because assimilate supply is limited, direction of assimilates to growing fruits decreases the supply available for shoot and root growth. An increased number of fruits invariably results in a compensating reduction in root growth and in number and vigor of shoots. It is in this way that fruiting helps to control tree vigor, shoot growth, and tree size. This mechanism of growth control becomes increasingly important at closer tree spacing. Reduced cropping in a high density orchard can lead to increased vegetative growth, which can quickly result in crowding and loss of bearing wood due to shading. For optimum growth control, crop load should be adjusted to the largest possible number of fruits consistent with good fruit size, quality, and repeat bloom.
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Principles of Training and Pruning the Young Apple Tree Training and pruning the young apple tree begin at planting time, and the training program should be continued until the tree reaches maturity. An intelligently applied program of training and pruning the young tree eliminates the need for costly corrective pruning later, develops good tree structure, and encourages early fruit production. The specific, year-by-year program will vary depending on several factors, including varietal vigor, tree growth habit, precocity, final tree size, and whether the tree is freestanding or supported. Trees intended for mechanical harvesting should be trained appropriately from the start. a. Central-leader development
During the first growing season, most trees will produce a cluster of vigorous shoots near the heading cut. These develop from the uppermost 2-4 buds. The shoots are usually approximately equal in size and vigor with unacceptable narrow crotch angles. One such shoot, usually the uppermost, should be selected as the leader, and competition with it eliminated by pinching out competing shoots while they are still succulent (fig. 11). In subsequent years, the effort required to maintain a strong, dominant leader will vary with cultivar and vigor. In the less vigorous cultivars that grow naturally to a central leader, such as 'Golden Delicious' and 'Idared', all that may be required is the pinching out of an occasional competing shoot early in the growing season. In other cases, sustained effort will be necessary. With some cultivars, particularly 'Delicious', numerous competing shoots may develop and the leader may make excessive extension growth. When extension growth exceeds 18 inches (45 Fig: 4 well developed central leader cm), the leader is often structurally weak, and lateral development so limited that there are insufficient suitable branches for the main scaffolds. In this situation, the leader should be headed back by about one fourth. This both strengthens the leader and stimulates lateral growth which can be developed into scaffold branches. A cluster of shoots usually develops near the pruning cut in much the same manner that they develop in response to the original heading cut. These should be summer
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pruned as illustrated in figure 11. At the same time, other new shoots that are challenging the dominance of the leader can be removed or repositioned by spreading. Regular heading back of the leader, and the accompanying summer selection of the most desirable leader shoot, may be necessary every year until the tree comes into bearing. Selection and training of scaffold limbs Probably the most important procedure in the development of a well-trained, highly productive orchard is the proper selection and training of the scaffold branches. The future productivity of the orchard is directly correlated with the attention devoted to scaffold training during the first few years in the orchard. The objectives of scaffold selection and training are to develop a series of well-spaced, properly positioned branches which can take advantage of high light exposure to produce and carry heavy crops of fruit. The first scaffold limb should be at least 18 inches (45 cm) from the ground to allow sufficient clearance for the movement of orchard equipment b. Open center system An open center apple tree does not have a central leader. Instead, some major branches are distributed around the top of the trunk forming a vase shape. At the beginning of the first growing season, select 3- 6 shoots that will become the primary scaffold branches and cut back all other upright shoots to 10 to 15 cm long. The leader should be removed. The lowest branch should be about 50-60cm above the ground. If the scaffold branches grow vigorously, they should be cut back during early summer time to 60-75cm length. By the end of the first growing season the main scaffold branches should be formed. During the 2nd and 3rd year, select the 5 -7 secondary scaffold branches to fill up the space. Head back the secondary scaffold branches at 60 to 75 cm long to develop two to three tertiary branches from each secondary branch. During the 4 th and 5th year another 10-12 tertiary scaffold branches will be selected to form the vase shape of the tree. All strongly upward growing branches and shoots should be removed.
Fig: 5 Open and Central leader
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c. Slender, spindle-type system This system requires a permanent support structure (stakes and wire), where each tree is tied to a stake 25-30cm apart. The tree height is approximately 1.8-2.5m. The height always should be controlled. It is a misunderstanding that dwarf types of trees do not need height control. The tree has many limbs around the leader. At maturity, it has two permanent whorls of scaffold branches 25-30 cm apart. The branches above the second whorl of branches should be renewed every two-four years. The length of the spreading branches is approximately 90cm. The pruning technique of the young planted tree follows the traditional leader development technique. The leader is headed back to a height of 75-80cm and a new shoot will be selected as the central leader (It should be a new growth with a length of 8- 10cm). If the young tree is a feathered tree (well-branched) the leader is headed back 25cm above the highest usable branch. With poor lateral branch development it is necessary to use weak leader renewal technique. This means the removal of the vigorous central leader and its replacement with a weaker branch. Fig: 6 slender, spindle-type system This will stimulate branching on the tree. The remedial technique helps to shape the tree. Approximately two weeks before bloom, a notch is made above each node in the un-branched region of the leader through the bark to stimulate branching. Snaking the tree also helps to stimulate the branching process. The time for snaking is the growing season. In every 45 -50cm, bend and tie the leader into the stake at an angle of 60. The leader will have a shape like a snake. Another technique that can be used for an un-branched leader is the Bagging technique. The leader is headed back to a maximum length of 80cm above the highest usable lateral branch and the headed leader is covered with a polyethylene bag. This should be done four weeks before bud break. Later branch management is a very important process. All lateral branches should be spread at an 80-85 angle which have a length of 8-10cm and be controlled in length. Using summer pruning the branches can be cut back into wood keeping the desired length. Thereafter, the main pruning work is lightening the tree. Thinning cuts should make to create distinct whorls of branches 25-30cm apart.
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d. Cordon type system This is the easiest system to use for dwarf type apple trees. It really hardly can be called a tree. The cordon tree is a single stem with pruned, short side shoots (fruiting spurs). The sapling is planted at an angle of 45. The cordon is built up from three 25mm wires that are 60cm apart from each other, making three levels from the soil surface, which are respectively 60cm, 120cm and 180cm height from the ground. Once the wires are fixed, tie the tree to the wire. For each tree, fix a stake approximately 2.4m long. All side shoots longer than 10cm should be pruned after the third bud (summer pruning). Fig: 7 Crodon type system
Training and pruning the young tree At planting time the young tree should be headed back to stimulate branch development (fig. 17). If well-developed 1-year whips are planted, they should be headed at about 30 inches (75 cm) from the ground unless mechanical harvesting is planned. In this case the trees should be headed at around 36 inches (90 cm) to allow for the development of suitably located scaffold limbs. Low heading results in excessive growth from the remaining buds, whereas heading back much higher leads to the development of a whorl of weaker shoots near the cut, with little growth lower on the trunk. If older, feathered trees are planted, they should be headed back to a strong spur or bud to stimulate vegetative growth and bring the shoot-root ratio more nearly into balance. Feathers are not to be retained as scaffolds should be removed and long feathers headed back at planting. Pruning Bearing Trees Since pruning both affects and is affected by tree vigor, careful attention to other cultural practices is absolutely essential for a successful pruning program. Fertilizer must be regulated to support consistent, moderate vegetative growth. Since crop load markedly affects vigor, uniform, annual production must be encouraged by judicious fruit thinning. On susceptible sites, frost control practices should be employed to avoid the disastrous invigoration of a complete crop loss. Summer pruning All pruning is dwarfing, but summer pruning reduces growth much more than equivalent pruning during the dormant period. The removal of active leaf surface during the growing season reduces the late-season accumulation of assimilates in the woody tissues. This lower level of reserves is reflected in reduced vigor the following season. Properly used, summer
17
pruning can be an effective supplement to other cultural practices in controlling vigor. Summer pruning can also significantly improve fruit color in trees that are too vegetative. 14. Fruit thinning Large fruit come from strong flower buds that grew in full sunlight, and on trees that have a favorable leaf to fruit ratio; not too many fruit per branch. In order to manipulate the tree into having just the right amount of crop that will size well and develop adequate flower buds for next years crop the fruits are hand thinned, removed in the dormant pruning process, or both. Apples, European and Asian pears, apricots, peaches, plums, kiwifruits, and persimmons are almost always thinned. Fruits on non-thinned trees are still edible, just smaller. The earlier that fruits are thinned and the leaf to fruit ratio is increased, the larger the fruits will be at harvest and the greater the effect on next years bloom. The home fruit gardener needs to use judgment regarding spacing of the fruit as well as removal of small and damaged fruit. Spacing fruits evenly along a branch or leaving only one fruit per spur is a good practice, but leaving the largest fruit is more important. The small ones even well spaced will never become as large as the big ones closer together or in clusters. Leave the same number of fruit per branch, but leave the big ones no matter how they are spaced. This will lead to larger fruit. Most home fruit producers do not thin enough fruit off. It hurts to drop all that potential fruit on the ground. It usually takes 23 years of experiencing small fruit from inadequate thinning to get it right. Blossom thinning also increases the leaf to fruit ratio because competition among developing fruits and elongating shoots and roots is relieved early; however, risk can be associated with blossom thinning because bad weather during bloom and post-bloom may reduce fruit set even more. Standard apple and peach cultivars require leaf to fruit ratio between 40:1 and 75:1 (40 to 75 leaves per single fruit) to reach typical size at harvest. Early varieties need a larger ratio of leaves to fruit. Spur-type apple varieties require a smaller leaf to fruit ratio of 25:1 to attain good crop size. This result seems to be related to the fact that photosynthates and stored food reserves are distributed more for fruit growth relative to vegetative growth in trees of this growth habit. Leaves of dwarf trees seem to be more efficient in exporting photosynthates because they are exposed to direct sunlight for more hours of the day than those on standard trees.
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15. High Density Planting a. Fully Dwarf Rootstock Trees that are propagated on either M.9 or B.9 rootstock must be used and these are fully dwarfing rootstocks.
Fig: 8 Top left dwarf apple tree, top right normal apple tree, bottom left conventional apple orchard, bottom right apple meadow orchard
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Rootstocks of apple Series of Clonal Rootstocks: The clonal apple rootstocks that are used all over the world have traditionally originated in Europe (PSCAS, 2004). Mitra (1991) enumerated numerous series of clonal rootstocks, namely: i. Malling (M) series: Developed by East Malling Research Station, Malling. a. Dwarfing: M 9, M 27, and M 20. b. Semi dwarfing: M 2, M 7, M 26. c. Vigorous: M 12, M 25. d. Most vigorous: M 16. Malling Merton (MM) series: In 1928, two institutes in England (John Inns Horticultural Institute, Merton and East Malling Research Station, Malling) had a joint venture to develop wooly aphid resistant apple rootstocks like MM 106, MM 109 etc. EMLA series: Developed by East Malling Long Ashton Research Station in England and is virus free one. Polish (P) series: Developed in Poland e. g. P 1, P 2, P 16, P 18, and P 22 etc. P 18 have considerable resistant to collar rot disease but susceptible to fire blight, whereas P 22 has dwarfing effect on scion variety. Budagovsky (Bud) series: These selections have been developed with the primary objective of winter hardiness. All of them have been able to withstand the severe Russian winter. These are developed at the Michurin College of Horticulture. Some of the rootstocks are Bud 9, Bud 67-490 and Bud 57-491. Ottawa series: These are the outcome of Canadian researchers and are cold hardy, e. g. O 3 and O 8 etc. MAC series: Developed by Michigan State University, USA. e. g. MAC 9. Others clonal rootstocks: a. Alnarp-2 (A 2): Originated in Sweden, well anchored and has a good tree form. b. Robusta No. 5: Winter hardy and vigorous one. c. Bemali: Cross rootstocks developed in Sweden. It is dwarfing as M 26 and has advantage of easy propagation.
ii.
iii. iv.
v.
vi. vii. viii.
In Nepal, as stated by (Ranjit and Shrestha, 1998) clonal rootstocks such as M, MM and Edi Mayal are not available in all the horticultural farms and private nurseries. They also reported that most of the horticultural farms have tried to maintain the collected apple rootstock germplasm of which some of the important M and MM series have been lost from horticulture farms of Kirtipur. Seedling rootstocks are the major apple rootstocks used in Nepal. Recommended rootstocks of apple in Nepal are Crab apple and Malling Series (Shrestha, 1998).
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b. Minimal Pruning at Planting Trees are pruned minimally at planting time. c. Support System A support system is necessary since trees propagated on dwarfing rootstocks cannot stand without aid. Several approaches can be taken to provide adequate tree support. The support system can be a single 10 foot post per tree pounded into the ground, a single smaller post that is supported by a single wire trellis may be used, or a 4 wire trellis may be selected that is similar in structure to a grape trellis but is at least 8 feet in height. Probably the easiest system is the one wire trellis where a post that is at least 4 to 5 inches in diameter and 10 feet long is pounded in the ground at spacing of about 30 feet. A #9 or #10 wire is positioned at a height or 6 to 7 feet between these posts. Put a metal conduit post by each tree and attach these securely to the wire. d. Tree Training Trees are trained primarily by bending branches to the horizontal and securing them at that angle. This slows the growth of the trees and makes them much more productive. e. Planting and Care the First Year Using this system, trees can be planted as close as 4 to 5 feet apart. Tree spacing in commercial orchards using this system is frequently 3 feet between trees. Trees should be planted so that at least a 4 to 6 inches portion of the rootstock is out of the ground. Identification of the rootstock is generally quite easy since the scion variety often attaches to the rootstock at an angle about 12 inches from the bottom of the tree. The tree should be tied initially to the post and as the tree grows new growth should also be secured to the post. No pruning should be done at planting time unless a side branch is larger than half the diameter of the trunk of the tree, in which case it should be removed. The tree can be fertilized once or twice with high nitrogen liquid fertilizer starting about three weeks after planting. A supply of water should be available for the entire growing season to assure a continuous and adequate supply of moisture. A soaker hose running along the base of these trees is a simple and effective way to provide moisture. A critical component of this system is minimal pruning. Tree vigor should be kept in check by tying down limbs and rapidly growing shoots. This can be accomplished by tying limbs down in a horizontal position using tape, rubber bands, weights or similar material. f. The Second Year It is important to make sure that no limb gets very large. Cut off any limb that is half the diameter of the trunk of the tree or larger. This is best done early using a horizontal bevel cut which leaves no bark showing on the top of the cut off limb but some bark is apparent on the bottom where new and weaker shoots can emerge. Continue to weight down or tie down shoots to a horizontal position. Pinch back the tips of all shoots in the top half of the trees when shoots are 3 to 6 inches in length, generally early June. Repeat this process as new shoot emerge in the top half of the tree. The tree can bear a few fruit the second year. Thin these to 8 to 10 inches apart. The presence of fruit will help restrict growth and keep the tree within the allotted space. Normal fertilization and pest control practices should be followed.
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g. The Third and Subsequent Years The goal with this system is to develop a tree with many small branches that are horizontal to the main trunk of the tree. These are the most productive branches on a tree. Continue to remove any large branches (generally larger than 3/4 inch in diameter) using the previously described bevel cut. Continue to pinch shoots when they reach 3 to 4 inches in length and bend down vigorous and upright branches. Continue to thin fruit so that they are spread no closer than 6 to 8 inches. It is critically important that when the tree reaches the top of the training post that their top should not be pruned or cut in any way. Any pruning will make the top of the tree vigorous and unproductive thus jeopardize the balance between fruit production and vegetative growth. The top should be allowed to flower, fruit and bend over and it should be cut only when the shoots there are at a horizontal or lower. As the trees get older, many of the small branches that were bent to the horizontal will fruit and ultimately become unproductive. These branches can them be removed or cut back to a lateral branch extending in a horizontal direction. The success of this system is based upon several important horticultural principals. Bending shoots to the horizontal position rather than cutting will reduce vigor in limbs and make them more productive. Removal of large limbs with a bevel cut does not stimulate the growth of a tree. Fruit production in the tops of trees is one of the best ways to control growth in the tops of trees. 16. Pest and Disease Management Pest and disease control begins with the use of pest-disease free planting material. The saplings should be healthy with good vigor. Do not buy saplings with unknown origins or without certificates. Replace chemical control with other methods when possible. It is in this way that the natural enemies of pests can effectively intervene with plant eating insects. Chemical use also kills the benevolent insects too. Tools such as pruning tools should be clean and disinfected frequently. These tools can transfer diseases from one tree to another. Mechanical control can also help keep the orchard free from pests and diseases. Aphids and mealy bugs can be washed off the leaves with a strong water spray or soap. Larger insects can be picked up and destroyed. A paraffin lamp in a bowl of water is an effective insect trap. Fallen fruits often contain insects eggs. Burying these fruit under the fruit trees destroy the eggs. The most difficult task is to control viral diseases. Tree affected by viruses have no remedy. The tree should be removed and destroyed. The planting material should be virus free. Where possible, the grower should plant saplings with scions grafted into virus resistant rootstock. Virus vectors such as aphids and white flies should be controlled either with or without chemical use. Spraying dormant trees with chemicals and oil reduces the pests population before the growing season starts. When fungicide is added to the pesticide and oil it will destroy over wintering fungus and bacterial spores. Common practice is for growers to use preventive spraying during a particular development stage of the tree. Farmers always apply one spray at petal fall and then again two weeks later.
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16.1 Diseases Mildew: It is characterized by light grey powdery patches appearing on the leaves, shoots and flowers, normally in spring. The flowers will turn a creamy yellow color and will not develop correctly. This can be treated by eliminating the conditions which caused the disease and burning the infected plants are among the recommended actions to take. Apple scab: The fungus that causes apple scab on apples is Venturia inaequalis. Symptoms usually start on the undersides of leaves. Spots, at first, are small, irregular lesions that are light brown to olive green in color. Spots eventually turn dark brown to black. Infected tissue thickens, causing the upper surface to bulge upwards and the lower surface to depress. Leaves may curl and scorch at the margins. If the leaf petioles become infected, the leaves drop early. If the pedicels become infected, the fruits may drop early. Scab on the fruit appears as nearly circular, velvety dark green lesions. The skin of the apple near the infected area margin ruptures. Older lesions are black, scabby, and cracked. Fire blight: Fire blight is a devastating disease caused by the bacterium Erwinia amylovora and is very difficult to control. The disease develops rapidly in early spring during rainy weather and the tree is in bloom. Blossoms and young leafy twigs show the first symptoms, appearing wilted or shriveled and turning brown to black. The tips of infected young twigs wilt and die, forming a shepherds crook as the disease moves down the branch. Dead leaves often remain attached to the branch. During wet weather, a milkylike, sticky liquid can be seen on the stems and branches. To control infected tree remove all infected tree parts and burn them. Pruning cut should be 25-30 cm below the infected part. Disinfect carefully all pruning tools. Avoid excessive nitrogen application. Simple copper hydroxide or copper sulfate application is effectively prevent the disease. Black rot: The fungus is called Physalospora obtusa (Botryosphaeia obtusa) and it causes black rot. The disease begins on the leaf as a purple speck that enlarges to have a brown or tan center. Heavily infected leaves drop from the tree, which weakens the tree and reduces flowering the next year. Limbs may have slightly sunken, reddish brown areas called cankers. Infected fruits begin with tiny red or purple spots occurring opposite the stem end. After a few weeks the spots
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enlarge and have alternating zones of black and brown. The rot eventually affects the entire fruit, which wrinkles, mummifies and often remains attached to the tree. Remove and discard dead branches and diseased fruit, where the fungus can survive during winter. The fungicides captan and thiophanate-methyl are effective if it is applied during early season. 16.2 Pests Aphids: They are feeding on leaves, therefore they are considered as typical leaf pest. However the woolly apple aphid feeds on the bark of small twigs and the roots of the apple tree. The two important leaf aphid are the Aphis pomi and Aphis spiraecola, both of them with a green colored body. Aphids can be controlled easily without chemical spray. Spraying with water or with water-soap mix effectively keeps clean the tree. Chemical use also can kill the lady beetle, which is natural enemy of the aphid. Mite: Two-spotted spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) and European red mites (Panonychus ulmi) can be serious pests of apples. If mite populations are high, the feeding activity can reduce the quality of the current crop and reduce flower bud set for the following year. Two spotted spider mites spend the winter as mature females hiding in protected places on the ground near the tree. In the spring, they begin feeding on the vegetation under the tree. Later, they move up into the tree and begin to feed on the apple leaves. European red mites spend the winter in the egg stage. The eggs are laid on the tips of the twigs around the rough bud scars. When numbers are high, the twigs will have a reddish appearance. The mites remain in the tree throughout the season. Often the mite is called spider, which is a mistake. They belong to the Acaricidae. Their control is very difficult, because they have a series of generation during the year. Therefore chemicals should be used frequently. Systemic pesticide use is better, but they also can be controlled if we spray throughout the trees with high pressure water. 17. Pollinisers All varieties of apples should be cross-pollinated with another apple or crab-apple variety (polliniser) (Lacey and Antione 2006). To attain the best fruit set on apple trees, the king blossom (the largest and first one to open) in the flower cluster must be pollinated. Orchardists must ensure there are sufficient polliniser varieties throughout the orchard and that the bloom periods of the polliniser and the king blossom of the apple tree overlap (Lacey and Antione 2006). This will help to gain maximum fruit set. 18. Harvesting For time scheduling, growers must estimate optimum harvest dates well before picking fruit. In addition, optimum maturity levels differ within the same cultivars, depending on intended use and storage life desired. Harvesting too early can result in fruit that is off- flavor or lacking flavor, poorly colored, small and subject to bitter pit and storage scald. Harvesting
24
too late can result in softer fruit, the potential development of water core, and a shorter storage life. The best test for maturity is to sample one and taste it. Another method is to take the apple in the palm of your hand and give it a slight twist - if it drops off, it is probably ready to eat. When harvesting apples, take care not to bruise them - this will cause them to rot much more quickly, and if in storage, the rot will spread to other apples. The stem should not be separated from the fruit, because fruits without stems cannot be stored long without losing quality. Apples keep for the longest in cool conditions (3C), which are well-ventilated, dark and slightly humid. Seeing as it is difficult to provide these ideal conditions, a compromise is necessary. A good option is to store the apples in a shed or garage, with the apples in plastic bags to retain moisture - leave a 2cm hole in each bag to allow some ventilation. Maintain a relatively high level of humidity in the storage room. Apples are approximately 85 percent water and can quickly lose enough moisture to show signs of skin shrivel if kept at too low a humidity. Shrivel can appear after an apple loses as little as 3 percent of its fresh weight. Abrasions, bruises, and other injuries increase the rate of water loss. A single bruise can increase water loss nearly fourfold. Warm fruit is cooled by giving up moisture. As moisture is removed from the air by the cold refrigeration coils, a deficit gradient is produced that pulls more moisture out of the fruit, which can result in shrivel. Once the fruit has been cooled, the refrigeration coil temperature can be raised to reduce the amount of moisture being removed from the air. 19. Post Harvest of apple After the harvest, all the fruits are washed to remove the latex, sooty mould and surface debris. Fruits free from defects should be sorted out and the remaining fruits are graded according to their color and size. a. Packaging: Normally the apples are packed in cartoon with lids. Where staples are used care should be taken to ensure complete staple closure to avoid fruit damage. Corrugated trays are equally effective as packaging material while transporting the fruits. Use of such trays is cost effective due to its reusability. b. Storage: Apples grown in the upper belts of Jammu and Kashmir can be stored for 90 days under ambient conditions whereas in lower belts they are stored for 60 days. Most apples maintain their quality when stored at 1.8 to 0OC with 90-95% relative humidity. However some varieties are cold sensitive at this temperature and therefore have to be stored at 3.34.4 OC. Fruit to be stored longer than 1 month benefit from controlled atmosphere (CA) storage in terms of retention of acidity and firmness and reduction of scald incidence. Recommended atmosphere is 1-2% O2 + 2-4% CO2 however specialist should be consulted for concentration of CO2 and O2 as the recommended gas mixtures varies with the variety and the geographical area in which the variety is grown.
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Apples can be stored with other temperate fruits if they have the same temperature requirements. Vegetables like cabbage and onions should not be stored with apples as apples absorb their odour. Similarly fruits and vegetables sensitive to ethylene at 0OC should not be stored with apples. c. Cool Chain: Cool chain is essential during the transport of export quality commodity all the way from the farm to the customer. This helps in maintaining the temperature inside the box at the same low level as in the cold storage. The various stages of the cool chain are: 1. Cold-store at the farm. 2. Refrigerated truck from farm to the airport 3. Cold-store at the airport. 4. Building up of the pallet in a cold-store at the airport. 5. Loading the aircrafts directly from the cold-store in a short time. 6. Cargo aircraft maintains cold-store temperature in hold. 7. Off loading direct into a cold-store in the receiving country. 8. Refrigerated truck to the customers. 20. Conclusion Apple is important temperate fruit grown in high hills of Nepal and it has huge scope for commercial production due to climatic suitability and increasing awareness and demand of fruits in Nepal.
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References Bal, J.S. 1997. Fruit Growing. Kalyani Publishers. New Delhi, India. C. G. Horshey: Training and pruning apple trees, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, USA (2004) Cuthbertson, A.and Murchie, A. (2006), Anystis baccarum, An important component of orchard integrated pest management strategies, UK Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, online publication. Available at: http://eservices.ruralni.gov.uk/pdfs/crops/Anystis%20bac-carum.pdf Duff, G. 1990. The fruit and Nut Book. Sidgwick and Jackson Ltd. Bloomsbury way, London. FAOSTAT .2009 R. C. Funt: Apples-A guide to select and use, Ohio State University, USA (1992) Rathore, D.S. 1991. Walnuts. In Mishra, S.K, Rathore, D.S. and Bose, T.K (eds) Temperate Fruits. Horticulture and Allied Publishers 27/3, Chakrabtria Lane Calcutta 700 020, India. Retrieved on September 6, 2011 from www.wikipidia.com/Apple Somerville, D. 1999. 'Pollination of apples by honey bees'. Agnote. NSW Agriculture, Goulburn. USAID .2008. Apple production Manual pp 1-44 USDA. 1975. High density apple orchards - planning, training, and pruning, Agri. Handbook 458. USDA.2008. Nutrient Database Westwood. N. Mevin.1978. Temperate Zone Pomology. Timber press 9999 S.W. Wilshire Portland, Oregon 97225. PSCAS. 2004. Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences. Pennsylvania Tree Fruit Production Guide (2004-05). Available: http://tfpg.cas.psu.edu/part13j.htm. Mitra, S. K. 1991. Apple. In: T. K. Bose, S. K. Mitra and D. S. Rathore (eds). Temperate Fruits. Horticulture and Allied Publishers, Calcutta, India. pp. 1-122 Ranjit, M. and G. P. Shrestha. 1998. Apple Production Challenges and Prospects. Proceeding of the National Horticulture Workshop, Jan 19-21, 1998. Nepal Horticulture Society, Kathmandu, Nepal. Shrestha, G. K. 1998. Present Status of Fruit Cultivation. Fruit Development in Nepal Past, Present and Future. Technica Concern, Kathmandu, Nepal. Retrieved on September 6, 2011 from en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List of countries by apple production Retrieved on September 6, 2011 from urbanext.illinois.edu/apples/facts.cfm Cepoiu, N. and M. Marval. 1988. Effect of Rootstock and Planting Density on the Growth and Fruiting of some Apple Cultivars. Horicultura 31(1): 61-68.
Gautam, D. M. and D. D. Dhakal. 1994. Fruits and Industrial Crops (In Nepali). Pabitra and Rupa, Bharatpur, Chitwan, Nepal. Westwood, M. N. 1988. Temperate Zone Pomology. Timber Press Portland, USA.

Commercialization of Apple

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Commercialization of Apple

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Commercialization of Apple

Fig: Apple production in world Fig:1

Source: FAOSTAT 2009

Fig: 2 Productivity of apple in epal

Source: FAOSTAT 2009

Fig: 3 Producers price of apple in epal

P2O5 (Kg) 2.0 1.5 6.0

CaO (Kg) 3.4 3.4 4.0

MgO (Kg) 2.5 2.0 2.0

Source: Gautier (1979)

Table 3: Recommended amount of manure per fruit tree Year

Qty. in Kg/tree 2.0-2.5 2.5-3.0 3.0-4.0 35.0-40.0 40.0-50.0 50.0-60.0 55.0-65.0

Fig: 5 Open and Central leader

vi. vii. viii.

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